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THE IMPACT OF MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS ON
GENDER EQUALITY IN NIGERIA (2005 – 2010)
BY
EYIUCHE CATHERINE N.
PG/M.SC./10/52574
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND LOCAL
GOVERNMENT, FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
DECEMBER, 2011
TITLE PAGE
THE IMPACT OF MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
ON GENDER EQUALITY IN NIGERIA (2005 – 2010)
CERTIFICATION
We the undersigned certify that Eyiuche, Catherine N., a postgraduate
student in the Department of Public Administration and Local Government
(PALG) with the registration number PG/M.Sc/10/52574 has satisfactorily
completed the requirement for the research work for the award of degree Master of
Science (M.Sc.) in Public Administration and Local Government.
The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in
part or in full for any other diploma or degree of this or any other University.
_______________________ Eyiuche Catherine N.
PG/M.Sc/10/52574
______________________ __________________ Prof (Mrs) Chika Oguonu Prof. Fab. Onah (Project Supervisor) (Head of Department)
DEDICATION
This effort is dedicated to God Almighty for his infinity mercies and
loving kindness.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The successful completion of this research work is as a result of a
combination efforts of many people. My special thanks go to my project
supervisor Professor (Mrs.) Oguonu whose co-operation. Constructive criticisms
and intellectual guidance helped to sharpen my technical skills and for putting this
research work into an academic shape. I am also grateful to my Head of
Department, Professor Fab. Onah and other lecturers like Professor. F. C. Okoli, as
well as others whose names are numerous to mention here.
My special thanks also go to the women organizations who gave me support
and relevant material that made the actualization of this work possible.
To my husband Arc Osy Eyiuche for his uncommon love and support. My
children Nnenna, Ikenna, Lotanna, Nmesoma and Tobenna for keeping me on my
toes in the course of this study. To Tobenna especially for diligently ensuring
daily my alarm clock was set.
My colleagues in the office especially, Barristers C. C. Ezekwem and Uche
Odili for holding sway while I was away.
I thank God, the author and finisher of my faith for His goodness and favour
upon my life. To you father, I owe my praise.
Lastly but by no means the least to Dr. Mrs. Sylvia Uchenna Agu for
encouraging me to embark on the study in the first place. Uche, you can never be
diminished and may your well of favour never run dry.
ABSTRACT
This research work examines the impact of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria 2005-2010. The study contends that women have the same potentials, abilities, and skills to contribute in national development. However, in Nigeria, gender equality/women empowerment is still a serious challenge to effective participation of women in politics. The data used in this study was collected from both primary and secondary sources. The primary method/source were research instrument (questionnaire) and oral interview. Some research questions were asked as a guide to the respondents. The questionnaire contained (twenty two) structured questions designed in both open and close ended style. In addition, the questionnaire was validated and administered accordingly. Secondary sources of data collection on the other hand, included textbooks, journal, government documents and internet materials. The study adopted simple percentage, tables, chi-square statistical analysis and descriptive method for data analysis. The data analysis revealed that: that the societal beliefs and perceptions constrain gender equality and women empowerment as well as their political participation in Nigeria; government policies to promote gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria are still not enough to achieve the Millennium Development Goals targets 2015; poor education of women also contributes to lower efforts towards gender equality as well as the political participation of women in Nigeria; socio-cultural and economic factors are major challenging to gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria; and government and non-governmental organizations are all in the struggle to actualize gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria. Based on these findings, the study recommended that women should be given equal opportunity to participate in politics like the men. Also there is need to ensure that socio-cultural factors that constrain gender quality and women empowerment in Nigeria are eliminated.
TABLE OF CONTENT
Title Page - - - - - - - - - - i
Approval page - - - - - - - - - ii
Dedication - - - - - - - - - - iii
Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - - iv
Abstract - - - - - - - - - - v
Table of Contents - - - - - - - - - vi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study - - - - - - - 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - 5
1.3 Objectives of the Study - - - - - - - 10
1.4 Significance of the Study - - - - - - - 11
1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study - - - - - - 12
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Literature Review - - - - - - - - 14
2.1.1 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs); A Brief Review - 15
2.1.2 Nigeria’s Strategies for Millennium Development Goals Attainment 18
2.1.3 Defining Gender Equality as the three Goal of the
Millennium Development Goals - - - - - 20
2.1.4 Identifying the Dimensions of Gender Equality - - - 21
2.1.5 Women Empowerment: An Explication - - - - 23
2.1.6 Understanding the Importance of Female Empowerment - - 29
2.1.7 Struggle for Gender Equality and Women
Emancipation in Nigeria - - - - - - - 33
2.1.8 Women Organizations in Nigeria - - - - - 36
2.1.9 Objectives of Women Organizations/Association in Nigeria - 38
2.1.10 Brief Discussion on some Women Organizations in Nigeria - 39
2.1.11 Problems Militating Against the Attainment of Attainment
of Gender Equality and Women Empowerment in Nigeria - 47
2.1.12 Prospects of Gender Equality and Women
Empowerment in Nigeria - - - - - - 51
2.2 Hypotheses - - - - - - - - - 53
2.3 Operationalization of Key Concepts - - - - - 54
2.4 Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - 55
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design - - - - - - - - 60
3.2 Sources of Data - - - - - - - - 61
3.2.1 Primary Sources of Data - - - - - - - 61
3.2.2 Secondary Source of Data - - - - - - 62
3.3 Population of the Study - - - - - - - 62
3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Technique - - - - - 62
3.5 Instrumentation - - - - - - - - 64
3.6 Validity and Reliability of Instrument - - - - - 64
3.7 Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - 66
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Data Presentation - - - - - - - - 69
4.2 Findings and Implications - - - - - - - 93
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
CONCLUSION
5.1 Summary - - - - - - - - - 113
5.2 Recommendations - - - - - - - - 115
5.3 Conclusion - - - - - - - - - 117
Bibliography
Appendices
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
In its 2000 Millennium Declarations, the United Nations set eight goals for
development, called the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Izueke (2009). It
is strongly believed by scholars like Mustapha (2008) and Igbzor (2004) that these
goals set an ambitious agenda for improving the human condition by 2015.These
goals are targeted at the developing countries such as Nigeria, to improve their
socio-political and economic conditions to an agreed standard by the United
Nations. To achieve the socio-political and economic development, the United
Nations-Millennium Development Goals are: eradicate extreme poverty and
hunger, achieve universal primary education, promote gender equality and
empower women, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, combat
HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases, ensure environmental sustainability, and
develop a global partnership for development Abamba (2005). According to
Abamba, it is also believed that the high poverty of developing countries will
significantly reduce if these goals are achieved as planned and targeted.
One of the cardinal objectives or goals emphasized in the MDGs is gender
equality which is goal number three and according to the MDGs report of 2004 is
to achieve gender equality and empower women. According to the MDGs report of
2004, the target is to eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary
education preferably by 2005 and at all levels by 2015. Writing on gender equality,
the UN Millennium Project 2005 report noted that like race and ethnicity, gender is
a social construct. It defines and differentiates the roles, rights, responsibilities, and
obligations of women and men. The innate biological differences between females
and males form the basis of social norms that define appropriate behaviours for
women and men and determine the differential social, economic, and political
power between the sexes. Although, the specific nature and degree of these
differing norms vary across societies and across time, at the beginning of the
twenty-first century they still typically favour men and boys, giving them more
access than women and girls to the capabilities, resources, and opportunities that
are important for the enjoyment of social, economic and political power and well-
being. In other words, the subject of gender equality as a pinnacle for national
development has been of interest to governmental, non-governmental organizations
and scholars such as (Bernstein, 1991: 155:-163; Omoruyi 1992:106; Nwabuzor
1992:62; Ezeani, 1998:97, among others). Their studies note that gender inequality
exists in every society. It is on this note that we can comprehend the subordination
of women to socio-cultural discriminations despite the fact that from the beginning
of time, women have labored in various capacities for the upliftment of humankind
and the betterment of their societies (Obiekezie, 2003). They had labored in the
house as mothers and housewives, finding, processing, cooking and serving meals;
as farm workers alone or in partnership with their families; as traders – petty or
major-to improve the family income. They had fetched and carried water and
firewood and performed many other chores which has enabled society to survive
and to make progress down the ages. For centuries, those contributions had been
taken for granted, unappreciated, unsung and unremunerated (Obiekezie, 2003).
Rather women were exploited, subjected to psychological and physical abuse,
conferred with an inferior status and made to believe that the purpose of their
existence was to satisfy the desires of men. In a similar note, Uja (2003:389)
started that: “in the past decades, the typical Nigerian women are socialized to
believe and accept that their role starts from the kitchen to bedrooms and ends in
the maternity.
It is however pertinent to highlight at this juncture that aside from the gender
context, women are not only the opposite gender of the man, but the partner, not
servant. Therefore, today, in our changing world, there is more need to ensure
greater opportunity for women in all aspect of human endeavour. This perhaps was
why in 1946, the United Nations Organization created the Commission on the
status of women in recognition of the disadvantaged status of women (UN,
1989).UNESCO’s constitution included the promotion of equality of opportunities
regardless of race, sex etc. The general conference of UNESCO adopted a more
specific resolution against discrimination in education and in 1967 the United
Nation General Assembly adopted a Declaration on the Elimination of
Discrimination Against Women as an elaboration of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights in 1979, the United Nations took a resolution against any form of
discrimination against women (Ezeani, 1998). He further stated that in 1975, there
was a world conference in Mexico for the International Year for women out-ling a
ten-year plan of action on equality, development and peace”. Ten years later at
another world conference, the Nairobi Forward – Looking Strategies for the
Advancement of Women was launched which has influenced the preparation of
policies and programmes of government and non-governmental organizations the
world over. In 1966, a third world conference held in Beijing focused on a Plan of
Action Implementation regarding the advancement of women, in the context of
equality and sustainable development (Kurubo,1993). Also at the Millennium
Summit of September 2000, world leaders agreed to take the commitments of
achieving gender equality, equity and women empowerment forward and to set
targets for the achievements of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Nevertheless, these activities by the global organizations have made
tremendous impact on the progress and fortunes of women throughout the world
(Obiekezie, 2003). However, issues of gender equality and women empowerment
have appeared to be neglected in Nigeria and some other African countries
generally. In Nigeria today, there are still some social, economic, cultural, political
and religious factors hindering the empowerment of women especially in their
participation in national development and governance. Gender equality and women
empowerment especially as it regards improving the economic well being of the
women, ensuring attainment of quality education of women, and making sure that
greater percent of women hold political and other public positions in Nigeria is still
incompatible with other countries like United States of America, United Kingdom,
Germany, Liberia, among others where women have been given greater
opportunities to contribute their quota in national development. In addition, there
are problems in implementing policies and programmes on gender equality and
women empowerment in Nigeria following their failures to achieve intended
results. This is because government has taken soft-pedal approach to issues
involving gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria. Our aim in this
study is therefore to examine the Impact of Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) on gender equality in Nigeria within period of 2005-2010.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Poverty far from being a condition in which a person or people cannot afford
the basic material necessities without which life becomes virtually unlivable; it is a
multi-dimensional and multi-facted phenomenon. Politically, it goes back beyond
income inequality as it includes rights, power relations and access to and
distribution of resources and socially, it involves the questions of human dignity,
social relationships and opportunities (Onah, 2006). Thus, poverty has becomes a
social reality and a global affliction which virtually seems to have defied a
permanent solution. It is on this note that the United Nations on its Millennium
Declaration in September 6th-8th 2000 in New York with 189 world leaders set
eight goals to be pursued by members especially the developing countries of which
Nigeria is one. These goals according to the Millennium Development Goals
(MGDs) report 2000 are: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, achieve universal
primary education, promote gender equality and empower women, reduce child
mortality, improve maternal health, combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other
diseases, ensure environmental sustainability, and develop a global partnership for
development Abamba (2005). The number three objective of Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) targets on promoting gender equality in all socio-
political and economic aspects of life. To achieve this, Caren and Aslihan (2005)
noted that in addressing goal three of the MDGs, the MDGs task force has focused
on the historical disadvantaged experienced by women and on how gender norms
and the policies based on those norms have perpetuated that disadvantage.
However, the world poverty profile shows that there is a wide gap of gender
inequality in all aspect of socio-political and economic life (Oruebor, 2006). He
also noted that the status of women varies enormously from one part of the world
to another and even in the same country, from urban to rural communities. In each
case, nowhere do women enjoy equal status with men. In developing countries like
Nigeria, this crushing poverty overlaid with long standing patterns of
discrimination create living conditions for women almost too harsh to imagine.
The world’s poorest women are not merely poor, but they live on the edge of
subsistence. They are economically dependent and vulnerable, politically and
legally powerless. In others words, issues relating to gender equality, equity and
women empowerment have always received lesser attention of the policy makers
especially in advocative and awareness of women liberation from the humiliation
of obnoxious socio-cultural practices in some parts of the world and including
Nigerian state. It is however disheartening that today in Nigeria, there is still a
large scale of gender inequality against the women in all sphere of life.
Statistically, women are usually the uneducated or half educated because it is
believed that female education ends in the kitchen, unemployed or underemployed.
Oluwabukola (2011) noted that: “Based on the social, cultural and religious
attitudes of different Nigerian societies which most often tend to relegate women
to the background, they constitute a smaller percentage of the political parties. As a
result, only very few men, even the educated, allow their wives to participate in
politics or take other greater opportunities in life”.
Implicit from the above quotation, is that implementation of the Millennium
Development Goals on gender equality in Nigeria has been constrained by the
societal beliefs and illiteracy of women to take their future in their hands.
Generally, there is discrimination of women from their male counterpart both in
electing candidates for elections and in allocating political offices. Since men are
usually the majority in political parties, they have the tendency to dominate the
party, and are therefore at advantage to influence the decisions of the party and
other decisions or policies that would lead to gender equality.
