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A SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE HOPES AND FEARS OF VARIOUS

RELIGIOUS GROUPS

ABSTRACT

^

^Ol3>

THESIS SUBMITTED FDR THE DEGREE DF

Boctor of ^Ijilos^opljp IN

PSYCHOLOGY

BY

ASIYA AI]AZ

Under the Supervision of

Prof. Afzal Kureshi

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

" ^ ALIGARH (INDIA) 1 9 9 0

ABSTRACT

The study was aimed mainly at assessing 'hope' and

•fear' in relation to the variables of age, sex, and religion,

through certain personality variables - Level of aspiration,

telic dominance, and approval motive. Human beings have shown

finer differences on hopes and fears, and it is these motiva­

tional states which shape the personality of the individual^

his course of action and the possibility of attainment and

disappointment. In goal-setting behaviour with potentials of

hope and fear the former may be assumed to be a harbinger of

achievement and the latter a prelude to failure.

Level of aspiration is the discrepancy between the goal

one has already reached and the goal he hopes to reach. It is

merely what one hopes to attain and what one is aiming at.

Telic dominance was another dimension representing fear

and hope. As conceived by Murgatroyd and others as a personal

trait, the telic state is the state of mind in which the

individual sees himself, pursuing some essential goal. The

para telic is the state in which the individual does not see

himself as aiming at a goal. The telic state is oriented to the

future and paratelic to the present or the immediate sensation.

Approval motive, as a measure of hope and fear,

presupposes something of a reliance on the evaluative judgements

of others, which is believed to come from two factors ;

ii

(a) a motive to seek approval - an approach behaviour and

(b) a motive to shun disapproval - avoidance behaviour.

L.A, coding test (level of aspiration), Hindi version

of Telle Dominance Scale and Hindi version of Marlowe - Crowne

Social Desirability Scale were administered on 200 subjects,

drawn from different schools and colleges at Aligarh, which

represented in equal numerical strength the variables of religlou,

sex and age. The techniques used for analysis of data included

Critical Ratio and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Method,

partial r, significance of partial r and multiple correlation.

The major findings of the study were :

- Hindu girls, as compared to Hindu boys scored significantly

higher on Level of Aspiration.

- Significant differences were found between older Hindu

and younger Hindu subjects, older Muslim and younger

Muslim subjects.

Muslim boys were found to be significantly higher on

Telle Dominance in comparison with Hindu boys.

Hindu subjects scored significantly higher than Muslim

subjects on Approval Motive,

- Level of Aspiration and approval motive were significantly

related among Muslim subjects, whereas telle dominance

and approval motive were unrelated in all the groups.

iii

Level of aspiration and approval motive showed significant

relationship among groups of Muslim boys older Hindus and

older Muslims,

Telle Dominance and approval motive were significantly

related among Muslim boys and younger Hindu subjects.

Telle dominance and approval motive were unrelated to each

other.

The measure of hope and positive goal setting (level of

aspiration) was found to be insensitive to any social

variable.

A SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE HOPES AKD PEARS OF VARIOUS

RELIGIOUS GROUPS

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF

fiiittor of $i|tlofiiopIip IN

PSYCHOLOGY

BY

ASIYA AIJAZ

Under the Supervision of

Prof. Afzal Kureshi

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AUQARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

AUOARH (INDIA) 1 9 9 0

T4013

fT7fDj^/p>/^-j

^ec No. V

CONTENTS

Page

Chapter One

Chapter Two

Chapter Three

Chapter Four

Chapter Five

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

INTRODUCTION

REVIEW OF RELEVANT STUDIES

METHOD AND PLAN

RESULTS

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

SUMMARY

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

Tools of the study

L.A, Coding Test

Telic dominance scale

Approval Motive Scale

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Professor Afzal Kureshi M.A„ Ph.D.

