Cornput., Environ. and Uhn Systems, Vol. 16, pp. 531441.1992 Printed in the USA. All rights reserved.

0196~9715/92 $5.00 + .OO Copyright 0 1992 Pergamon Press Ltd.

THE IMPACT OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATI,ON SYSTEMS ON BRITISH LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Heather Campbell

Department of Town and Regional Planning, University of Sheffield

ABSTRACT. There is increasing recognition that personal, organisational and institutional factors are likely to have a profound influence on the extent to which the potential of geographic information systems (GIS) will be realised in practice. One of the most important groups of users of GIS is local government. It is generally assumed that the costs of equipment and data preparation combined with the capacity of GIS to integrate data sets from a wide variety of sources makes the development of departmental systems inappropriate. As a result, the implementation of GIS is likely to be accompanied by an extension of corporate activities which could have important implications for existing practices in local government. However, as yet, little systematic analysis has been undertaken which evaluates the underlying assumptions concerning the process of implementing GIS. With these considerations in mind this paper outlines the conceptual framework and methodology for a project currently underway in Britain, which is exploring the relationship between the organisational context into which GIS are being introduced and the development of corporate practices in local government.

INTRODUCTION

Technological progress in the last few years has removed many of the barriers which inhibited the development of geographic information systems (GIS). It is generally agreed that the poten- tial of this technology to store, manipulate and display spatial data is considerable. However, the introduction of GIS technology involves the complex process of managing change within envi- ronments which are typified by uncertainty, entrenched institutional procedures and individual staff members with conflicting personal motivations. Given these circumstances, personal, organisational and institutional factors are likely to have a profound influence on the extent to which the opportunities offered by GIS will be realised in practice (Audit Commission, 1990, Campbell, 1991; Department of the Environment, 1987; Willis & Nutter, 1990).

One of the most important groups of users of GIS is local government. The range of poten- tial applications in this field is considerable, extending from property registers and highways management to emergency and land use planning. It is generally assumed that the costs of equipment and data preparation combined with the capacity of GIS to integrate data sets from a

Please send reprint requests to Heather Campbell, Regional Research Laboratory Initiative, Department of Town and Regional Planning, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, SIO 2TN, UK.

531

532 t-l. Campbell

wide variety of sources makes the development of departmental systems inappropriate (Gault & Peutherer, 1989; Grimshaw, 1988; Coulson & Bromley, 1990). As a result of widespread acceptance of the strategic and efficiency benefits associated with increased levels of information sharing between departments, it is likely the implementation of GIS will be accompanied by an extension of corporate activities, which in turn has significant implications for the development of administrative practices in local government.

Given the theoretical advantages of adopting a corporate approach, there are an increasing number of accounts indicating that in practice the realisation of these benefits may be more dif- ficult than generally envisaged (Cane, 1990; Craglia, 1992; Openshaw, Cross, Charlton, Brunsdon, & Lillie, 1990; Winter, 1991). It is clear from these descriptions that users even in similar types of organisations are encountering mixed results. However, as yet little systematic analysis has been undertaken which evaluates the underlying assumptions concerning the pro- cess of implementing GIS and thereby provides a benchmark against which these isolated accounts can be assessed (Onsrud & Pinto, 1991).

With these considerations in mind, the paper outlines the conceptual framework and method- ology for a project currently underway in Britain, which is investigating the relationship between the organisational context into which GIS are being introduced and the development of corporate working in local government. The research concentrates on the process of imple- mentation as this is the medium through which technology is integrated into the operations of an organisation. The manner in which implementation is undertaken is therefore critical in ensuring the effective utilisation of the information generated. Due to the frequent integration of new elements into existing systems, implementation is regarded by the research as an on- going process involving repeated cycles of development, learning and routine use, with each of these cycles entailing the complex process of managing change.

The paper has been divided into three sections. The first examines two important sets of con- cepts. These are the nature of technology and the characteristics of the organisations within which such systems are located. In the light of this discussion, the final part of the section defines GIS and considers the distinctive organisational features of this technology. The main section of the paper outlines the conceptual framework for the research, examining what is meant by a corporate approach and exploring the assumptions underlying various perspectives concerning the implementation of GIS. Finally, the research objectives and methodology will be considered.