Moreover, Ozugboh (1998) and Ezeani (1998) have noted that customary
and religious laws continue to restrict women’s rights in Nigeria against the
Millennium Development Goals declaration and targets on gender equality. For
instance, certain states in the North follow Islamic Sharia Law, which reinforces
customs that are unfavourable to women. The practice of Purdah, whereby women
are secluded from the public, prevails within the Muslim community in some
Northern areas constraining the Nigeria’s efforts in meeting the Millennium
Development Goals targets at 2015. Women in Purdah cannot leave their homes
without their husband’s consent and must be accompanied by a man at all times
when in public. There are also some customary practices in the South-East and
South-West parts of Nigeria that restrict women from taking greater opportunities
through self-empowerment. The constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria did
not help matters also in this regard. Section 26 of the 1999 makes discriminatory
provisions against women in terms of the inability of their foreign husbands to
acquire Nigerian citizenship automatically by marriage and this is not the same
with male citizens with their foreign wives. To worsen the case, there is no
constitutional provision for ensuring that gender equality is maintained in
governance be that at grassroot, state or federal level. In the Fourth Nigerian
Republic, which covered the period of this study, the women have only occupied
about 3% (percent) of elective positions going by the figure given by the Forum of
Nigerian Women in Politics (FNMWP) that only about seven women are senators
and thirteen of them in the Federal House of Representative Ekwunife (2007). This
indeed goes below the 30% (percent) recommendation by the United Nations and
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
It is therefore against this backdrop that the researcher intends to investigate on
the topic: Impact of Millennium Development Goals on gender equality in Nigeria
2005-2010. In view of the foregoing, the study raises the following questions:
(i) Has the Millennium Development Goals made any impact on gender
equality in Nigeria?
(ii) In what ways have the governmental and non-governmental organizations
championed the struggle for MDGs gender equality and women
empowerment in Nigeria?
(iii) To what extent have societal beliefs and perceptions constrain or limit the
achievement of the MDGs gender equality in Nigeria?
(iv) Are there factors militating against effective implementation of MDGs
gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria?
(v) Are there possible measures of improving effective implementation of
MDGs gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria?
1.3 Objectives of the Study
(i) The general objective of this study is to examine the impact of the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on gender equality in Nigeria.
The Specific objectives of the study are to;
(ii) Identify strategies employed by the governmental and non-governmental
organizations in championing the struggle for MDGs gender equality and
women empowerment in Nigeria.
(iii) Determine the extent societal beliefs and perceptions constrain or limit the
achievement of MDGs gender equality and women empowerment in
Nigeria.
(iv) Identify other factors militating against effective implementation of
Millennium Development Goals gender equality and women
empowerment in Nigeria.
(v) Suggest measures towards improving effective implementation of MDGs
gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
1.4 Significance of the study
The significance of the study presents the value or contribution which the
research will make to the knowledge.
Theoretically, this study has the potential of contributing greatly to the
growth of existing literature in social sciences particularly in public administration
by helping to enrich the existing knowledge through its reliable findings on the
impact of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on gender equality in
Nigeria. This study will also make a head way in showcasing the need for women
empowerment in Nigeria as a means of achieving the number three goal of
Millennium Development Goals in Nigeria (i.e. promoting gender equality and
empower women). This is to say that our study would assist in improving the
advocacy for greater women empowerment in Nigeria especially in the fourth
republic which covered the period under study 2005-2010.
On the other hand, this study will make effort to bring into light the
challenges as well as some fallacies constraining effective implementation of
MDGs gender equality programmes or women empowerment programmes in
Nigeria. In addition, the study will make useful suggestions towards ensuring
equitable representation of women in nation-building especially in governance.
This study also has the potentials of contributing immensely to the existing
body of literature on this subject matter. Literature on gender equality and women
empowerment are still not enough because it is one major area often neglected by
some researcher.
Empirically, this study will serve as a foundation or base for future
researchers who may in due course of time wish to embark on the investigation
on assessing the Millennium Development Goals and its impact on gender equality
in Nigeria. In other words, this research will serve the academia as useful and
veritable bibliographical references which will stimulate research for other related
studies in relation to Millennium Development Goals and gender equality in
Nigeria.
1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study focuses on the assessment of the Millennium Development Goals
and its impact on gender equality in Nigeria 2005-2010. As a matter of fact, this
study will cover in detail policies and programmes adopted by the government to
achieve gender equality in Nigeria. Nevertheless, a study of the magnitude cannot
be completed successfully without the researcher encountering some constraints or
limitations. In view of this, the major limitations or constraints to this study were
lack of time. With the time given for this research, it was not easy for the
researcher to conduct an exhaustive survey of the government programmes on
MDGs programmes in Nigeria and their impact in gender equality.
Another limitation of this study is inadequate financial supports or
assistance. A study of the nature requires adequate financial supports to visit both
governmental and non-governmental organizations which are organizers of women
empowerment programmes and research institutes to gather information on
Millennium Development Goals and its impact on gender equality in Nigeria. But
lack of adequate financial supports nearly marred the efforts of the researcher in
this direction.
Finally, another limitation to the study was the difficulty encountered by the
researcher in sourcing for the relevant data for the study especially the secondary
data. However, the researcher ensured that the limitations did not affect the finding
of the study by supplementing the available information through internet material,
text books, journals and administration of questionnaire and oral interview.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND METHODOLOGY
2.1 Literature Review
Under this section, effort will be made to review some current relevant
literature on the subject matter of this study. For purpose of clarity, the literature
review will be organized under sub-headings as follow:
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs); A Brief Review;
Nigeria’s Strategies for Millennium Development Goals Attainment;
Defining Gender Equality as the three Goal of the Millennium Development
Goals;
Identifying the Dimensions of Gender Equality;
Women Empowerment: An Explication;
Understanding the Importance of Female Empowerment;
Struggle for Gender Equality and Women Emancipation in Nigeria;
Women Organizations in Nigeria;
Objectives of Women Organizations/Association in Nigeria;
Brief Discussion on some Women Organizations in Nigeria;
Problems Militating Against the Attainment of Attainment of Gender
Equality and Women Empowerment in Nigeria; and
Prospects of Gender Equality and Women Empowerment in Nigeria
2.1.1 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): A Brief Review
The Nigeria version of the Millennium Development Goals is a derivative of
the United Nations Millennium Declaration adopted at the Millennium Summit of
September 6th- 8th 2000 in New York (Ugwu, 2009:207). The cardinal goals of the
development policy are the realization of measurable improvements in the lives of
the world’s poorest citizens in developing countries like Nigeria.
The countries that are participating in the programmes (as Nigeria) are
expected to embark on development plans, strategies and policies that will ensure
the accomplishment of the major eight targets of the MDG by the year 2015
(Soludo, 2004).
In terms of the specific objectives of the MDG, it is to be noted that the
programmes contains laudable poverty reduction proposals that if properly
implemented by any country will ensure elimination of poverty by the year 2015.
These objectives with its target emphasis are stated below:
1) Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger
Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less
than one dollar a day.
Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including
women and young people.
Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from
hunger.
(2) Achieve Universal Primary Education
Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to
complete a full course of primary schooling.
(3) Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women
Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by
2005, and at all levels by 2015.
(4) Reduce Child Mortality
Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five morality.
(5) Improve Maternal Health
Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal morality ratio.
Achieve, by 2015-universal access to reproductive health.
(6) Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria, and other Diseases
Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS.
Achieve, by 201, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who
need it.
Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other
major diseases.
(7) Ensure Environment Sustainability
Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and
programmes; reverse loss of environmental resources.
Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate
of loss.
Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe
dinking water and basic sanitation (for more information see the entry on water
supply).
By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100
million slum-dwellers.
(8) Develop a Global Partnership for Development
Develop further an open trading and financial system that is rule-based,
predictable and non-discriminatory. Includes a commitment to good
governance, development and poverty reduction-nationally and internationally.
Address the special needs of the least developed countries. This includes tariff
and quota free access for their exports; enhanced programme of debt relief for
heavily indebted poor countries; and cancellation of official bilateral debts; and
more generous official development assistance for countries committed to
poverty reduction.
Address the special needs of landlocked and Small Island developing States.
Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through
national and international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the
long term.
In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable
essential drugs in developing countries.
In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new
technologies, especially information and communications. As at the September
6th -8th 2000 declaration, about 189 countries of the world have ratified the
agreement to work on the above stated items of development with the target of
achieving them by year 2015.
2.1.2 Nigeria’s Strategies for Millennium Development Goals Attainment
Nigeria’s first MDG’s Progress Report by Nigeria’s stakeholders by June
2004 has provided available benchmark for assessing Nigeria’s efforts towards the
attainment of the programmes’ dreams (Soludo, 2004). In a further explanation, he
stated that an essential aspect of the strategies for its targets accomplishment is the
setting up of the National Committee for Tracking the Progress of meeting the
MDG’s programmes and the strengthening of the Federal Office of statistics,
responsible for generating relevant data, for its up to date monitoring.
In terms of financing the achievement of the programmes, the then Nigeria’s
Economic Adviser to the President Chukwuma Soludo did assert that:
The plan for financing of the programme and projects for the achievement of the MDG’s will also be linked with the annual budgetary allocation to relevant sectors, both at the federal and state levels. Other tiers of Government will be encouraged to adopt similar approach.
In measuring the MDG’s development activities in Nigeria and the overall
expectations from the policy output by 2015, we agree with the not-too-bright
report of the 2004 MDG’s Progress Report, that even with all the potentialities of
Nigeria in terms of resources, it may be a Herculean task dreaming of total
realization of the targets. In this respect, the Report (2004:iv) stated as follows:
There is potential to reach some of the targets to achieving universal primary education, ensuring environment sustainability and developing a global partnership for development. However, based on available information, it is unlikely that the country will be able to meet most of the goal by 2015, especially the goals related to eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, reducing child and maternal morality and combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.
2.1.3 Defining Gender Equality as the three Goal of the Millennium
Development Goals;
Gender equality is concerned with issues involving the social, cultural,
political and economic activities and behaviours of man and woman. Caren and
Alihan (2005) in an attempt to define gender equality stated that like race and
ethnicity, gender is a social construct. It defines and differentiates the roles, rights,
responsibilities, and obligations of women and men. The innate biological
differences between females and males form the basis of social norms that define
appropriate behaviors for women and men and determine the differential social,
economic, and political power between the sexes. Although the specific nature and
degree of these differing norms vary across societies and across time, at the
beginning of the twenty-first century they still typically favor men and boys, giving
them more access than women and girls to the capabilities, resources, and
opportunities that are important for the enjoyment of social, economic, and
political power and well-being.
In addressing Goal three of the Millennium Development Goals, the task
force has focused on the historical disadvantage experienced by women and on
how gender norms and the policies based on those norms have perpetuated that
disadvantage. This report notes the ways in which gender norms and policies also
negatively affect boys and men, but the primary focus is to rectify the most
common gender-based disadvantages—those faced by women and girls.
Goal three of the Millennium Development Goals is vital. Caren and Alihan
(2005) are of the view that women can work as partners with women to bring about
changes in gender roles and norms that can benefit both women and men. The
report, therefore, suggests ways in which policies and interventions can engage
men as equal partners in achieving gender equality and the empowerment of
women.
2.1.4 Identifying the Dimensions of Gender Equality
Based on past analyses of gender in society, the task force has adopted an
operational framework for understanding gender equality that has three main
dimensions:
• The capabilities domain, which refers to basic human abilities as measured by
education, health, and nutrition. These capabilities are fundamental to individual
well-being and are the means through which individuals access other forms of
well-being.
• The access to resources and opportunities domain, which refers primarily to
equality in the opportunity to use or apply basic capabilities through access to
economic assets (such as land, property, or infrastructure) and resources (such as
income and employment), as well as political opportunity (such as representation
in parliaments and other political bodies).
Without access to resources and opportunities, both political and economic,
women will be unable to employ their capabilities for their well-being and that of
their families, communities, and societies.
• The security domain, which is defined here to mean reduced vulnerability to
violence and conflict. Violence and conflict result in physical and psychological
harm and lessen the ability of individuals, households, and communities to fulfill
their potential. Violence directed specifically at women and girls often aims at
keeping them in “their place” through fear.
These three domains are interrelated, and change in all three is critical to
achieving Goal 3. The attainment of capabilities increases the likelihood that
women can access opportunities for employment or participate in political and
legislative bodies but does not guarantee it. Similarly, access to opportunity
decreases the likelihood that women will experience violence (although in certain
circumstances, it may temporarily increase that likelihood).
Progress in any one domain to the exclusion of the others will be insufficient
to meet the Goal of gender equality. For example, in many countries in Latin
America girls enroll in primary school at the same rate as boys and even
outnumber them in secondary school. However, many studies in Latin America
show that women are disadvantaged in the labor market relative to men with
similar education and experience Eneh (2001). Thus, investments need to be
directed to interventions across all three domains in order to achieve the Goal.
The strategic priorities listed in report of the task force committee are based on
these above mentioned dimensions of gender equality. The first two—
strengthening opportunities for post-primary education for girls while meeting
commitments to universal primary education and guaranteeing universal access to
a broad range of sexual and reproductive health information and services—
represent the priority for strengthening women’s capabilities. The next four
(investing in infrastructure to reduce women’s time burdens, guaranteeing girls’
and women’s property and inheritance rights, eliminating gender inequality in
employment, and increasing women’s share of seats in national parliaments and
local governmental bodies) reflect priorities for economic and political
opportunity. And the final strategic priority—combating violence against girls and
women—addresses the security domain.
2.1.5 Women Empowerment: An Explication
The need for empowerment arises from the inability of an individual or
group of people to actualize their dreams and reach their greatest potentials due to
artificial barriers created by individual and other groups within the same society. It
is the manifestation of an incontrovertible inequality, segregation or
marginalization. To Oxfam (1995) empowerment involves challenging oppression,
which compels millions of people to play a part in their society on terms which
deny them their human rights. Batliwa (1995) in her definition of the term
empowerment stated that “empowerment is the process and result of the process
whereby the powerful members of the society gain greater access and control over
materials and knowledge, resources, challenges the ideologies of discrimination
and subordination and transform the institutions and structure via which unequal
access and control over resources is sustained and perpetuated.