CHAIRMAN

CERTI i^ ICATE

Department of Psychology

Aligarh Muslim University

A L I G A R H - 202 002 (IND.A)

Phone : 260

This is to certify that the thesis entitled

"A Social-Psychological study of the hopes and

fears of various religious groups" contains the

work which Mrs. Asiya Aijaz carried out towards

her Ph.D. degree under my supervision. The thesis

is suitable for submission to the examiner? for

evaluation.

Prof. Atzal Kureshi ( Supervisor)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my deep sense of g ra t i tude to my supervisor Prof. Afzal Kureshi, Chairman Department of Psychology without v^ose constant encouragement and valuable guidance t h i s work would not have been poss ib le . He took a genuine i n t e r e s t and showed a rare sense of involvement in t h i s study to make i t a worthwhile at tempt. His sympathetic a t t i t u d e , s t imulat ing guidance and everwil l ing help always sustained me in my effor t in the execution of t h i s study,

I owe a specia l debt of thanks to" Dr, Akbar Husain, Reader, Department of Psychology, for his encouragement and succour he was too generous to come forward with.

How can I forget to thank the students who volunteered to a c t as subjects for th i s study, with a l l the i n t e r e s t and wi l l ingness , so v i t a l to a psychological inves t iga t ion .

My thanks are also due to the P r inc ipa l s , and teachers of A.M.U, Women College, Girls High School, City High School, and the Senior Secondary School Cer t i f i ca te Program of Aligarh Muslim Universi ty, for extending t h e i r co-operation in providing samples of subjects for the present study.

I would l ike to record my sense of appreciat ion to members of my family, p a r t i c u l a r l y my young school-going kids who were good enough to l e t me take my time with my research and to graciously condone my negligence to them, though inadver tent , during the course of the study.

I am a lso thankful to Mr. Mazahir Husain far typing the

manuscript. \^A

siya Aijaz

Chapter One

INTRODUCTION

A p s y c h o - s o c i a l s tudy of hope and f ea r among members of

d i f f e r e n t communities seems t o be a popu la r t o p i c fo r the layman

a s we l l a s to the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t . There have been unending

d e b a t e s on the dynamics and complexion of these p r i n c i p a l a s p e c t s

which character ize human a sp i r a t i ons and apprehensions, in the

context of the social-psychological climate prevai l ing in our

soc ie ty . An intr iguing problem and i n t r i c a t e too, woula be a

psychological scanning of the psyche and the dynamics of the

two major communities which happen to be our focal point . Not

only t ha t comparative study of Hindu and Muslim subjects for

t h e i r hopes and fears holds out promise of bringing to surface

many a t ruth about the i r a t t i t u d e s and percept ions , motivations

and se l f -eva lua t ions ,but a lso present the hazard of burning one 's

f inger as the revelat ions may explode many prevalent s tereotypes

v i s - a - v i s in-and-out group context of Hindu - Muslim r e l a t i o n s .

However, an empirical study of the not-too-well-defined phenomena

of hope and fear would involve del ineat ing and operationalyzing

these in order to f i t in a s c i e n t i f i c inquiry l ike the present

one,

Hopes and fears are the constant co - t r ave l l e r s of human

beings in there day-to-day a c t i v i t i e s , though leaving him alone

off and on. Individual differences ex i s t In a l l conceivable

- 2 -

aspects of human behaviour but perhaps on hopes and fears human

beings have shown f iner differences and i t i s these motivat ional

s ta tes which shape the personal i ty of the individual , his course

of ac t ion and poss ibi ly h is achievement and disappointment,

Hopes and fears may be defined in many ways. In l i t e r a t u r e ,

poetry^ fine a r t s , these concepts are used and exploited the most.

That most human behaviour may be boiled down to the two p r i n c i p a l

s t a t e s i s indicat ive of i t s relevance and v i a b i l i t y to human

motivation and performance. In goa l - se t t i ng and accomplishments

or otherwise, the role of hope and fear can hardly be over^

emphasized; while hope i s precursor to at tainment, fear i s a

prelude to f a i l u r e .