THE NATURE OF TECHNOLOGY, ORGANISATIONS AND GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Assumptions concerning technology and organisations are fundamental to investigations examining the implementation of GIS. The Public Policy Research Organisation of the University of California at Irvine has carried out a series of studies of computer use in local government in the United States (See, for example, Danziger, Dutton, Kling, & Kraemer, 1982; Danziger & Kraemer. 1986; International City Management Association, 1989; King & Kraemer, 1985). Their investigations involved a survey of all city authorities with populations in excess of 50,000 and counties with populations greater than 100,000 in the United States. The results of this work formed the basis for a detailed analysis of 42 municipal authorities conducted between 1974 and 1979. A second round of studies were undertaken in 1985, but lit- tle work based on these findings has as yet been published.

Central to the work of these researchers, henceforth referred to as the Irvine Group, is the concept of computer technology as a package which includes not only hardware and software, but also people, personal skills, operational practices and corporate expectations. The term

G/S lmpaci on UK Government 533

computer package is valuable as it emphasises the contribution of resources other than simply equipment to the operation of automated systems. The computer package is not envisaged as an independent entity but rather to be embedded within the human and institutional context within which it is located. This raises a number of issues concerning the nature of the environment in which computer-based systems, and more particularly GIS, are situated.

It is perhaps surprising that those concerned with the development of automated systems have given only limited consideration to the nature of the organisations in which such systems operate. It is frequently assumed that all organisations have similar basic characteristics. As a result, organisations are conceptualised as relatively stable and free from external pressures, with the goals of such concerns shared by all staff leading to consensus and a unity of purpose. The structure of organisations is regarded as hierarchical, while the activities undertaken by individual members of staff are guided by rules and procedures. In these circumstances infor- mation management is a relatively straightforward task, with technological constraints the main limiting factor.

A number of studies which have examined the nature of the environment in which computer- based systems are located consider the description outlined above to be, at best, an oversimplifi- cation and, at worst, misleading as it fails to take full account of the social and political process- es present within organisations (Danziger et al., 1982; Hirschheim, 1985; Hiischheim, Klein, & Newman, 1987; Pfeffer, 1981). These studies argue that organisations are social systems consist- ing of individuals with their own values, motivations and priorities. As a result, staff are not pre- sumed to be working towards the same objectives. An organisation is therefore conceptual&d as a negotiated order in which coalitions are continuously being formed and reformed with each grouping trying to structure the available resources to serve their interests. Pfeffer (1981) goes further arguing that these groupings are not equally powerful, and, as a consequence, those occupying the most favourable position utilise this advantage to strengthen their situation.

Offices are not rational and manifestly rule-following: they are social arenas where power, ritual and myth predominate (Hirschheim, 1985, p. 279).

With these considerations in mind, research has shown the impact of three sets of organisa- tional factors on the effective implementation of computer-based information systems (Campbell, 1990; Masser & Campbell, 1991). These are the organisational context, the person- alities of the individuals involved and the degree of organisational and environmental stability. The process of implementing an automated system such as GIS is therefore regarded as more complicated than generally envisaged. As a consequence, there appears to be a complex symbi- otic relationship between technology and the organisational context in which it is embedded. Hirschheim states:

Information systems are not technical systems which have behavioural and social consequences, but are social systems which rely to an increasing extent on information technology for their function (Hirschheim, 1985, p. 278).