The above definition means that an individual or a group of people has
neither lacked power nor authority by conditions of denial or default. For UNICEF
(2003), illiteracy remains at the centre of women empowerment problem in
Nigeria. Majority of the womenfolk and large number of girls in this country are
still grappling with the problems of basic reading and writing skills. Moreover,
women in Nigeria are discriminated against in access to education for social and
economic reasons. For instance, the Islamic practice of Purdah precludes many
women from benefiting from school instructions for participating in economic
activities, which are likely to elevate their positions. The most negative segregation
is probably the prevention of girls from going to school in some society. This has
probably led to the greatest social harm of the twentieth century.
The fundamental problem is the low importance which women themselves
attached to education. Many of them believe that the life of successful women
resolves around her children, her husband and domestic chores. This, lack of self
ambition is problematic and prevent her from pursuing other educational goals.
Aliazuem and Emezue (1986) explained that the Nigeria women especially
those from eastern side of the country are known to have some kid of societal
expectation from role set dating back to the period of unrecorded history. Ocheoha
(1988) noted that one unanimous cry of women is that government should take
positive step to balance the number of men and women in government bodies and
committees as well as in public administrative entities including the armed forces
and the judiciary. In line with the above, Ocheoha recommended balance gender in
appointment into public offices. She also believed that this should equally be
supervised, “in her words, “government should monitor and evaluate progress, in
the representation of women through dissemination of qualitative and quantitative
data on women and men in all level of governance including empowerment
process.
Ekeocha (1992) in his contribution opined that represent in the most
countries, the most restricted and marginalized group. They are under represented
in policy articulation and conception by the elites that perceive them as only
playing a biological functions or role. He advised that time has come for more
established structures which with focus on more exhortation of concrete
programme of empowerment. It is the responsibility of those critical ministries to
enlighten women, to fashion out programmes for women education institute
measures against domestic violence and abuse integrate women in the economy
and articulate a clear cut role of women in empowerment process.
Omenuiyi (1992) remarked that though there is an increase in recent times in
the area of women empowerment and political participation especially with the
present wave of democratization that is sweeping through the country. However,
there is still mismatch between the right incidence of female voter turn-out and the
number of female presently occupying elective political offices. Etzioni (1968) was
impliedly talking of empowerment when he noted that mobilization is a process by
which latent energy from the view points of the active units is made available for
collection actions”. However, mobilization may be used to connote a process of re-
orientation to encouraging rather hitherto dormant potential units for a more active
action. Empowerment connotes the authorization of oriented but subjected units to
engage actively in the pursuits and achievement of collective goals. Empowerment
is therefore used to imply the giving of energy or authority to someone or group of
people who wee hitherto deprived of such powers or roles in the collective scheme
of things. Consequently, while mobilization is the first step to encouraging women
participation in partisan politics, empowerment is the finishing touch on the
programme of women participation in politics.
From historical antecedents we may now advance the cultural nuance of
some pre-colonial societies with a view to understanding the practical and
invaluable roles women’s played in those societies in the period. This will helps us
to make or debunk a linkage of limited women participation in politics to trade-
cultural orientation of the people.
According to Azikiwe (1993), empowerment could be explained to the
layman to mean giving or providing power, providing the means to giving or
providing power, providing the means to and opportunities for self-reliance and
independence. She went on the elucidate that an empowered women is one who
can and has transformed herself into a subject and is no longer an object as defined
by culture and traditional predicaments, an empowered women is one who, has
assess to and control over resource such as land, money and assets, learns to say
nor or yes in the struggle for her rights, and possesses some abilities and
capabilities. In addition, empowerment involves; having a voice and being heard in
national issues, a broadening of choices, bring about changes in the unequal
relationships between the two sexes, and between government and women.
Evertt (1991) observed that an empowered woman, has greater control over
her life, is able to define and create from women’s perspective; is able to influence
the social areas that are recognized as women’s issues makes the contribution of
women ties, responsibilities and authority. It is important to note that the main
areas of empowerment are education, politics, economic and socio-cultural.
However, educational empowerment forms a base structure for all other
empowerment of women. In other words, a woman who is educationally
empowered might be able to achieve economic and political empowerment-all
things being equal. Furthermore, programmes should be organized both at the
micro and macro levels such as women’s village meetings and associations. Most
importantly, empowerment should start form the home and family because from
observation, some husbands dis-empower their wives at home. In other words,
some women have power in their place of women but loose it at home as a result of
the husband attitude to their wives (Azikiwe, 1993).
The type of education needed by the rural women for empowerment has
been developed by basic literacy, nutrition and home management, income
generating activities, agriculture, food production and appropriate technology and
primary health care. Any intervention programme developed on these expressed
needs will no doubt improve the status of our sisters in the rural areas. The women
in the village need practical skills that will improve her income and life-style. In
summary, our intention is to establish that women education is imperative to
women empowerment in any society.
2.1.6 Understanding the Importance of Female Empowerment
The concept of empowerment is related to gender equality but distinct from
it. The core of empowerment lies in the ability of a woman to control her own
destiny (Malhotra, Schuler, and Boender 2002; Kabeer 1999). This implies that to
be empowered women must not only have equal capabilities (such as education
and health) and equal access to resources and opportunities (such as land and
employment), but they must also have the agency to use those rights, capabilities,
resources, and opportunities to make strategic choices and decisions (such as is
provided through leadership opportunities and participation in political
institutions). And for them to exercise agency, they must live without the fear of
coercion and violence. This according to Malhotra et al (2002) is because of the
historical legacy of disadvantage women have faced, they are still all too often
referred to as a vulnerable minority. In most countries, however, women are a
majority, with the potential to catalyze enormous power and progress. While this
report identifies the constraints that women face, it also emphasizes their resilience
and the contributions they make to their families, communities, and economies
despite those constraints—contributions that could be multiplied if those
constraints were removed.
The seven strategic priorities selected by the task force for action on the
international and national level represent first-generation development problems
that have not yet been addressed systematically within and across countries. They
are interrelated: empowering women and promoting gender equality entail action
on all of them. The task force considered selecting a smaller set of priorities but
decided that dropping any one of the seven priorities would compromise achieving
Goal 3 because gender inequality results from an interlocking, self-reinforcing set
of conditions. Some of the priorities are already present in the Millennium
Development Goal framework (as indicators for Goal 3 and the target of Goal 4),
but the task force wishes to highlight their importance for achieving Goal 3 Caren
and Alihen (2005).
In a further explanation, Caren and Alihen these seven priorities are a subset
of the priorities outlined in previous international agreements, including the
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action and the Cairo Programme of Action.
The recommendations in these international agreements remain important for
achieving gender equality and women’s empowerment, but the task force sees the
seven priorities as needing immediate action if the Goal is to be met by 2015.
Although empowerment and equality should be enjoyed by all women and
men, the task force believes that three subpopulations of women must receive
preference in implementing the strategic priorities and allocating resources if
poverty is to be reduced:
• Poor women in the poorest countries and in countries that have achieved
increases in national income but where poverty remains significant.
• Adolescents, who constitute two-thirds of the population in the poorest countries
and the largest cohort of adolescents in the world’s history.
• Women and girls in conflict and post-conflict settings.
Prioritizing these groups is not intended to minimize the vulnerability and needs of
other groups of women, but to emphasize that investments in these subpopulations
are a priority for achieving immediate and long-term results in reducing poverty.
A focus on poor women is justified for several reasons. Poor women have the
greatest needs. Investments in them will produce the greatest benefits. It is often
suggested that women outnumber men among the poor. Although precise estimates
of the relative proportion of males and females living in poverty are not available,
recent research suggests that women are overrepresented among the poor
(Quisumbing, Haddad, and Peña 2001). Gender inequalities tend to be greater
among the poor than the rich, especially for inequalities in capabilities and
opportunities (World Bank 2001a; Filmer 1999). Moreover, the well-being and
survival of poor households depends disproportionately on the productive and
reproductive contributions of their female members. Also, an increasing number of
poor households are headed or maintained by women (Bruce, Lloyd, and Leonard
1995).Investing in the health, education, safety, and economic well-being of
adolescents, especially adolescent girls, must also be a priority. Adolescence is a
formative period, one of transition between childhood and adulthood. It is a time
when interventions can dramatically alter subsequent life outcomes. The sheer size
of the current adolescent cohort in poor countries means that interventions to
improve their lives will affect national outcomes. One example illustrates this point
well. If the mean age of childbearing in Bangladesh were to rise by five years, the
country’s population growth would fall by 40 percent—and the well-being of
young women would almost certainly improve (Mensch, Bruce, and Greene 1998:
3). Within the adolescent cohort the task force has given priority to the needs of
adolescent girls because they experience greater overall social, economic, and
health disadvantages in most countries than do boys.
Therefore, investments to help girls complete good quality secondary
schooling, support their transition from education to work, develop healthy
sexuality, and guarantee their physical safety are urgently needed and can
accelerate progress toward several of the Millennium Development Goals.
Finally, responding to these strategic priorities is particularly urgent for
women in conflict and postconflict situations. Situations of conflict have
disproportionate impacts on women and children, who typically are the majority of
displaced persons in refugee camps and conflict zones (Landsberg-Lewis 2002). In
times of conflict women and children are also more likely to be heads of
households, underscoring the need for special assistance in overcoming the gender
barriers that restrict their access to resources and threaten the survival of their
households. Postconflict periods present a window of opportunity to reduce gender
barriers and create a gender-equitable society, which is more likely to occur if
reconstruction fosters the full participation of women. For example, in Rwanda the
postconflict period was used as an opportunity to right previous gender inequalities
in access to resources and political participation.
2.1.7 Struggle for Gender Equality and Women Emancipation in Nigeria
The thinking in many quarters in the past decades is that the role of the
Nigeria women starts from the kitchen and ends in the maternity (Obiekezie,
2003). Hence the average Nigerian women were socialized to believe and accept
the above assertion. This pathetic scenario has undergone visible mutation
overtime. This metamorphosis was granted impetus by the growth of national
movements and the process of decolonization as more and more women were
exposed to civil and national responsibilities. In the light of the above, the
Babanjida administration in general and Mrs. Maryam Babangida (late) in
particular merit on infinite amount of credit for creating as well as supporting
policies geared towards the total emancipation of women, especially the rural
women in Nigeria. Their efforts have led to the institutionalization of women
affairs at national level, creation of women societies at various levels, sustained
government efforts at rural development in general and special programmes
directed mainly towards the rural women of Nigeria. These are evidence of the
resolve to effectively develop the nation’s human resources to achieve national
development.
In Nigeria today, there are quite a number of women in different professions
who have demystified the belief that they cannot succeed in such areas. There are
lawyers, engineers, doctors, journalists, architects, surveyors just to mention a few.
In the light of this, it becomes interesting, therefore, to ask this questions: why are
women not fully involved in all aspects of decision-making in the country?
Women generally constitute a majority of the population and it is believed that as
matters, there is no-gain-saying that they are part of nation building. They are now
taking the bull by the horns and are evolving strategies to see that they remedy this
situation. Some of the strategies that were to be embarked upon are to make
empowerment of women as a key to avoiding in the 21st century the
environmentally destructive mistakes of the 20th century and that women should
actively and equality participate in decision-making. Women are the burden
bearers of any nation. They are matters, they nurse the sick and aged, take care of
their husbands and at the same time they are food producers. The bulk of workload
falls on them in their bid to see that the family is well catered for. They go as far as
performing their child bearing role along these jobs, this is yet to be fully
acknowledged.
It is the development of women that will first to acknowledge in a country, if
not, the country will be measured by the level of education and level of progress
achieved by women. A nation should use what she has to get what she wants, for
instance, if there are capable women, use them and make them believe in the
system of operation. Also if women are not “helped” now by involving them in
decision-making it would be difficult to pursue their interests and yet the decision
reached without them affects them Obiekezie (2003). It is when they are involved
in the decision-making process that it will be clear that they are going somewhere.
Empowerment is described as a process of giving power to a person.
In this situation, a lot of people toy with giving power to a person. Power is
not gift not it acquired by birth but it is an award worked for. Women are not
asking for any power, opportunities or freedom but to be allowed to fully exercise
their capabilities.
2.1.8 Women Organizations in Nigeria
The history of women organizations in Nigeria is not new, as there are
traditions of resistance and activities, which go back to pre-colonial times Apanya
(2003). She stressed that there were indigenous feminists prior to our contact with
Europeans just as there were indigenous mode of rebellion and resistance in Africa.
For instance, in Nigeria, the Aba Women Riot of 1929 was organized by women
organizations against the payment of tax by women as demanded by the colonial
administration.
The idea of women organizations was as a result of all sorts of oppression,
exploitation and subordination suffered by the women. In the past, the women
were seen as a sort of cheap labour and as objects of protection; admired for their
beauties rather than for their intellectual capacity. Thus, Kurubo (1993) stated that
their emancipation from all sort of abuses should not be seen as a token of
sympathy, but rather as a necessity I in the society.
The study of women organizations in Nigeria is concerned with both formal
and informal organizations. However, for the purpose of the chapter women
organizations will be viewed as formal organizations. A formal organization is
primarily a complex goal-seeking unit which in order to survive, must accomplish
secondary tasks. Consequently, organization can be defined as an association of
persons grouped together for the pursuit of predetermined goals. It is an institution
established to achieve goals and finally it is a mechanism or basic framework
enabling persons to work effectively and achieve the set goals through integrated
group efforts (Nwafor and Ezegbe, 1998).
It is important to note from the above definitions that a mere collection of
people at a place or merely going together in one direction, does not make them an
organization. There are three basic essentials of an organization. These are people,
common goal and means necessary for a joint effort to attain such goal.
Gone are the days, when women were generally referred to a gossipers and
idle-minds. Okereke (2003) noted that Nigerian women are now pulling their
weight in all spheres of life and organizing themselves into different women and
men organizations to discuss their role in nation building and democratization
process and other issues affecting them.
Some women organization and trade unions were created among
professionals of a common profession or those working under a common
organization within view of fighting for and protecting the women’s rights and
interests; good examples of such organizations includes the following National
Association of Media Women, Army Officers Wives Association, Association of
University Women (ANUW), Women in Nigeria (WIN), National Council of
Women Society, the Society of Women Accountants of Nigeria, Better Life
Programme for Rural Women now Family Support Programme, Women in
Development WID, etc.