An ideal study tha t could open up avenues for p ro f i t ab l e

research for the improvement of human l o t may be the management

and monitoring of hopes and fears in a way tha t a happy blend i s

nurtured, making individuals learn to be hopeful and fearful a t

the r i g h t place towards the development of a self-contained and

accomplished personal i ty . The task i s not simple but i t may be

taken up on a long term basis from the very f i r s t year of human

development which th i s study does not propose. Rather hopes and

fears in t h e i r various shades and hues as ex i s t ing among Hindu

and PliSlim subjects i s what the present study looks for exploring.

The study cannot proceed s c i e n t i f i c a l l y unless e i t he r the

two dimensions are defined in operat ional terms or r e in te rp re ted ,

or conceived in some other ava i lab le dimension which t h e o r e t i c a l l y

"3-

seem to embrace the two. Finding i t a tedious Job to define

hope and fear in our own way, a simpler course was to identify-

some other dimensions t h a t resembled and took care of these

phenomena. Of the various such dimensions which in d i f fe ren t

degrees converged on hopes and fears we decided to s e l ec t l eve l

of a sp i r a t ion , t e l i c dominance, and approval motive. To u s ,

then, these dimensions represent hopes and fears though not in

the same proportion^among members of various groups. A J u s t i f i ­

ca t ion for se lect ing these dimensions - l eve l of a sp i r a t ion ,

t e l i c dominance and approval motive - w i l l be in p lace ,

There were two options avai lable to the inves t iga to r to

proceed with the study f/V.i-t-(a) to work out the concepts ;of hope

and fear to subject these to s c i e n t i f i c inquiry, (b) to locate

measuring tools to tap some aspects of these phencmiena which may

be already in use in psychological researches . The second option

was feas ible not only for the convenience i t promised,as i t

involved u t i l i z i n g the know-how of other researches in the area

but a lso for the soundness of the ra t ionale and methodology

underlying these measuring devices . Fair ly broad and general as

the two notions of hope and fear are with various connotations,

going for the f i r s t a l t e rna t i ve meant an exhaustive exercise

which the invest igator could not afford. Hence adoption of

ava i lab le tools was an economical and viable opt ion. Since the

dimensions selected representing hope and fear had a r a t i ona l

b a s i s , taking care of some of the c ruc ia l ingradiamts, i t seemed

to be the proper course.

-A-

The three dimensions, namely; leve l of a sp i r a t ion , t e l i c

dominance, approval motive, have to do with those aspects of

f ee l ings , a t t i t u d e s and motivations which tend t o r e f l e c t , by

and la rge , the inc l ina t ion to the s t a t e of being dominated by

hope and fear while placed in goal s e t t ing s i t u a t i o n . These

dimensions are not addressed to hope and fear in the same measure

rather, they are aimed a t giving various shades of hope and fear .

Level of a sp i ra t ion i s perhaps one of the dimensions

which may be used as index of hope and fear one experiences on

being faced with the s i t u a t i o n vdiere some kind of ac tua l or

imaginary accomplishment i s in question, where one has to give

ind ica t ion of a level of at tainment one expects to achieve,

depending upon the previous nature of the at ta inment . One may be

r e a l i s t i c in giving a cautious response or a wild response,

re f lec ted respect ively in keeping c loser to one 's ac tua l capaci ty

to a t t a i n a given goal or making no amends to h i s p red ic t ion l eve l

even a f t e r showing a cleavage between the ac tua l performance or

aspired performance. Herein l i e s the tendency to a r e a l i s t i c or

u n r e a l i s t i c asp i ra t ion t h a t may correspond to a motivational

o r i en t a t i on , r ep l e t e e i t h e r with hope or fear which determine

l eve l of aspi ra t ion,both r e a l i s t i c and u n r e a l i s t i c .

Level of a sp i ra t ion t the re fo re , i s one of our hope and

fear measure. To be p rec i se , the tenn ' l e v e l of aspirat ion, '

in a psychological context, means the standard t h a t an individual

expects to reach in a f i e ld of performance of which he has had

some previous experience.