The corporate nature of GIS makes this relationship particularly important. The research defines GIS as a computer-based system which has the ability to store, manipulate and display spatial data. As a result, automated mapping facilities are not regarded as GIS. Given this deli- nition, such systems have the capabilities to affect the operational, strategic and managerial activities of local authorities, as well as the daily work experience of the personnel involved with these tasks. However, the critical characteristic of GIS in terms of the effective utilisation of the facilities offered is the adoption of a corporate approach to implementation. In many cases it is unlikely that a single department will be able to bear the costs of data conversion

534 H. CampbeN

together with the relevant hardware and software. Furthermore, departmental applications would hinder the integration of spatial data sets from a wide variety of sources, which is said to be one of the main facilities offered by GIS (Coulson & Bromley, 1990, Gault & Peutherer, 1989; Grimshaw, 1988). Acceptance of the strategic and efficiency benefits to be gained from the adoption of a corporate approach has signi~cant implications for the development of administrative practices in local government. This issue is particularly significant as alterations to established procedures are liable to be perceived as a challenge to the existing ownership and control of information and more importantly as a threat to the balance of power.

It is the relationship between the theoretical merits of a corporate approach and the charac- teristics of the organisational context in which they are being implemented which the conceptu- al framework aims to explore.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

What Is a Corporate Approach to GIS Implementation?

The key issue underlying the conceptual framework is the nature of a corporate approach to implementing GIS. The discussion has so far assumed a corporate approach to imply inter- dep~~ental cooperation with respect to the adoption, implementation and on-going mainte- nance of a GIS. However, it is important to examine this concept more closely as it is clear that in practice there is a continuum of more or less corporate styles of working {See Table 1). These range from local authorities, where all departments are involved in system implementa- tion, to instances where the introduction of a GIS is the responsibility of a single department. The key coordinating department also varies between authorities, from the classical top-down approach exemplified by the proposals of the Bains report (Bains, 1972) on the management of British local government, where the Chief Executive’s department performs this function, to a more bottom-up approach where the lead is taken by a se~ice-o~en~t~ department. It is even possible for these approaches to be combined. For instance, there are cases where several departments are developing a GIS with a department such as the Chief Executive’s as the lead, while at the same time a separate system is being introduced by a single department.

Table 1 indicates the range of managerial structures which have been adopted by local authorities. There is probably little disagreement that the fast of these approaches is definitely corporate while the last is not. However, between these extremes there is a range of more or less corporate structures. In relation to the research, a broad definition is adopted applying the term corporate to any situation where more than one dep~ment is involved. Given this wide definition, it will be necessary to investigate the extent to which different styles of corporate working, particularly in terms of variations in the lead department, influence the experiences of local authorities.

G/S and Corporate Working

The central issue for the research is the relationship between the implementation of GIS and the adoption of more or less corporate styles of working by British local autho~ties. It is gener- ally assumed in the literature that the advantages of increased levels of data integration, com- bined with the propensity for duplication in instances where departments develop separate sys- tems, makes it most appropriate for authorities to introduce GIS as a corporate or even inter- governmental system (Coulson & Bromley, 1990; Gault & Peutherer, 1989; Grimshaw, 1988). It is, however, important to examine in more detail the advantages and disadvantages of essen- tially corporate as against departmental approaches to the implementation of GIS.

G/S Impact on UK Government 535

TABLE 1. Styles of Corporate Working with Respect to GIS

NUMBER OF DEPARTMENTS LEAD DEPARTMENT INVOLVED

2 All AII

3 or more Chief ExecutiveJTown Clerk 3 or more IT/Computer Se&es 3ormore Some other department 3 or mofe None

2

z 2

1

chiefExecutivflo~cIe* IT/computer !Sewices !bmeotherdeparbnent

NOne

Chief Executiv~own clerk lT/Computer Services

Some other department None

There are two sets of reasons why departments choose to collaborate over the development of a GIS. The first is based on the pragmatic decision that given the costs of acquiring equip- ment and data, such as the Ordnance Survey’s digital maps, it is necessary for several depart- ments to share the costs. For instance, finance may be allocated from a combination of central and departmental budgets. However, these circumstances do not imply long term inter-depart- mental working as once the system has been purchased, it is possible that the implementation and utilisation of the resources will become the responsibility of individual departments. The second and more general justification for the adoption of a corporate approach concerns the strategic and efficiency benefits to be gained from the integration of formerly isolated data sets. This approach assumes long-term cooperation between departments concerning not only the process of implementation, but also the critical issue of the utilisation of the information gener- ated. It is these assumptions about the strategic and efficiency benefits associated with a corpo- rate approach which the conceptual framework aims to examine in greater detail.