It is important to note that there are two broad categories of women
organizations and the division is primarily political. One grouping consists of
organizations focusing gender-related issues and the political participation of
women. The other is made up of organizations which focus only on gender specific
issues, and proclaim themselves to be non-political. The distinction is important as
it affects the power of women in Nigeria to transform our society substantially
from one that is inherently sexist to one which is truly democratic and upholds the
equality of all in our society.
2.1.9 Women Organizations and the Democratization Process in Nigeria
The concept of democracy has been a complex one and is always used
differently by different people at different times. From the viewpoint of Obasi
(2000), it often refers to majority and the defence of fundamental human rights.
From the above, definitions, therefore, democracy includes so many things such as
fairness, poetical participation, meaningful and extensive competition for political
offices, accountability, protection of civil and political liberties, rule of law, etc, It
goes beyond the mere conduct of elections as rightly pointed out by Anthony Lake
Cited in Apanya (2003:231),
Democracy means more than elections. As we have sadly witnessed in Angola, elections are not enough, in themselves, to bring peace and justice. Genuine democracy implies more, such as respect for individual and majority rights, land tolerance for a loyal opposition.
Therefore, the role of women organizations in Nigeria does not only imply
political democracy. It includes the need to steer and highlight the man elements of
the political and economic reality in the country that all progressive minds are
interested in transforming.
The list of women organizations and their roles in the democratization
process are enormous. However, for the purpose of this study, it is imperative we
examine other dominant issues on women empowerment and politics in Nigeria.
2.1.10 Objectives of Women Organizations/Association in Nigeria
According to Obiekezie (2003:375) the objectives of women
organizations/associations are numerous but few of them are mention below
namely:-
(i) They are meant to mobilization women for concrete activities towards
achieving roles in all spheres of national life.
(ii) They are designed to stimulate women in rural areas towards achieving a
better and higher standard of life, as well as sensitize the general
populace to the plight of rural women.
(iii) To bring women together for better understanding and resolution of their
problems through collective action, and raise the consciousness of
women about their rights and social, political and economic
responsibilities.
(iv) To create awareness and improve the living conditions of rural dwellers.
(v) To introduce the use of new technological innovations, that is, new
machines to replace manual labour among the rural dwellers.
(vi) To open markets for the items produced in large quantities both within
and outside the country.
(vii) To encourage women education for easy communication and educate
them on the need for child care, immunization and the need to live
hygienic in environment.
(viii) To improve social, economic, political, educational etc awareness of
women and inculcate basic vocational skills to women in Nigeria.
(ix) To teach women home management and child moral upbringing.
2.1.10 Brief Discussion on some Women Organizations in Nigeria
Attempt is made under this section to review some women organizations in
Nigeria which have worked towards achieving gender equality and women
empowerment. Some of these women organizations are:
National Association of Nigeria Women in Business (NANWIB)
This association was formed by some groups of business women in 1986
Apanya (2003). According to him, the association is aimed primarily at creating a
platform for dissemination of economic and business information among members.
The organization through regular meetings, seminars and workshops strives to
educate its members on national economic issues as well as protect their interests
through finding lasting solutions to common business problems.
Although the association is non-political, it is committed to the economic
development of women in particular and Nigeria in general. Regular workshops ad
seminars are organized for women to stimulate and encourage them to take in
interest as well as actively participate in the various economic and political
activities within and outside their environment. Other objectives are to establish
nation-wide networks for the dissemination of business and other related
information to members and the public in general and to promote, enhance and
develop the general advancement of business execution and management by
women in Nigeria. They also aim at breaking the discriminatory challenges facing
the women in both business ad political activities now and in the years to come.
Nigeria Association of University Women (NAUW)
This group believes in maximum contribution to national development and
putting an end to women’s marginalization in the governing and decision-making
processes. Through this medium, women, both members and non-members, are
energized to take part in the administration of the country through active
involvement in politics and acceptance of political appointments (Apanya,
2003:232).
Women in Nigeria (WIN)
The idea behind women in Nigeria originated from the enthusiasm and
interest that evolved initially during the first annual women in Nigeria conference
held in 1982 (Apanya, 2003). It was at this conference that a group of dedicated
women from all over Nigeria committed themselves to the task of establishing an
organization which would work for the improvement in the conditions of women
in the country.
The founding members believed that the liberation of women cannot be fully
achieved outside the context of the liberation of the oppressed and poor majority of
the people of Nigeria. In order to do this, they try to know clearly and concretely
how women and men live and are structured by socio-economic and political
conditions surrounding them.
WIN is an association which through regular seminars, workshops and
conferences, both national and international, calls for equal participation of men
and women in the social, economic and political activities of the country. With the
launching of its programme titled “WIN position on women in politics” the
laudable contributions of WIN to the democratization process in Nigeria cannot be
over-emphasized.
WIN’s programme put the rural women, the urban poor and their families in
the forefronts. It is believed that women cannot represent the rural poor within the
active support and participation of WIN. WIN, as an organization, has always
pointed to the fact that it has a political ideology which is conscious of the
importance of class and gender complexities in national life. It is from this point
that, it looks at the cultural forms obtainable in traditional society and how they
could be improved to bear pressure on the present for the well-being of women.
National Council of Women Societies (NCWS)
This body was inaugurated in Tuesday the 19th of June, 1990 by the Federal
Government of Nigeria to ensure the full participation of women in national
development such as in the promotion of civil rights, and in political, cultural,
social and economic welfare schemes (Apanya, 2003).
Although, Decree No. 30 of December 7, 1989 establishing the commission
for women expects the commission to formulate policies and programmes within
the context of national development plans aimed at enhancing the positions and
development of women in the social, economic and political contexts, it also
stipulates among others that government will.
(i) Establish bodies in the states and local governments for women.
(ii) Monitor and liaise with appropriate governmental organizations and
international bodies including United Nations organs on matters
concerning women and development.
(iii) The commission will also take over the control of Better Life for Rural
Women Programme, later Family Support Programme.
(iv) The body should look into raising political awareness amongst women. It
also should focus on national unity. However, the tribal and religious
sentiments generating controversy should be rejected.
With all these aims and objectives establishing the commission, it means the
commission is expected to cover all areas of women endeavours. Therefore, it is
faced with enormous tasks, since about 60% of Nigeria women are handicapped
with cultural, religious, economic and political factors that maintain their
subordinations. What is important equally according to Apanya (2003) and
Okereke (2003) is that it provides our women with an opportunity of meeting and
sharing their experiences. Numerous seminars, workshops and conferences have
been held both in the past and present at which women’s concern were discussed.
They have served the important purpose in our country.
Therefore, the role of these organizations in the democratization process
cannot be over-emphasized. These organizations through their regular meetings,
seminars, workshops, and conferences both locally, nationally, and internationally
were able to create the following purposive impacts among women and the entire
Nigeria society:
(i) That majority rule rather than military dictatorship is the order of the day.
(ii) Equal rights and opportunity for all irrespective of sex,
(iii) The defence of fundamental human rights and fairness in every human
endeavour.
(iv) Political participation and equal representation,
(v) Meaningful and extensive competition for political offices.
(vi) Accountability in private/public offices
(vii) Protection of civil and political liberties
(viii) The supremacy of the rule of law.
Women for Change Initiative (WCI)
On the 16th of July, 2010, her Excellency Patience Goodluck Jonathan
formed the “Women for Change Initiative” Ezeonu (2011). The Women for
Change Initiative is a Nigerian gender-focused movement charge with mobilization
of women into taking active interest in the affirmative attitudes of women’s
empowerment and gender party in the society, especially Nigeria. Its wide-raging
objective is the commitment to engendering the mass sensitization of women at all
levels to their human rights and obligations as Nigerian citizens (Ezeanou, 2011).
It thus seeks to advance strategies for gender equality, equity and promotion of
Affirmative Action principles and mechanisms for effective resources management
and accountability. It also strives to develop mechanisms, which could enhance the
legislative processes in Nigeria including domesticating international instruments
to which Nigeria is a signatory. Women’s participation in politics is also foremost
in its agenda as the first lady urged governors’ wives to prevail on their husbands
to ensure effective representation of women in state governance. This is
reminiscent of Plato’s recommendation that women be included among the
guardians of the state since such an arrangement will benefit the state immensely.
According to Ezeonu (2011) the initiative also hopes to necessitate a review
of electoral laws, tax laws, labour Act, property laws, Land Use Act, Marriage Act,
as well as criminal laws that continue to perpetuate discriminatory traditional
practices and norms against women. It equally hopes to achieve the recruitment of
women as a deliberate priority for constituency expansion and the promotion of
women’s economic empowerment through provision of microprint and
entrepreneurship skills sounds too good. But it may not seem so for such
misogynists like Friedrich Nietzsche the first lady declares thus, “my
improvements have been made over ultimate goal in all parts of the country is to
enlighten women and children to encourage their husbands so that all live in peace
with one another, which brings about meaningful development” Ezeonu (2011).
2.1.11 Problems Militating Against the Attainment of Gender Equality and
Women Empowerment in Nigeria
Women empowerment can be described as the provision of adequate
opportunities to women to develop their potentials and contribute to the
development of the nation in particular and contribute to the development of the
nation in particular and to the world in general. Adeqole (1997) described women
empowerment as the provision of conducive environment or opportunities to
women to contribute their quota to the social, political and economic development
of a nation. The disparities between Nigerians women and men in terms of
political, social, educational and economic achievements cannot be divorced from
some problems which hinder parity between the two groups. These problems are:
(a) Illiteracy: Culture and sub-cultures in Nigeria give preference to male children
as they are usually regarded as the heirs or the pillars of the family. Female
children are usually less privileged and consequently not given adequate
opportunity to acquire education and formal training. Umar (1996) noted that the
girl-child is values not for who she is, her potentials or achievements but for her
services, submissiveness ad at best good looks. He stated further that in any
traditional Nigerian community it is believed that the place of the girl- child and
subsequently women is in the kitchen or at home. He stressed further that women
in Nigeria are socialized into accepting the traditional roles of bearing and rearing
children and of maintaining the welfare of the family. Thus, in most parts of
Nigeria, particularly the rural setting, the education of the girl-child does not go
beyond what she needs to bear children and keep the home.
(b) Sex stereotype: During the period of socialization females are usually trained
to believe that there are different roles for males and females as well as the
superiority of males over the females (Yahaya, 1999). Generally, adults discourage
competition between females and males and the two groups are thus exposed to
different roles. The females are encouraged to be obedient, caring, kind and
appreciative while males are rewarded when they display aggression, decisiveness
and detachment (Rinehart and Kols, 1988). Some vocations or jobs are regarded as
men’s jobs (e.g engineering, carpentry and bricklaying) while some others are
designated as feminine (example, must, nursing teaching and trading).
(c) Rivalry among women: The Nigerian society seems to encourage women to
compete with one another in a subtle way. One may occasion, unhealthy rivalries
among women usually lead to envy and jealousy. This prevents women from being
team players and from supporting one another during the periods of need.
Consequently, most women perceive man’s domination as acceptable and
preferable to female domination. Shonekan (1999:21) proposed that:
Much as it is necessary for men to encourage women to get to management position it is equally important for women to re-examine themselves and resolutely aim for prime seats in the organization. They must abandon the almost imaginary belief that women leadership is the exception rather than the rule of our society.
(d) Insufficient need for power: Nigerian women are generally not “aggressive or
assertive” enough to seize leadership mantle from other male counterparts Steiner
and Miner (1977) observed that individuals who seek power will have to strive
hard to reach positions where they can exercise authority over others. Similarly,
Okojie (1990) stressed that people who lack power drive will find it difficult to
assume leadership position. This impediment may be attributed to low self-concept
on the part of Nigerian women most of women believe that the males are better
(than them) in human endeavours.
(e) Religious beliefs: The leadership of different religions in Nigeria have different
views as regards the position of women in wordily affairs. Some religious leaders
and their adherents strongly believe that women should only be seen but not heard.
Some view men as superior to women while few others see them as equals
(Yahaya, 1999:3). The difference in beliefs adversely affect the way women are
treated and the opportunities provided to them. In a similar view, Nwafor and
Ezegbe (1998) noted that religious beliefs in Nigeria hinder women empowerment
in several ways especially in women’s socio-economic ambitions.
(f) Discriminatory attitude of males: The Nigerian men have been in control of
political, economic as well as social spheres of life for many years. They have been
able to utilize the opportunity to their advantage and this does not given women
equal opportunities. For instance, some provisions in the federal constitution do not
favour women. Olawoye (1985) cited in Yahaya (1999) observed that many
provisions on inheritance and domestic violence have been described as more
favourable to the male gender than the female. Consequently, women experience
series of violence in the hands of men some of which are manifested in the form of
wife battering assault, acid-attack, sexual harassment, including rape, genital
mutilation, girl-child abuse, ritual murder and unfavourable widowhood practices.
(g) Low participation of women in politics: The level of women’s participation
in politics is still very low in Nigeria. Awe (1990) asserted that most women in
Nigeria do not usually contest elective posts but limit their activities to voting
during elections. Although, this attitude may be related to their level of education
and poor economic base, it has adverse effect on women’s struggle for
emancipation.
(h) Poor Economic base: Most Nigerian women are poor. This situation is related
to their low level of educational attainment. Poverty is reflected in almost all
aspects of an average Nigeria women’s life. Mbofung and Atinmo (1985) cited in
Yahaya (1999) observed in their study that the mean daily energy intake of 2,250
kcals, which is common among pregnant women in Nigeria, is very much lower
than that reported for pregnant women in developed nations. According to the
researchers’ the energy intake among pregnant women in Nigeria was inadequate
as most of them expanded about the same level of energy as they did before
pregnancy. The finding is glaring indication of poverty among Nigerian women.
2.1.12 Prospects of Gender Equality and Women Empowerment in Nigeria
The foregoing constraints notwithstanding, full actualization of the
potentials of Nigerian women is not beyond achievement in the next millennium.