- 5 -

Cronbach (195A) defines leve l of a sp i r a t i on »' as the

standard a person expects to reach in a p a r t i c u l a r performance" •

Frank (1944) in t e rp re t s i t as " the leve l of future performance

in a famil iar task which an individual , knowing his l eve l of p a s t

performance in tha t task, e x p l i c i t l y undertakes to reach" ,

Psychologists agree on the poin t tha t " when a person i s ac t ive ly

involved in a task he se t s himself a new standard to conquer,

or a new goal to achieve. The individual involved in a task

t r i e s to gain more and more excel lence, and attempts to do b e t t e r

than he did previously. He, therefore , r a i s e s his goal or ' l e v e l

of a s p i r a t i o n ' . If he succeeds in reaching the leve l he expected

to reach, or i f he a t t a i n s higher than his goal , he experiences

success which is not only sa t i s fy ing to him but also serves as

a motivating force. If on the other hand, he f a i l s to a t t a i n

h i s goal , he experiences a sense of f a i lu re which i s normally

followed by a lowering of the goal to the extent tha t i t may be

achieved in the subsequent at tempt. This s e t t i ng of a s p i r a t i o n

level , and the consequent feel ing of success or f a i lu re r e su l t i ng

in e i t h e r the ra is ing or lowering of the subsequent leve l i s a

common cha rac te r i s t i c of a l l goa l - se t t ing behaviour. I t i s the

understanding of th i s consequence of psychological events, t h e i r

- i n t e r re l a t ionsh ips , and the re la t ionsh ip they may have with o ther

aspects of behaviour and personal i ty t h a t are aimed a t in s tud ies

of l eve l of a sp i ra t ion .

The f i r s t recorded observation of the behaviour which

eventually was termed as leve l of a sp i r a t ion was made by Dembo

(1931), a student of Lewin, In the course of an experimental

- 6 -

study of anger produced by f ru s t r a t i on , she observed t h a t many

of her subjects Instead of working for the unat ta inably high

l eve l goal s e t for them by the experimenter, had se t up on t h e i r

own a goal of much lower leve l for at tainment. Hiis goal which

the subject had se t for himself was termed as the 'momentary-

l eve l of a sp i r a t ion ' of the subject .

Although, Dembo was the f i r s t to observe the phenomenon

of l eve l of asp i ra t ion , i t was Hoppe (1946)^ another student of

Lewin, who, on the basis of h is pioneer study t r i ed to formulate

the concept of a sp i ra t ion , A person, according to Hoppe, always

undertakes a task with c e r t a i n demands which can change during

the performance of the task . I t i s the " t o t a l i t y of these

constant ly shifting,now inde f in i t e , now p rec i se , expectat ions ,

goa l - se t t ings or demands in connection with one 's own future

performance" t ha t was termed as level of a sp i r a t i on of the

subjec t .

Other contemporary inves t iga tors l ike Hausman (1933) and

JUcknat (1933), accepted the concept of l eve l of a sp i r a t i on as

formulated by Hoppe, and studied the phenomenon using h is

method, which involved drawing inferences regarding leve l of

a sp i r a t i on of the subject from h i s overt behaviour and expressed

feel ings of success and f a i l u r e . Frank (1935), however, not

being sa t i s f i ed with the ' i n f e r e n t i a l ' technique of Hoppe on the

ground of subjec t iv i ty and prec i s ion cal led upon to define the

concept operat ional ly as " the leve l of future performance in

- 7 -

a famil iar task which an individual , knowing the leve l of p a s t

performance in t ha t task, e x p l i c i t l y undertakes to reach" ,

Frank's def in i t ion specifying a s e t of operations for

studying leve l of a sp i ra t ion led t o serious conceptual d i f f i c u l ­

t i e s , because of his contention t h a t l eve l of a sp i r a t i on as

measured by h is procedure was the same as conceived by Hoppe,

But t h i s i s hardly thb case . While in Hoppe»s de f in i t ion^ leve l

of a sp i r a t i on refers to a cons t e l l a t ion of sh i f t ing and t r a n s i e n t

goals of varying c l a r i t y , in the operat ional def in i t ion , of

Frank, leve l of asp i ra t ion re fe rs to a s ingle and specif ic goal ,

which the subject e x p l i c i t l y undertakes to reach.