Table 2 attempts to identify the main advantages and disadvantages associated with corpo- rate and departmental approaches to implementing GIS. The table indicates the logical benefits to be derived from inter-departmental cooperation in terms of enhanced provision of informa- tion, more informed decision making (which it is supposed leads to “better” decisions) and greater efficiency. Gault and Peutherer (1989) argue that given central government’s general restraint on spending combined with the introduction of the Poll Tax and Compulsory Competitive Tendering for services, there is a need for local authorities to adopt “more rational decision making procedures” (p. 2). They suggest that to achieve this objective, local govem- ment requires information processing facilities which will enable the integration of data sets, the analysis of the relationship between client needs and resources over time and the display of the resulting information in a manner which will highlight the spatial distribution of trends at a variety of scales. A corporate GIS is regarded as fulfilling these requirements and as a conse- quence the tool which will provide the basis for more rational decision making. Similarly, Coulson and Bromley (1990) argue in favour of the adoption of a corporate GIS by local authorities. Their findings, based on a survey undertaken in Swansea District Council, indicate

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GIS Impact on UK Government 537

that while several departments utilise the same spatial data sets, there is little coordination of information processing activities and, as a consequence, a significant duplication of effort (Bromley & Coulson. 1989).

The identification of these benefits and the associated logic that such authority-wide gains would be lost if GIS were developed on a departmental basis has led to the widespread accep- tance in the literature of a corporate approach as the most appropriate strategy to adopt. Most of these discussions pay little attention to the form of corporate approach to be adopted, but generally imply some form of top-down structure involving all departments. However, under- lying these analyses about the value of a corporate GIS are a number of important assumptions about the role of information in decision making and the nature of organisations.

The linear relationship between the introduction of GIS, improved information processing facilities, and better decisions suggests that decision making is a rational process. However, there are several studies which question this conceptualisation (see, for example, Campbell, 1990; Cohen, March, & Olsen, 1972; Feldman & March, 1981; Lindblom, 1959; Lindblom & Cohen, 1979; Pfeffer, 1981; Weiss, 1977). Campbell in a study of the use of geographic infor- mation in local authority planning departments demonstrates the tactical and political role of information in the process of policy making. The research findings indicate the frequent utilisa- tion of information to rationalise and support a favoured policy option rather than being the determining factor in the selection of a particular course of action. Inappropriate assumptions concerning the role of geographic information in decision making are likely to inhibit the effective utilisation of the data generated by a GIS. However, the key issue in terms of the problems local authorities will encounter during the implementation of a corporate GIS con- cerns the largely contextless nature of the underlying assumptions. As a result, little considera- tion is given to the impact of the social and political processes present within organisations which was discussed previously.

Local government in Britain tends to be highly departmental in nature; therefore, the imple- mentation of a corporate information system has significant implications for traditional patterns of working. Table 2 indicates that there may be considerable practical problems in introducing change into an environment which is often typified by competition rather than consensus between departments. The priorities of individual departments are likely to vary considerably, from those concerned with the operational activities involved in road maintenance, to the long- term strategic decision making associated with urban and regional planning and the central coordinating tasks performed by a Chief Executive’s department. In these circumstances not only are their requirements likely to be significantly different, but also their ability to exploit the facilities offered by GIS technology.

The adoption of a corporate approach and the resulting integration of formerly isolated data sets has important implications for the ownership and control of information. Departments often jealously guard their scope of activity and treat with suspicion any proposal which implies a change to these circumstances. The theoretical advantages of sharing information may be viewed less positively by departments and individuals if they feel it will lead to closer supervision of their activities or open up the decision making process to greater scrutiny. Such changes may lead to uncertainty about the likely stability of the existing balance of power in an authority. These boundary issues are often articulated in disputes over the division of responsi- bility, leadership, data accessibility and information standards, as well as more covert forms of noncooperation. Given the potential for discord, there is a need to investigate more closely the balance between the costs and benefits of adopting a corporate approach to GIS implementa- tion. Consideration will also need to be given to the merits of top-down strategies in which a nonservice department takes the lead as against the more spontaneous coming together of a number of largely service-orientated departments.