In recent times, some gains have been made. For instance, Ezeani (2004) there are
now more women in low and middle management level job than it used to be. This
gives a prospect for more positions for women at top levels in the future. Also, the
enrolment of the girl-child at the different levels of education seems to be
increasing. Parents in some parts of Nigeria are now gradually embracing the idea
of providing educational opportunities to the female child but the need to reach
other parents who are still hostile to the idea of girl-child education cannot be over-
stressed. Dantiye and Garbe (1991) identified the common features of Nigerian
women as:
(a) tolerance and endurance;
(b) high need for association;
(c) frankness in matter they considered serious;
(d) persuasiveness;
(e) consideration and fairness;
(f) stubbornness to a belief;
(g) emotional stability, and
(h) forgiveness.
Most of thee characteristics of Nigerian women are needed to bail Nigeria out
of its present predicaments (example moral decadence and national instability). It
is therefore not out of place to state that Nigerian women should be empowered to
utilize their potentials (especially these identified characteristics) and contribute
their quota to the transformation of the country.
Adefarasin (1987) cited in Yahaya and Nwafor and Ezegbe (1998) observed
that in order to change a country’s vision and its sense of direction, the peoples
orientation has to change. According to her, to reach all the people, the women
should be reached first, since they influence the children, the family and the nation
at large.
2.2 Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were stated to guide this study:
H1: The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have made significant impact on
gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
H2:Non-governmental organizations are more active than governmental
organizations in the struggle for gender equality and women empowerment in
Nigeria.
H3: Socio-cultural beliefs and ineffective government policies on women
constrain achievement of MDGs gender equality and women empowerment in
Nigeria.
2.3 Operationalizatio of Key Concepts
The opperationalization of key concepts captures the technical meaning and
usage of the concepts in this research work. These concepts will facilitate the
understanding of the content of this study. The concepts are:
(i) Societal beliefs and perceptions: Societal beliefs as used here refer to
cultures, norms, values and traditions of a society which often shape the
psychological make up of the individuals in that society. In other words,
societal beliefs determine individual’s perceptions of things around him and
about himself.
(ii) Women empowerment: Woman as a concept is an adult female human
being. The word “woman” is an opposite sex to male. On the other hand,
women empowerment can be describe as any effort through public policy or
programme which aims to the provision of adequate opportunities to women to
develop their potentials and contribute meaningfully to societal development.
(iii) Governmental organizations and non-governmental organizations:
Governmental organizations are those public owned institutions or
agencies/bodies that operate and serve at public capacity while non-
governmental organizations are personal or private organizations that operate or
serve at civil capacity.
(iv) Socio-cultural factors: Socio-cultural factors are dominant issues and
challenges from cultural values, norms, traditions, social values, social relations
and social behaviour of people within a society. In other words, social values,
behavior and relations often define the cultural practices of a society. In this
study, the socio-culture factors focused on the social and cultural factors that
affect women empowerment.
2.4 Theoretical Framework
It is a tradition in the social sciences to adopt existing paradigms or theories
to enable us articulate our analysis. Theories are simply the foundations upon
which explanations or predictions can be made. In many ways, a theory is a guide
to action and an aid in search for the essential meaning of occurrence. Haralambos
(1980:2) cited in Anugwom and Okeibunor (2003) believes that a theory is a set of
interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions that present a
systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables with the
purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.
In this study, we shall adopt gender relative deprivation theory because of its
relevance in justifying the state of women empowerment and politics in Nigeria.
The genera relative deprivation theory, according to Lain and Heather (2002)
construct has been extensively used in social psychology, sociology, and other
social sciences for more than half a century. The proponents of this theory include
Tyler, Boeckmann, Smith, and Huo, 1957. Other supporters of the gender relative
deprivation theory are Miller, Bolce and Halligan (1977), Crosby, (1982) among
other. However, research on relative deprivation has always shown that the theory
first originated and was articulated by Stouffer and his colleagues in 1949 to
explain a series of unexpected relationships between feelings of satisfaction and
one’s position in the army. The seductive nature of Relative Deprivation (RD) as a
post hoc explanation led to a wide range of applications and definitions.
From the general view of the theorists, gender relative deprivation theory,
relative deprivation occurs when individuals or groups subjectively perceive
themselves as unfairly disadvantages over others perceived as having similar
attributes and deserving similar rewards (their reference group). In a similar view,
the Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia (2001), stated that relative deprivation is the
experience of being deprived of something to which one believes oneself to be
entitled to have. It refers to the discontent people feel when they compare their
positions to others and realize that they have less than them.
Schaefer defines it as the conscious experience of a negative discrepancy
between legitimate expectations and present actualities. It is a term used in social
sciences to describe feelings or measures of economic, political, or social
deprivation that are relative rather than absolute.
The theory is important because it looks into consequences for both
behaviour and attitudes, including feelings of stress, political attitudes and
participation in collection action. It is relevant to our subject matter considering the
strong believe that Nigerian women are under empowered and decimated against in
political activities especially as it involves participation and being elected and
appointed for positions.
Application of the Theory
The gender relative deprivation theory has so many significant justifications
to the problem under investigation or this research work. However, going by the
tenets of the theory, its advocacy is that deprivation occurs when individuals or
groups subjectively perceive themselves as unfairly disadvantages over others
perceived as having similar attributes and deserving similar rewards their
(reference group). Therefore in order to explicate the variables that form the basis
of this research topic, one needs to state that the need for women empowerment
arose from the recognition that women have been absolutely disenfranchised from
every angle of societal development task. The disenfranchisement was induced by
the opposite gender (men) who have always perceived the position of women in
the society as nothing but child-bearing instruments, tools for home management,
part of kitchen implements, and divinely ordained for domestic works.
Tendentiously, this view has continued uncivilized in developing countries
like Nigeria to work against any effort to empower women through quality
education, social exposition, provisions of economic opportunities, among others.
In this regard, women involvement in political, social, cultural and economic
activities are often seen as desecration of divine mandated or designated roles of
women in the society particularly in their homes. Evidently, this belief and
perception have a washed the policy- makers in Nigeria from initiating innovation
policies for the emancipation of women and empower them in their various
ambitions of life. One of the evidence to support our position here is the under
representation of women in public service especially in political positions (ie.
elective and appointive positions).
From the foregoing, it is believed that the gender relative deprivation of
women in the national development in Nigeria has caused an untold hardship to the
future of women in Nigeria. Today, the gender ratio poverty rate in Nigeria is more
high on the side of women following their poorly empowerment and
participation/involvement in decision-making to change their fortunes in the
society. For instance, political participation of the women in Nigeria has been
seriously underminded by poor economic power.
Given this scenario, men have continued to dominate the Nigerian politics, while
women are given a token proportion of the political positions below the 35 percent
of their demands even though it is below the 45 percent recommendation by the
United Nations.
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter deals with the methods adopted or taken in carrying out this
research. Research as Oguonu (2006) is a thorough, objective and systematic or
scientific investigation of a given phenomenon in order to arrive at knowledge or
new knowledge regarding the phenomenon. The following methods were adopted
in carrying out this study:
3.1 Research Design
A research design according to Nwanna (1981:54) is a term used to describe
a number of decision, which need to be taken regarding the collection of data
before ever the data are collected. Anikpo (1986:14) in his view defined research
design as a plan or structure of any aspect of the research procedure. According to
Black and Champion (1976:8) a research design provides the research with a blue
print for studying research problems, it dictates boundaries of research activity and
enables the investigator to channel his/her energies in specific directions.
The research design adopted for this study is historical and descriptive
approaches. This was done to enhance the possibility of having an-on-the spot
assessment of women empowerment and politics in Nigeria. It is important to
restate that this study dealt with issues that are key concern to women
empowerment and politics in Nigeria.
3.2 Sources of Data
In the process of carrying out this study, the data used were collected from
two major sources. These sources are the primary and secondary sources.
3.2.1 Primary Source of Data
The primary sources of data used for the analysis of the study are those
collected from the respondents through the designed questionnaire and oral
interview. The questionnaires were administered by the research to some women
within Nsukka community which included the University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Campus, members of Women Aid Collective Organization (WACOL) and others
who were staff of Nsukka Local Government as well as traders. Oral interview was
also conducted on some of the women who occupy public positions. This was done
to elicit further information from them concerning the issue under study (ie women
empowerment and politics in Nigeria).
3.2.2 Secondary Source of Data
The secondary data used in this study were collected from already written
books both published and unpublished that were found to be relevant for this study.
These already written works include by students.
3.3 Population of the Study
According to Odo (1992:44) specific population selected can be called a
universe of discourse. A population in research refers to animate and inanimate
things of which the study is focused. The population for this study taking
cognizance of the subject matter covered all the women in Enugu state. In other
words, the population of the study will focus on some specific women
groups/organizations both governmental and non-governmental organizations as
well as educated and uneducated women. Our reason to limit the population to
Enugu state was due to the largeness of the population and to narrow down the
research to a sizeable population.
3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Technique
Samples are normally used in studies that involve large population. The
reasons why samples are used include, the desire to adequately manipulate the
enormous population in order to avoid errors due to the calculation of large
numbers, and, the desire to reduce the cost of producing the questionnaire that will
cover the entire population. To determine the sample size for this study, the
researcher selected respondents from some specific women groups/organizations in
Enugu state mainly governmental and non-governmental organizations.
Specifically, the researcher focused on women holding governmental positions at
the state and local government level and those that are members of notable NGOs
in the state. The NGOs sampled for this study were Women Aids Collective
(WACOL) and Women for Development Change Initiative. From these specific
women groups, the researcher selected 20 respondents from the Enugu State
Government (.i.e. from women holding political positions and those in other public
service posts). In addition, another 20 respondents were selected from the two
NGOs-WACOL and Women for Development Change Initiative which means that
our sample size is 40.
It is also worthy to mention that the sampling technique used was stratified
random sampling. Stratified random sampling is a sampling technique which
allows for grouping of the universe into strata for easy identification and study. In
other words, the researcher grouped the respondents into four (2) strata which as
we stated earlier include women within the Enugu State Government and those
who are members of the two NGOs sampled for this study namely-WACOL and
Women for Development Change Initiative.
3.5 Instrumentation
According to Odo (1992:57) “instrumentation deals with the tools a
researcher/scientist employs to elicit information for data analysis”. Consequently
in the course of this research work, the instruments used were the questionnaire
administered to the women groups and oral interview.
In designing the questionnaire, both the close and open ended questions
were adopted. The close ended questions provided options for the respondents to
choose from. The options provided were “Strongly Agree”, “Agree”, “Undecided”,
“Disagree” and “Strongly Disagree”. On the other hand, the open ended questions
seek the respondents’ opinions or views on some issues raised in the questions
asked, which do not hunt the respondents to any particular choice rather, they can
freely express their opinion in their own words.
3.6 Validity and Reliability of Instrument
According to Obasi (2000:103); Black and Champman (1992) and Nachinias
and Nachimas (1981), the success of any research lies to a large extent on the
dependability of the data employed in analysis. This then raises the question of
validity and reliability.
Validity as the name implies is the appropriateness of an instrument in
measuring what is intended to measure. According to (Odo, 1992:50) validity is
the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure. Validity
therefore, occurs when a careful attempt has been made to ensure that an
instrument adopted measures achieve the desired results by applying the theoretical
knowledge in the filed about what is being studied and by convincing oneself
common sensically, that the items, in the instrument has been logically validated
Obasi (2000:104).
In validating our instruments for data collection, we shall be concerned with
establishing their content validity. We are doing this first, to ensure that they
measure what they are expected to measure and more importantly, because content
validity comprises of face validity, predictive and concurrent validity, construed
validity or criterion related or empirical validity Black and Chempion (1976:91).
We shall therefore, ensure that the questionnaire we shall use will be appropriately
structured; well worded and covers a good representation of women in Enugu state
both governmental and non-governmental level.
We shall ensure validity by insisting that our empirical measure adequately
reflects the real meaning of the concept under consideration. We shall employ
content or face validity method which will enable us to ensure that the instrument
we shall use will be valid. To ensure this, we must ensure that the questions in our
instruments are good ones. We must equally ensure that they are logically and
relevantly measuring what the instruments are set out to measure.
Reliability, on the other hand, refers to the ability of an instrument to
produce the same results consistently over some time when applied to the same
sample, Good and Hart (1952:86). The reliability of our instruments will be
assured by our consistency in our question and interview models. According to
Odoh (1992:54) reliability means consistency and it is the consistency of the test in
measuring whatever it purports to measure. We shall ensure reliability of our
instruments by ensuring that the question we shall pose in both questionnaire and
personal interview shall be in simple, good, precise and understandable form to the
respondents.
To ensure reliability, we shall use internal consistency method whereby
cross-checking questions are built into the questionnaire and oral interview. We
shall further ensure reliability by cross- checking our information against many
sources and by ensuring that facts and figures collected form various sources
earlier stated shall not only be accurate and authentic but would remain same if the
collection is repeated again and again.
In addition to the above measures aimed at ensuring validity and reliability
of the study, we shall employ external criterion to check how correct the findings
of a particular instruments are. We shall do this by comparing the result with
existing knowledge as well as our findings from field work, questionnaire, oral
interview, participant observation and content analysis. With the above processes,
the validity and reliability of the instruments as well as the study will be assured.
3.7 Method of Data Analysis
In analyzing the data collected, the researcher will be guided by the research
objectives, hypotheses, and research questions. Items on the questionnaire will be
spread out in order to capture the qualitative responses expected from the
respondents.
The study adopts the use of simple percentage, tables, and chi-square
methods for analysis of data. It is worthy to mention that the simple percentage and
chi-square methods will enable us to assess the proportional percentage of the
respondents’ opinions in the questions asked while chi-square will help us in
assessing the correlations of the variables in the research hypotheses. Hence, the
research will be guided by the formula:
n x 100 for simple percentage
N 1
Where, n = Number of the Respondents’ opinions
N = Total number of the Respondents’
100 = Percentage Constant Factor
1
For the calculation of chi-square, we shall use the formula;
X2 = ∑ Oij - Eij
Eji
Where Oij = Number observed in the ith row and jth column
Eij = The number expected in the cell under the null hypothesis and is
obtained by:
Eij = Lix x Mj
N
Where Li = Marginal row total
Mj = Marginal column total
N = Overall total or number of observations.
The chi-square utilizes what is called the degree of freedom and specified
test criteria. The degree of freedom (df) is simple:
Df = (r-1) (c-1)
Where, r = Number of rows
c = Number of columns.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
This chapter will focus on presentation and analysis of data collected from
both primary and secondary sources. The study will also test its research
hypotheses to ascertain their consistence with the findings. However, it is pertinent
to state that 40 questionnaires distributed or administered to respondents by the
researchers, were successfully recovered. This was possible because of the face to
face approach adopted by the researcher during the administration of the
questionnaire. Our data analysis will therefore focus on the 40 questionnaires
validated and recovered.
4.1 DATA PRESENTATION
Table 4.1
RESPONDENTS’ OPINIONS ON WHETHER THEY ARE AWARE OF
THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGs) PROGRAMMES
ON GENDER EQUALITY IN NIGERIA
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Aware 17 42.5
Aware 15 37.0
Undecided 0 0.0
Not Aware 6 15.0
Strongly Not Aware 2 5.0
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011
Table 4.1 above examines the respondents’ awareness on the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) programmes on gender equality in Nigeria. From the
table above, 17 respondents or 42.5% indicated strongly aware, 15 respondents or
37.0% indicated aware, none of the respondent indicated on the option
“undecided”, 6 respondents or 15.0% indicated not aware while 2 respondents or
5.0 indicated strongly not aware. Analytically, the table above suggested that
majority of the respondents were aware of the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) programmes on gender equality in Nigeria. On the other hand, some of
the respondents who indicated not aware and strongly not aware disclosed that they
did not know much on Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) but their
memberships to some associations have exposed them on gender equality
development programmes in Nigeria.
Table 4.2
RESPONDENTS EVALUATION OF THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT
GOALS (MDGs) IN ACHIEVING GENDER EQUALITY IN NIGERIA
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Highly satisfactory 0 0.0
Satisfactory 5 12.5
Undecided 0 0.0
Dissatisfactory 22 55.0
Highly dissatisfactory 13 32.5
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Table 4.1 examines the respondents’ evaluation of Millennium Development
Goals in achieving gender equality in Nigeria. From the data presented above,
none of the respondent accepted that it is highly satisfactory, 5 respondents or
12.5% rated it as satisfactory, 22 respondents or 55.0% rated it as dissatisfactory
while 13 respondents or 32.5% rated it as highly dissatisfactory. Assessment of the
respondents’ opinions further reviewed that gender equality development
programmes in Nigeria are still not encouraging to ensure the achievement of the
Millennium Development Goals on gender equality. Some of these respondents
made significant indications on their questionnaires to showcase their reasons for
evaluating that Millennium Development Goals is still dissatisfactory and strongly
dissatisfactory in achieving gender equality in Nigeria.
Table 4.3
RATING OF GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN
NIGERIA BY THE RESPONDENTS
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Highly satisfactory 0 0.0
Satisfactory 5 12.5
Undecided 0 0.0
Dissatisfactory 22 55.0
Highly dissatisfactory 13 32.5
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Table 4.3 examines the respondents opinions on whether the rate of women
empowerment and their participation in Nigerian politics is highly satisfactory,
satisfactory, dissatisfactory and highly dissatisfactory. From the data presented
above, none of the respondent accepted that it is highly satisfactory, 5 respondents
or 12.5% rated it as satisfactory, 22 respondents or 55.0% rated it as dissatisfactory
while 13 respondents or 32.5% rated it as highly dissatisfactory.
Table 4.4
RESPONDENTS’ VIEWS ON WHETHER GENDER EQUALITY AND
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT HAVE BEEN ENCOURAGED IN NIGERIA
BY THE GOVERNMENT AT ALL LEVEL TOWARDS ACHIEVING THE
MDGs GOAL THREE
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 2 5.0
Agree 15 37.0
Undecided 0 0.0
Disagree 17 42.5
Strongly Disagree 6 15.0
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Table 4.1 above, presented the respondents’ opinions on whether women
empowerment has been encouraged in Nigeria by the government. Our table of
data analysis shows that 2 respondents or 5.0% indicated strongly agree, 15
respondents or 37.0% agreed with the question asked, 17 respondents or 42.5%
indicated disagreed while 6 respondents or 15.0% strongly disagreed. None of the
respondent indicated on the option with undecided.
From the above data presentation, majority of the respondents were of the
view that women empowerment has not been well encouraged in Nigeria by the
government at all level towards achieving the number three goal of MDGs.
Table 4.5
RESPONDENTS’ OPINIONS ON WHETHER THERE ARE EFFECTIVE
GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN
EMPOWERMENT IN NIGERIA
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 3 7.5
Agree 15 37.0
Undecided 0 0.0
Disagree 16 40.0
Strongly Disagree 6 15.0
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Table 4.5 revealed the respondents views on whether there are effective
government policies on gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
Demonstratively, the table above shows that 3 respondents or 7.5% strongly agreed
while 15 respondents or 37.0% agreed that there are effective government policies
on gender equality and women empowerment.
On the other hand, none of the respondent indicated undecided, 16
respondents or 40.0% disagreed while 6 respondents or 15.0% strongly disagreed
that there are effective government policies on gender equality and women
empowerment. From oral interview conducted with some of these respondents, the
researcher observed that some respondents who agreed and strongly agreed that
there are effective government policies on gender equality and women
empowerment believed that the fourth republic administrations in Nigeria have
given more teeth to gender equality and women empowerment policies. These
respondents disclosed that evidence of effective government policies on gender
equality and women empowerment is shown in the increased number of women in
politics and other public positions. However, there were some respondents who
believed there are still no effective government policies on gender equality and
women empowerment considering the unequal number of men-women
representation in the public services in Nigeria.
Table 4.6
RESPONDENTS’ VIEW ON WHETHER SOCIETAL BELIEFS AND
PERCEPTIONS CONSTRAIN MOST OF THE MDGs AND GOVERNMENT
PROGRAMMES ON GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
IN NIGERIA
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 29 72.5
Agree 9 22.5
Undecided 0 0.0
Disagree 2 5.0
Strongly Disagree 0 0.0
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Table 4.6 examines whether societal beliefs and perceptions constrain most
of the MDGs and government programmes on gender equality and empowerment
in Nigeria. From the table 29 respondents or 72.5% strongly agreed while 9
respondents or 22.5% agreed that societal beliefs and perceptions constrain most of
the MDGs and government programmes on gender equality and women
empowerment in Nigeria. None of the respondent indicated on the option
undecided as represented by 0.0%.
On the other hand, only 2 respondents or 5.0% indicated disagree, while
none of the respondent answered strongly disagreed that societal beliefs and
perceptions constrain most of the MDGs and government programmes on gender
equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
Table 4.7
IDENTIFICATION OF SOCIETAL BELIEFS AND PERCEPTIONS THAT
CONSTRAIN GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN
NIGERIA
Constraints Identified Frequency Percentage (%)
Social constraints 11 27.5
Political constraints 7 17.5
Economic constraints 9 22.5
Cultural constraints 13 32.5
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
From the above table 4.7, the researcher presented the identified constraints
in four categories that is social, political, economic and cultural constraints that
limit gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria. As presented in the
table above, 11 respondents or 27.5% identified social constraints and from their
comments on the questionnaires, these respondents included women are often
perceived as household tools and not to partake in public services/politics,
segregations from their husbands and social institutions dominated by men
controls; women’s core obedience to their families care, among others. Also 7
respondents or 17.5% identified political constraints of which they said that many
women conceived and perceived that politics is a rough and dirty game, the nature
of Nigerian politics as a constraints; inability of political institutions to integrate
women; low and inability of government to promote massive policies on women
empowerment; etc are some political constraints.
Furthermore, 9 respondents or 22.5% identified economic constraints that
limit women empowerment. According to these respondents, lack of access of
resources, poor economic environment of the country and reluctant nature of some
women to take economic opportunities are some economic constraints that limit
gender equality and women empowerment. 13 respondents or 32.5% identified
cultural constraints and according to them traditions, norms and customs of some
communities and religious values and some people limit gender equality and
women empowerment.
Table 4.8
RESPONDENTS’ OPINIONS ON WHETHER SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS ARE KEY CONSTRAINTS TO GENDER EQUALITY/WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AND THEIR PARTICIPATIONS IN NIGERIA POLITICS
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 19 47.5
Agree 21 52.5
Undecided 0 0.0
Disagree 0 5.0
Strongly Disagree 0 0.0
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Table 4.8 revealed that in a question directed to ascertain the major key
constraints to gender equality/women empowerment and their participations in
Nigerian politics. Data presentation in the table shows that 19 respondents or
47.5% strongly agreed while 21 respondents or 52.5% agreed that socio-cultural
and economic factors are key constraints to gender equality/women empowerment
and their participations in Nigerian politics.
On the other hand, none of the respondent indicated on the options with
undecided, disagree, and strongly, disagree respectively. Finding shows that among
the constraints that affect gender equality/women empowerment and their
participations in Nigerian politics, the socio-cultural and economic factors the
key/major ones. Finding also shows that in table 4.7, the respondents’ identified
social, cultural and economic factors as constraints that affect gender
equality/women empowerment and their participations in Nigeria politics. This
finding also validates our research hypothesis which stated that socio-cultural
factors affect women empowerment and their participations in Nigerian politics.
Table 4.9
RESPONDENTS’ OPINIONS ON WHETHER SOME CULTURAL PRACTICES DISENFRANCHISE WOMEN FROM SELF-EMPOWERMENT IN NIGERIA
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 14 35.0
Agree 26 65.0
Undecided 0 0.0
Disagree 0 0.0
Strongly Disagree 0 0.0
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Table 4.9 examines whether some cultural practices disenfranchise women
from self-empowerment in Nigeria. From the table, 14 respondents or 35.0%
strongly agreed while 26 respondents or 65.0% agreed that some cultural practices
disenfranchise women from self-empowerment in Nigeria.
On the other hand, none of the respondent answered undecided, disagree and
strongly disagreed. This implies that the respondents accepted that some cultural
practices disenfranchise women from self empowerment in Nigeria. Most of the
respondents revealed and lamented that women have always been victims of
obnoxious cultural practices in virtually all parts of Nigeria.
Table 4.10
RESPONDENTS OPINIONS ON WHETHER SEGREGATION TO
DISCOURAGE PROMISCUITY HAS CONTRIBUTED TO WATER DOWN
MDGs TARGET ON GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN
NIGERIA
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 4 10.0
Agree 9 22.5
Undecided 0 0.0
Disagree 15 37.5
Strongly Disagree 12 30.0
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Analysis from table 4.10 shows that 4 respondents or 10.0% strongly agreed
while 9 respondents or 22.5% that segregation to discourage promiscuity has
contributed to water down MDGs target on gender equality and women
empowerment in Nigeria. On the other hand, 15 respondents or 37.5% disagreed
and 12 respondents or 30.0% strongly disagreed that segregation to discourage
promiscuity has contributed to water down MDGs target on gender equality and
women empowerment in Nigeria.
Evidence from the respondents showed that women have always been
segregated from all sectors of the human society especially in developing countries
like Nigeria. For instance, from the religious point of view, women are not given
the same status with men but have always been advised to stay below as helpers to
men. In regards to the question asked, the respondents said that it has been widely
asserted that allowing mixture of men and women in gatherings will encourage
promiscuity. In other words, seating arrangements are made to separate males from
females in public place like the churches, mosques, schools, community arena and
political rallies. This is an age-long practices, yet, promiscuity is on the increase
instead. In summary, the respondents remarked that such should be used as a factor
to slow down MDGs target on gender equality/women empowerment or
disenfranchised women from participating in politics.
Table 4.11
RESPONDENTS’ OPINIONS ON WHETHER MEN’S FEAR AND
RELUCTANCE TO INTEGRATE WOMEN INTO POLITICS SLOW
DOWN EFFORTS ON ACHIEVING MGDs GENDER EQUALITY AND
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN NIGERIA
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 13 32.5
Agree 15 37.5
Undecided 0 0.0
Disagree 8 20.0
Strongly Disagree 4 10.0
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
As depicted in the table 4.11 above, 13 respondents or 32.5% strongly
agreed while 15 respondents or 37.5% that men’s fear and reluctance to integrate
women into politics slow down efforts on achieving MDGs gender equality and
women empowerment in Nigeria. On the other hand, 8 respondents or 20.0%
disagreed that men’s fear and reluctance to integrate women into politics slow
down efforts on achieving MDGs gender equality and women empowerment in
Nigeria.
Findings from different opinion polls from the respondents in the oral
interview conducted by the researcher showed that men’s fear and reluctance to
integrate women into politics have always affected the initiation of gender equality
and women empowerment policies and programmes in Nigeria. Some respondents
who answered our research questionnaire disclosed that some men with ancient
orientation that women are not allowed to join some professions or occupations are
likely not support any policy or programme for gender equality and women
empowerment.
Table 4.12
RESPONDENTS’ OPINIONS ON WHETHER LACK OF EDUCATIONAL
EMPOWERMENT AFFECTS WOMEN IN THEIR SOCIO-ECONOMIC
OPPORTUNITIES IN LIFE AND GENDER EQUALITY IN POLITICAL
PARTICIPATION
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 22 55.0
Agree 18 45.0
Undecided 0 0.0
Disagree 0 0.0
Strongly Disagree 0 0.0
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Table 4.12 examines the respondents’ opinions on whether lack of
educational empowerment affects women in their socio-economic opportunities in
life and gender equality in political participation. From the demonstration of data
presentation above, 22 respondents or 55.0% strongly agreed while 18 respondents
or 45.0% agreed that lack of educational empowerment affects women in their
socio-economic opportunities in life and gender equality in political participation.
On the other hand, none of the respondents indicated on the options with
undecided, disagree and strongly disagree. In the general interpretation of the data
presented above, it is believed that lack of educational empowerment affects
women in their socio-economic opportunities in life and gender equality in
political participation.