538 H. Campbell

The discussion has so far demonstrated the disadvantages as well as the benefits associated with a corporate approach. It is, however, important that similar attention is focused on the merits of individual departments developing GIS technology. Further to the loss of the authori- ty-wide benefits highlighted by analyses based on rational assumptions, general local authority support in terms of specialist computing skills and training is likely to be limited. Nevertheless, Table 2 indicates that there are a number of positive features associated with a departmental approach. The critical issue concerns the independence that individual departments gain from such an approach and, as a consequence, the increased sensitivity to the needs of end users. In these circumstances departments are not dependent on technical specialists within a central computing section to interpret their requirements; nor do they have to take their place within the overall priorities of the authority. Furthermore, given the historical mistrust which often exists between departments, there is no obligation on individual agencies to share their infor- mation resources.

The discussion of the advantages of a departmental approach to the introduction of GIS, however, assumes the same level of consensus exists at a departmental level as corporate approaches assume on an authority-wide scale. It is important to recognise that individual departments are themselves divided into a large number of separate sections, each with a sepa- rate area of responsibility and consisting of individuals whose underlying goals and motiva- tions may be in conflict (Campbell, 1990). The impact of social and political processes on the experience of implementing GIS must therefore be examined at a departmental as well as an authority-wide scale.

The conceptual framework underlying the research indicates the main advantages and disad- vantages of corporate and departmental approaches to implementing GIS. It has demonstrated

the contextless nature of arguments which stress the benefits of a corporate approach while also noting the potential strengths and weaknesses of systems being developed by individual departments. The importance of examining these issues in relation to the nature of the corpo- rate approach adopted has also been emphasised. However, in examining these issues consider- ation must also be given to the functions that the GIS is intended to perform. For instance, the range of GIS applications extend from operational activities such as road maintenance, to strategic concerns such as the analysis of socio-economic trends, and managerial matters such as performance review. It is possible that the nature of the problems encountered may have some relationship to the type of activities being undertaken.

With these considerations in mind, the following section reviews the methodology on which the research is based.

METHODOLOGY

Research Objectives

The conceptual framework has indicated the potential advantages and disadvantages of adopting both corporate and departmental approaches to the implementation of GIS technolo- gy. However, it is important these issues are examined in relation to the experiences and con- text of particular local authorities. The research is based on the following objectives: (a) to assess the impact of GIS on the development of corporate working in local authorities; (b) to evaluate the costs and benefits associated with corporate and departmental approaches to the implementation of GIS; and (c) to identify contextual factors or strategies which facilitate the process of implementing GIS in a particular local authority.

The findings of this research will therefore have theoretical as well as practical implications in terms of enhancing understanding of the management of change in the context of imple-

GIS Impact on UK Government 539

menting GIS technology as well as indicating issues of importance to those involved with

developing these systems.

Research Methods

Given the above objectives, a combination of research methods have been adopted involving a comprehensive survey of local authorities in Britain, which was completed in June 1991, and detailed case study investigations which were undertaken throughout 1991 and 1992. Such an approach incorporates an overview of current practice in British local government with an in depth analysis of the process of GE implementation. The aims and manner in which the two key elements of the research are to be undertaken is briefly outlined below.

The underlying objective of the comprehensive survey is to compile basic data on the adoption of GIS in British local government. This exercise is necessary due to the paradoxi- cal situation that while users are currently being swamped by postal questionnaires from

computer manufacturers, management consultants and researchers, none of these surveys provide complete coverage of authorities including all their respective departments. This sit- uation also poses potential difficulties in terms of the likely response rate to a postal ques- tionnaire. As a result, it was decided to undertake a telephone survey. The results so far pro- vide support for the adoption of this approach with no authority refusing to participate, in addition to respondents giving valuable subsidiary information during the interviews. This method also removes the ambiguity which exists between surveys over the definition of GIS, as the capabilities of the software introduced by an authority can be related to the opera- tional definition.

The comprehensive survey has collected basic data on the following issues:

l the current and potential take-up of GIS in local government; l the types of authorities implementing GIS; l the length of experience authorities have in developing GIS capabilities; l the types of GIS hardware and software being introduced and the applications being

developed; l the approach adopted to GIS implementation with respect to the number of departments

involved and the identification of a lead department; and l a crude indication of the perceived benefits and problems associated with the introduction

of GIS technology.

The case study component of the research aims to complement the survey’s broad overview of current practice by providing the basis for a detailed analysis of the impact of GIS imple- mentation on the development of corporate practices in local government. The main issues to be investigated are the following: (a) the relationship between a range of corporate and depart- mental approaches to GIS implementation and the costs and benefits identified by the concep- tual framework; (b) the extent to which the experiences of authorities/departments vary accord- ing to whether a GIS is performing operational, strategic or managerial functions; and (c) the contextual factors or strategies facilitating the implementation of GIS technology in a particu- lar local authority.

Given these aims, the case studies include authorities which have adopted a wide range of more or less corporate approaches to the implementation of GIS. In addition, it is necessary to examine the experiences of these authorities in relation to operational, strategic and managerial applications. Furthermore, case study selection has been limited to authorities which have pos- sessed GIS capabilities for at least 2 years. This time period should be sufficient for broad trends to have developed rather than simply focusing on the initial teething problems. The

540 i-l. Campbell

cooperation of key individuals in the case study authorities is a vital element in conducting research of this type; therefore, general support for the project must be added to the selection criteria outlined above.

The research itself is conducted in essentially two phases. This involves an initial visit to become familiar with the particular local authority context and identify key indi~du~s. The main phase of data collection is based on interviews with a range of individuals including senior management, technical specialists and end users. One of the problems of conducting sur- vey-based approaches is how to interpret the views of a single respondent in terms of the over- all experiences of a particular authority. As a result, there can be considerable uncertainty as to the extent the responses given represent a personal rather than an authority-wide view. It is hoped that by interviewing a range of respondents, it should be possible to gain a general overview of each authority as well as indicating whether particular staff groupings have dis- tinctive experiences of GIS implemen~tion.

The findings of the telephone survey and detailed case studies should provide broad trends on current practice combined with in-depth analysis of the processes influencing the imple- mentation of GIS.

CONCLUSION

The in~oduction of new technology into an organisation involves the difficult process of managing change. In the case of GE these activities are complicated by the widespread accep- tance of a corporate approach as the most appropriate basis for implementation. One of the main facilities offered by GIS is the ability to integrate formerly separate data sets, and based on rational assumptions concerning the benefits resulting from these capabilities, it is presumed that a corporate approach should be adopted. Such conclusions have in turn significant implica- tions for the development of administrative practices and decision making in local authorities.

However, the conceptual framework underlying the research demonstrated the contextless nature of such ~s~ptions and the resulting need to investigate the relationship between the implementation of GIS and the organisational context in which it is located. It is not suggested there is one ideal model for implementation, rather a range of possible approaches, the appro- priateness of which depends on the particular organisational circumstances of the local authori- ty. (See the second section of this paper, “The Nature of Technology, Organisations and GIS.“) Section four (“Methodology”) has outlined a research strategy which aims to examine these issues. It is likely the findings of this study will lead to a reassessment of current thinking and raise a number of impor~t questions. For instance:

l Do the organisational practicalities of developing a corporate GIS outweigh the potential authority-wide benefits?

l Does duplication matter if separate departmental systems are ensuring the effective utilisa- tion of the information generated?

l Do all types of activities benefit from the introduction of GIS or are its advantages most pronounced in relation to repetitive operational tasks?

Ac~owie~~n~ We are most grateful to the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) and the Nataral Environment Research Coancii (NERC) for funding this project as part of the joint programme on Geographical Information Handling.

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