Table 4.13 RESPONDENTS’ OPINIONS ON WHETHER LACK OF ACCESS TO RESOURCES OR ECONOMIC POWER CONTRAIN WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AND THEIR POLITICAL PARTICIPATION IN ACHIEVING MDGs GENDER EQUALITY IN NIGERIA Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 10 25.0
Agree 22 55.0
Undecided 0 0.0
Disagree 7 17.5
Strongly Disagree 1 2.5
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Table 4.13 examines whether lack of access to resources or economic power
constrain women empowerment and their political participation in achieving
MDGs gender equality in Nigeria, 10 respondents or 25.0% strongly agreed while
22 respondents or 55.0% agreed. On the other hand, 7 respondents or 17.5%
disagreed that lack of access to resources or economic power constrains women
empowerment and their political participations in achieving MDGs gender equality
in Nigeria.
From the effort by the researcher to ascertain further how lack of access to
resources or economic power constrain women empowerment and their political
participations, most of our respondents disclosed in the oral interview that
economic power is important in empowering women and without it empowerment
may be strangulated. They further revealed that resources or economic power is
important to give women quality education or secure other opportunities such as
engaging in politics, trade, undergoing training skills acquisition programmes, etc.
Table 4.14
RESPONDENTS’ OPINIONS ON WHETHER WOMEN’S PERCEPTION OF
THEMSELVES AND ACCEPTANCE OF THEIR POSITIONS LIMIT THEIR
DESIRES FOR EMPOWERMENT AND GENDER EQUALITY IN NIGERIA
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 17 42.5
Agree 13 32.5
Undecided 0 0.0
Disagree 7 17.5
Strongly Disagree 3 7.5
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
The interpretations and observation based on the data presented with respect
to the question asked on whether women’s perception of themselves and
acceptance of their positions limit their desires for empowerment and gender
equality in Nigeria. The responses in table 4.14 showed that 17 respondents or
42.5% strongly agreed while 13 respondents or 32.5% agreed to the question
asked. On the other hand, 7 respondents or 17.5% disagreed while 3 respondents or
7.5% strongly disagreed to the question asked.
Finding shows that majority of the respondents were of the view that
women’s perception of themselves and acceptance of their positions limit their
desires for empowerment, gender equality and their political participations in
Nigeria.
Table 4.15
RESPONDENTS’ OPINIONS ON WHETHER THEY CONSIDER WOMEN’S INCAPABILITY TO HANDLING SOCIAL PROBLEMS AS LIMITATIONS IN ACHIEVING MDGs GENDER EQUALITY ESPECIALLY IN INVOLVING THEM IN POLITICAL ACTIVITIES
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 13 32.5
Agree 15 37.5
Undecided 0 0.0
Disagree 8 20.0
Strongly Disagree 4 10.0
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Table 4.15 investigates whether the respondents consider women’s
incapability to handling social problems as limitations in achieving MDGs gender
equality and women empowerment especially in involving them in political
activities. From the table, 13 respondents or 32.5% strongly agreed while 15
respondents or 37.5% agreed. On the other hand, 8 respondents or 20.0% disagreed
while 4 respondent or 10.0% strongly disagreed.
In essence, what the above data depicts is that it is often believed that
women are incapable to handle social problems and this limits collective efforts by
the women to advocate for gender equality and women empowerment as well as
their involvement in political activities in Nigeria. However, oral interview
conducted to some of the respondents showed that this belief is false or a fallacy
considering the achievements of some women in Nigerian public services.
Table 4.16
RESPONDENTS’ ASSESSMENT OF GOVERNMENTAL AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL EFFORTS TO SURMOUNT THE CHALLENGES FACING MDGs TARGET IN ACHIEVING GENDER EQUALITY/WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AND THEIR PARTICIPATIONS IN POLITICS IN NIGERIA ARE SUFFICIENT Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 13 32.5
Agree 17 42.5
Undecided 0 0.0
Disagree 7 27.0
Strongly Disagree 3 7.5
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Table 4.16 examines the respondents on whether there are governmental and
non-governmental efforts to surmount the challenges facing MDGs target in
achieving gender equality/women empowerment and their participations in politics
in Nigeria are sufficient. The tabulation of data in the table shows that 13
respondents or 32.5% strongly agreed while 17 respondents or 42.5% agreed to the
question. On the other hand, 7 respondents or 17.5% disagreed while 3 respondents
or 7.5% strongly disagreed to the question.
However, efforts were also made to assess the comparative contributions of
governmental and non-governmental agencies in tackling the problems of gender
equality/women of empowerment and their participations in politics. In that
regards, the respondents confirmed that non-governmental organizations or
agencies are more committed to the struggle for gender equality and women
empowerment that governmental agencies. Emphases were made to some non-
governmental women organizations as examples such as Women for Change
Initiative, Women Aids Collective (WACOL), Women Co-operative Societies,
among others.
Table 4.17
RESPONDENTS OPINIONS ON WHETHER NON-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATIONS (NGOs) ARE MORE ACTIVE THAN GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATIONS IN THE STRUGGLE FOR ACHIEVING GENDER
EQUALITY AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN NIGERIA
Options Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 13 32.5
Agree 17 45.5
Undecided 0 0.0
Disagree 7 17.5
Strongly Disagree 3 7.5
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
From the above table, it is clear that the respondents reinforced their
opinions in table 4.16 again to support that they believe that non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) are more active than governmental organizations in the
struggle for achieving MDGs gender equality and women empowerment in
Nigeria. Analytically, 13 respondents or 42.5% strongly agreed while 17
respondents or 42.5% agreed. On the other hand, 7 respondents or 17.5% strongly
disagreed while 3 respondents or 7.5% disagreed to the question asked.
Finding shows that to the respondents, non-governmental organizations are
more active than governmental organizations in the struggle for achieving gender
equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
Table 4.18
RESPONDENTS’ SUGGESTIONS ON IMPROVING THE ACHIEVEMENT OF
THE MDGs GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN
NIGERIA
Identified Suggestions Frequency Percentage (%)
Elimination of cultural discrimination against
women
14 35.0
Ensuring good education of women 9 22.5
Government policy support 10 25.0
Gender sensitization 7 17.5
Total 40 100
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Table 4.18 above reviewed the suggestions identified by the respondents in
ensuring that MDGs gender equality and women empowerments as well as
effective participation of women in politics are achieved in Nigeria. From the table
4.18 above, 14 respondents or 35.0% identified that elimination of cultural
discrimination against women is imperative in ensuring and improving women
empowerment, 9 respondents or 22.5% suggested that ensuring good education of
women will also improve their empowerment and achievement of MDGs gender
equality while 10 respondents or 25.0% suggested that there is very need for
government policy support for gender equality and women empowerment. Last but
not the least, is the identification of the need for adequate gender sanitization by
the governmental and non-governmental organizations by 7 respondents or 17.5%.
Findings from the above table revealed that achieving women empowerment
in Nigeria must consider the elimination of cultural discrimination against women,
good education for women, government policy support and gender sensitization by
women themselves, governmental and non-governmental organizations.
Test of Hypotheses
The assumptions contained in the research hypotheses of this study will be
subjected to chi-square test to reinforce our analysis and interpretations in the
findings. The research will test these hypotheses using 5% level of significance to
ascertain the validity and to test whether or not there is any relationship between
set of variables and another. In general, three hypotheses were formulated, and
using the chi-square x2 formula.
Chi-square formula
X2 = ∑ Oij-Eij
Eij
Where, Oij = the number observed in the row and jth column. Eij = the number
expected in the cell under the null hypotheses and is obtained by:
Eil = Li x Mj
N
Where Li = marginal row total
Mj = marginal column total
N = overall total or number of observations
The chi-square utilizes what is called the degree of freedom and specified
test criteria. The degree of freedom (df) is simply:
DF = (r-1) (c-1)
Where, r = number of rows
c = number of columns
Statement of Hypotheses
The three hypotheses formulated to be tested in this study are restated
below:
Hypothesis one: The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have made
significant impact on gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
Hypothesis two: Non-governmental organizations are more active than
governmental organizations in the struggle for gender equality and women
empowerment in Nigeria.
Hypothesis three: Socio-cultural beliefs and ineffective government policies on
women constrain achievement of MDGs gender equality and women
empowerment in Nigeria.
Decision Rule
If the calculated value is greater than the table value, reject the null
hypothesis (Ho) and accept the alternative (Ha) at 0.05% level of significance.
Research Hypothesis One
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have made significant impact on
gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
Table 4.19
RESPONDENTS OPINIONS ON WHETHER THE MILLENNIUM
DEVELOPMENT GOALs HAVE MADE SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON
GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN NIGERIA
Table of Observed Responses
Categories of Respondents SA A D SD U Total
Women at the State Executive Level 9 1 0 0 0 10
Women at the State House of Assembly 7 2 1 0 0 10
Women at Local Government Level 7 2 1 0 0 10
Women from WALCO and Women for
Development Change Initiatives
6 4 0 0 0 10
Total 29 9 2 0 0 40
Where, SA = Strongly Agree
A = Agree
U = Undecided
D = Disagree
SD = Strongly Disagree
The hypothesis shall be tested at 0.05 level of significance in order to
determine its correlation with our research findings.
Computation of expectation (e)
e1 29 X 10 = 7.25
40
e2 9 x 10 =2.25
40
e3 2 X 10 = 0.5
40
e4 0 X 10 = 0
40
e5 0 X 10 = 0
40
e6 29 X 10 = 7.25
40
e7 9 X 10 = 2.2 5
40
e8 2 X 10 = 0.5
40
e9 0 X 10 = 0
40
e10 0 X 10 = 0
40
e11 29 X 10 = 7.25
40
e12 9 X10 = 2.25
40
e13 2 X 10 = 0.5
40
e14 0 X 10 = 0
40
e15 0 X 10 = 0
40
TABLE FOR COMPUTATION OF CHI- SQUARE
O e o-e (o-e)2 (o-e)2
e 9 7.25 1.75 3.0625 0.42
1 2.25 -1.25 1.5625 0.69
0 0.5 -0.5 0.25 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
7 7.25 -0.25 0.0625 0.01
2 2.25 -0.25 0.0625 0.03
1 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
7
2
1
0
0
7.25
2.25
0.5
0
0
1.25
-0.25
0.25
0
0
1.5625
0.0625
0.25
0
0
0.22
0.03
0.5
0
0
6
4
2.25 1.75 3.0625 1.36
0 0.5 -0.5 0.25 0.25
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
(X2) chi- square calculated 3.98
Source: Research Data 2011.
Obtain the x2 table value using the degree of freedom and level of
significance given at 0.05 and df (r-1) (c-1). From our table of observed responses,
the degree of freedom is (4-1) (5-1) = 3x4 = 12.
As stated earlier, the level of significance is 0.05 and with the degree of
freedom (df) at 12, the researcher now refer to the table of sampling distribution
chi-square for 12 df at 0.05 level of significance is 21.026.
Decision Rule:
Reject Ho if chi-square calculated is > (greater than) chi-square X2 critical
value and do not reject Ho is otherwise.
Conclusion
Since chi-square calculated value (3.98) is less than chi-square critical or
tabulated value at 0.05 level of significance at 12 df, we therefore accept the
hypothetical statement that Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have made
significant impact on gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
Analytically, the Millennium Development Goals have impact on gender equality
and women empowerment in Nigeria through its programmes and awareness on
gender equality and women empowerment in all nook and cranny of Nigeria.
Analytically, the impact of the MDGs should be assessed from the relative increase
in number of women in the public positions.
Research Hypothesis Two:
Non- governmental organizations are more active than governmental
organizations in the struggle for gender equality and women empowerment in
Nigeria.
Question analyzed in table 4.15 would be used to test the hypothesis above.
Table 4.20
RESPONDENTS OPINIONS ON WHETHER NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS ARE MORE ACTIVE THAN GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATIONS IN THE STRUGGLE FOR EQUALITY AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN NIGERIA.
TABLE FOR OBSERVED RESPONSES
Categories of Respondents SA A D SD U Total
Women at the State Executive Level 7 2 1 0 0 10
Women at the State House of Assembly 5 4 0 0 0 9
Women at the Local Government Level 1 3 4 2 1 10
Women from WALCO and Women for
Development Change Initiative
0 8 2 1 0 11
Total 13 17 7 3 0 40
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Where, SA = Strongly Agree
A = Agree
U = Undecided
D = Disagreed
SD = Strongly Disagree
The hypothesis shall be tested at 0.05 level of significance in order to
determine its correlation with our research findings.
e1 13 X 10 = 3.25
40
e2 17 x 10 = 4.25
40
e3 7 X 10 = 1.75
40
e4 3 X 10 = 0.75
40
e5 0 X 10 = 0
40
e6 13 X 9 = 2.92
40
e7 17 X 9 = 3.82
40
e8 7 X 9 = 1.57
40
e9 3 X 9 = 0.67
40
e10 0 X 9 = 0
40
e11 13 X 10 = 3.25
40
e12 17 X10 = 4.25
40
e13 7 X 10 = 1.75
40
e14 3 X 10 = 0.75
40
e15 0 X 10 = 0
40
e16 13 X 11 = 3.57
40
e17 17 X11 = 4.67
40
e18 7 X 11 = 1.92
40
e19 3 X 11 = 0.82
40
e20 0 X 11 = 0
40
TABLE FOR COMPUTATION OF CHI-SQUARE
o e o-e (o-e)2 (o-e)2
E
7 3.25 -3.75 14.0625 4.32
2 4.25 -2.25 5.0625 1.19
1 1.75 -0.75 1.5 0.32
0 0.75 -0.75 0.5625 0.75
0 0 0 0 0
5 2.92 2.08 4.3264 1.48
4 3.82 0.18 0.0324 0.01
0 1.57 -1.57 2.4649 1.57
0 0.67 0.67 0.4489 0.67
0 0 0 0 0
1 3.25 -2.25 5.0625 1.55
3 4.25 1.25 1.5625 0.36
4 1.75 2.25 5.0625 2.89
2 0.75 1.25 1.5625 2.08
1 0 1 1 1.0
0 3.57 -3.57 12.7449 3.57
8 4.67 3.33 11.0889 2.37
2 1.92 0.08 0.0064 0.00
1 0.82 0.18 0.0324 0.04
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
(X2) Chi-square calculated 24.17
Source: Research Data, 2011.
Obtain the X2 table value using the degree of freedom and level of
significance given at 0.05 and df (r-1) (c-1). From our table of observed responses,
the degree of freedom is (4-1) (5-1) = 3 x4 = 12.
As stated earlier, the level of significance is 0.05 and with the degree of
freedom (df) at 12, he research now refer to the table of sampling distribution, chi-
square for 12 df at 0.05 level of significance is 21.026.
Decision Rule:
Reject Ho if chi-square calculated is > (greater than) chi-square X2 critical
value and do not reject Ho if otherwise.
Conclusion:
Drawing inference from the data analysis, it is observed that the calculated
value of (X2) chi-square which is 24.17 is greater than (X2) chi-square tabulated
which is 21.026 from the table value. Analytically, from the decision rule which
stated that we should reject Ho if chi-square calculated is greater than chi-square
X2 critical value and do not reject Ho if otherwise, our research hypothesis which
stated that non-government organizations are more active than governmental
organizations in the struggle for gender equality and women empowerment in
Nigeria is therefore rejected. Our rejection of the above hypothesis does not mean
that there is correlation between our findings in the respondents’ data and the
research hypothesis, but statistically, it can be argued that government organization
are the state agencies that make policies and regulate every action in the state
including the actions of non-governmental bodies. Therefore, it can be argued that
non-governmental organizations are directed by the government policies in any
effort to actualize gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
However, the point we want to establish is that non-governmental
organizations perform significant role in the struggle for gender equality and
women empowerment in Nigeria. Their activities and programmes are positively
felt on issues involving gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
Research Hypothesis Three:
Socio-cultural beliefs and ineffective government policies on women constrain
achievement of MDGs gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
Table 4.19
RESPONDENTS OPINIONS ON WHETHER SOCIO-CULTURAL BELIEFS AND INEFFECTIVE GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON WOMEN CONSTRAIN ACHIEVEMENT OF MDGs GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN NIGERIA Table of Observed Responses
Categories of Respondents SA A D SD U Total
Women at the State Executive Level 9 1 0 0 0 10
Women at the State House of Assembly 7 2 1 0 0 10
Women at Local Government Level 7 2 1 0 0 10
Women from WALCO and Women for
Development Change Initiatives
6 4 0 0 0 10
Total 29 9 2 0 0 40
Where, SA = Strongly Agree
A = Agree
U = Undecided
D = Disagree
SD = Strongly Disagree
The hypothesis shall be tested at 0.05 level of significance in order to
determine its correlation with our research findings.
Computation of expectation (e)
e1 29 X 10 = 7.25
40
e2 9 x 10 =2.25
40
e3 2 X 10 = 0.5
40
e4 0 X 10 = 0
40
e5 0 X 10 = 0
40
e6 29 X 10 = 7.25
40
e7 9 X 10 = 2.2 5
40
e8 2 X 10 = 0.5
40
e9 0 X 10 = 0
40
e10 0 X 10 = 0
40
e11 29 X 10 = 7.25
40
e12 9 X10 = 2.25
40
e13 2 X 10 = 0.5
40
e14 0 X 10 = 0
40
e15 0 X 10 = 0
40
TABLE FOR COMPUTATION OF CHI- SQUARE
O e o-e (o-e)2 (o-e)2
E 9 7.25 1.75 3.0625 0.42
1 2.25 -1.25 1.5625 0.69
0 0.5 -0.5 0.25 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
7 7.25 -0.25 0.0625 0.01
2 2.25 -0.25 0.0625 0.03
1 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
7
2
1
0
0
7.25
2.25
0.5
0
0
1.25
-0.25
0.25
0
0
1.5625
0.0625
0.25
0
0
0.22
0.03
0.5
0
0
6
4
2.25 1.75 3.0625 1.36
0 0.5 -0.5 0.25 0.25
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
(X2) chi- square calculated 3.98
Source: Research Data 2011.
Obtain the x2 table value using the degree of freedom and level of
significance given at 0.05 and df (r-1) (c-1). From our table of observed responses,
the degree of freedom is (4-1) (5-1) = 3x4 = 12.
As stated earlier, the level of significance is 0.05 and with the degree of
freedom (df) at 12, the researcher now refer to the table of sampling distribution
chi-square for 12 df at 0.05 level of significance is 21.026.
Decision Rule:
Reject Ho if chi-square calculated is > (greater than) chi-square X2 critical
value and do not reject Ho is otherwise.
Conclusion
Since chi-square calculated value (3.98) is less than chi-square critical or
tabulated value at 0.05 level of significance at 12 df, we therefore accept the
hypothetical statement that socio-cultural beliefs and ineffective government
policies constrain achievement of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) gender
equality and women empowerment in Nigeria. Analytically, our findings and
observations showed that there are socio-cultural beliefs or practices which have
continued to slow down any effort targeted at achieving gender equality and
women empowerment in Nigeria. In other words, it is also revealed that these
socio-cultural beliefs have negative impact on the Millennium Development Goals
target on gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria. The truth is that
they affect the initiation and implementation of policies on gender equality and
women empowerment in different communities, local governments, states and
federal governments.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
Our discussion so far in this study has concentrated on the assessing the
Millennium Development Goals on gender equality in Nigeria from 2005-2010.
The study critically reviewed the dominant issues on gender equality and women
empowerment in Nigeria as well as tracing the historical background of the
struggle on gender equality and women empowerment in the world generally and
Nigeria in particular. Also efforts were made to examine the need for gender
equality and women empowerment, past and current government programmes on
gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria as well as the challenges to
gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
The study however maintains that gender equality and women empowerment
is imperative to ensure their effective participations in the government of the
society. In this study, we have unveiled some of the factors responsible for poor
political participation of women in Nigeria and some of these factors are merely
socio-cultural fallacies. Though, evidence from our findings indicated that the
societal beliefs and perception of women as apolitical genders create a wide
inequality of men and women political participation in Nigeria. Therefore, the
major objectives of carrying out this research is to examine the extent at which
societal beliefs and perceptions constrain women empowerment and their active
political participation in Nigeria; examine the strategies employ by the
governmental and non-governmental organizations in championing the struggle for
women empowerment and their active involvement in political activities in
Nigeria. Other objectives are to ascertain whether there are women empowerment
policies and programmes initiated by the government in the fourth republic in
Nigeria; identify factors militating against women empowerment and their
effective participation in politics; and suggest measures towards improving
effective women empowerment in Nigeria.
The study explored the views, opinions and ideas of some scholars on
gender studies in Nigeria to present a holistic investigation on the subject matter.
The study inclined itself to the gender relative deprivation theory to justify the
inequality of women participation in Nigerian politics. In the methodology, the
study utilized both primary and secondary sources of data collection. The else of
simple percentage and chi-square were used to analyze the data collected.
However, the critical examination of the problem under review made the following
findings:
(i) That the societal beliefs and perceptions constrain gender equality and
women empowerment as well as their political participation in Nigeria;
(ii) Government policies to promote gender equality and women
empowerment in Nigeria are still not enough to achieve the Millennium
Development Goals targets 2015.
(iii) Poor education of women also contributes to lower efforts towards
gender equality as well as the political participation of women in Nigeria.
(iv) Socio-cultural and economic factors are major challenging to gender
equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
(v) Government and non-governmental organizations are all in the struggle
to actualize gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria.
5.2 Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study and the imperative nature of the subject
matter under review, the researcher made the following recommendations:
1. The need to ensure the elimination of all the obnoxious cultural practices
against women in Nigeria should be advocated by the government, religious
leaders, traditional rules and other relevant stakeholders of the Nigerian
society. This will help.
2. More legal provisions should be made by the government to ensure the
protection of women against any socio-cultural violation. This will go a long
way in serving as deterrent to any person or community that is anti-women
empowerment.
3. Also more legal provisions should be made by the government to ensure that
education of all women in the country is guaranteed. Women education
should be given the assistance and encouragement of both the families and
the government. This is because education of women will not only liberate
them from ignorance but will give them golden opportunities to contribute
their quota to the national development.
4. Adequate women sanitization should be vigorously pursued through women
to women campaign, the National Orientation Agency, National
Commission for Women, Ministry of Women Affairs and other relevant
government organizations. In addition, there is need to give support to non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) in their efforts to campaign for women
empowerment and sanitize the society on the dangers of under-
empowerment of women.
5. To ensure adequate participation and representation of women in the
government, more legal provisions should be made by the government to
ensure the participation of women in politics. In concrete terms, at least 40
percent of all appointive key positions at all levels of government should be
reserved for women. Similar provisions should be made for all elective
positions.
6. The government should examine the various regulations governing election
expenses with a view to ensuring that it is affordable to both men and
women. Where necessary, the government should give financial assistance
to women aspirants in view of their poor economic base.
7. Establishment of centres for women empowerment should be considered
important in order to train those who may have interest in other areas other
than politics.
5.3 Conclusion
So far in this study, we have argued that Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) have made concentrated in showcasing the imperative need for women
empowerment and their involvement in political activities or governance of
Nigeria. Indeed, women empowerment especially their involvement and
participation in democratic governance is a global imperative and Nigeria cannot
be an expectation. Yet, there are many fallacies and constraints hindering effective
participation of women in the Nigerian politics. In other words, the societal beliefs
and perception of women in Nigeria have always slow down the desire to empower
women and give them a sense of belonging in the governance of their fatherland.
This study make bold to say that until women are effectively educated and
empowered to participate, the so called democratic government might by
monopolized by men, who are in the minority of Nigerian population.
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QUESTIONNAIRE
Department of Public Administration
And Local Government,
Faculty of Social, Sciences,
University of Nigeria,
Nsukka.
Dear Respondent,
This questionnaire is part of a research project on “Assessing the impact of
Millennium Development on gender equality in Nigeria 2005-2010” being carried
out as part of the requirement for the award of the Master of Science (M.Sc) Public
Administration.
You have been selected as a respondent because of your awareness on the
Millennium Development Goals and government programmes on gender equality
in Nigeria.
Please, answer the questions that follow honestly. All information supplied
would be used in confidence and solely for academic analysis.
Thanks for the anticipated co-operation.
Eyiuche Catherine N.
Pg/M.Sc/10/52574
PALG, UNN
SECTION A (PERSONAL DATA)
Please provide the following information
1) What is your sex?
(a) Male (b) Female
2) Your age bracket is?
(a) Below 18 years (b) 18 – 25 years (c) 26 – 35 years
(d) 36 years and above
3) What is your academic qualification?
(a) WASC/GCE/SSCE/NECO (b) NCE/HND/Degree
(c) Others specify ------------------------------------------------------------
4) What is your marital status?
(a) Single (b) Married (c) Widow (d) Widower
5) Your religion is?
(a) Christianity (b) Muslim/ Islam (c) Traditionalist
6) Please specify your occupation………………………………………..
SECTION B (QUESTIONNAIRE DATA FOR OUR RESPONDENTS ON
IMPACT OF MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS ON GENDER
EQUALITY IN NIGERIA 2005-2010)
7) Are you aware of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) programmes on
gender equality in Nigeria?
(a) Strongly Aware (b) Aware (c) Undecided
(d) Not Aware
8) How would you evaluate the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in
achieving gender equality in Nigeria?
(a) Highly satisfactory (b) Satisfactory (c) Undecided
(d) Dissatisfactory (e) Highly Dissatisfactory
9) How would you rate gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria?
(a) Highly satisfactory (b) Satisfactory (c) Undecided
(d) Dissatisfactory (e) Highly Dissatisfactory
8) Do you believe that gender equality and women empowerment has been
encouraged in Nigeria by the government at all level towards achieving the third
MDGs target?
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Undecided
(d) Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree
9) Do you believe that there are effective government policies on gender equality
and women empowerment in Nigeria?
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Undecided
(d) Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree
10) Do you agree that societal beliefs and perceptions constrain most of the
Millennium Development Goals and government programmes on gender equality
and women empowerment in Nigeria?
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Undecided
(d) Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree
11) Please mention some of the societal beliefs and perceptions in your area that
constrain gender equality and women empowerment.
a.) ……………………………………………………..
b.) …………………………………………………….
c.) …………………………………………………….
d.) ……………………………………………………..
e.) ………………………………………………………
12) Do you believe that socio-cultural and economic factors are key constraints to
women empowerment and their participations in politics?
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Undecided
(d) Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree
13) Do you believe that some cultural practices disenfranchise women from self-
empowerment in Nigeria?
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Undecided
(d) Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree
14) Do you believe that segregation to discourage promiscuity has contributed to
water down MDGs target on gender equality and women empowerment in
Nigeria?
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Undecided
(d) Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree
15) Do you believe that men’s fear and reluctance to integrate women into politics
slows down efforts on achieving MDGs gender equality and women empowerment
in Nigeria?
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Undecided
(d) Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree
16) Do you agree that lack of educational empowerment affects women in their
socio-economic opportunities in life and gender equality in political participation
in Nigeria?
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Undecided
(d) Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree
17) Do you believe that lack of access to resources or economic power constrain
women empowerment and their political participation in achieving MDGs gender
equality in Nigeria?
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Undecided
(d) Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree
18) Do you believe that women perceptions of themselves and acceptance of their
positions limit their desires for empowerment and gender equality in Nigeria?
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Undecided
(d) Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree
19) Do consider women incapability to handling social problems as limitations in
achieving MDGs gender equality and women empowerment especially in
involving them in political activities?
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Undecided
(d) Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree
20) Do you think that governmental and non-governmental efforts to surmount the
challenges facing MDGs target in achieving gender equality/women empowerment
and their participation in politics in Nigeria are sufficient?
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Undecided
(d) Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree
21) Do you think that non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are more active
than governmental organizations in the struggle for achieving gender equality and
women empowerment in Nigeria?
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Undecided
(d) Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree
22) What are your suggestions towards improving the achievement of MDGs
gender equality and women empowerment in Nigeria? Please mention them below.
a) ------------------------------------------------------------------
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