Gardner ( 1 9 ^ ) , a f t e r examining c r i t i c a l l y these conceptual

d i f f i c u l t i e s maintained t h a t in order to study leve l of a s p i r a t i o n

objec t ive ly as was done by Frank, i t was imperative to dispense

with Hoppe's concept of l eve l of a sp i r a t ion and reformulate the

concept and to make i t c l ea r , p r ec i s e , and object ively observable.

The aforesaid conceptual-methodological controversy

a t t r a c t e d the a t t en t ion of Lewin e t a l , (1944), who resolved tha t

an individual while undertaking to perform a task bui lds up some

kind of a goal s t ruc ture comprising a number of goals of varying

height . For example, s t a r t i n g from above in descending order

there may, be a dream goal , a wish goal , gin ac t ion goal , and a l so

a low leve l goal, which the individual was ful ly sure to achieve

even i f the luck of circumstances did not favour him. I t i s the

ac t ion g o a l ' , t ha t i s , ' the goal the individual was trying for

- 8 -

a t a given time, which was regarded by Lewin as the index of

l eve l of a sp i r a t i on . This ac t ion-goal based concept of leve l of

a s p i r a t i o n which agrees ful ly with Frank's operat ional d e f i n i t i o n ,

has come to be regarded as the standard de f in i t i on of level of

a s p i r a t i o n almost un iversa l ly .

The chief indices or measures of l eve l of a sp i r a t ion a re

goal discrepancy and shifts^* while goal discrepancy re fers to the

discrepancy between the height of the goal s e t on a t r i a l and the

l eve l of performance on the preceding t r i a l , s h i f t re fe rs to

r a i s ing of the goal upward a f t e r success or at tainment, and

lowering of i t downward a f t e r f a i lu re or non-attainment. Shif ts

would be unusual in nature, i f the goal i s lowered a f t e r success

and ra ised a f t e r f a i l u r e . Height of the goal set by an individual

and frequency of the usual and unusual sh i f t s made by him on a

task indicate whether or not the individual i s r e a l i s t i c in

s e t t i n g his goal of achievement.

Two views seem to have been prevalent regarding the nature

of l eve l of a sp i ra t ion frcm the beginning. According to one

view, which has been referred to as " incentive hypothesis" ,

the height of the goal s e t by an individual in a task i s assvuned

to r e f l e c t the strength of the urge to achieve. From th i s view

one would expect tha t higher the leve l of goal s e t s tronger the

motive to achieve,and so g rea te r the amount of performance. The

other view of level of a sp i r a t ion , which i s known as " esteem-

defense hypothesis" (Holt, 1946), assume tha t the height of the

-9-

goal s e t by the individual r e f l e c t s pr imari ly the urge to keep

the self-esteem high not only in his own eyes but a l so in the

eyes of o thers .

Telic dominance i s another var iable taken up for study

>[*iich may be redefined as a dimension of fear and hope. The

theory of psychological reversa l s pos tu la tes dominance in r e l a t i o n

to t e l i c (set'ious minded, planning o r i en ta t ion , arousal avoidance)

and para t e l i c (playful " here and now" or iented, arousal seeking)

s t a t e s the discriminatory features of pe r sona l i ty . In p a r t i c u l a r ,

r eve r sa l theory offers an explanation of the way in which the

t e l i c dominance (The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ways in which a person

i n t e r p r e t s kis own motives and intension) ac t s as a determinant

for ac t ion and behaviour.

Basically in teres ted in developing a scale Murgatroyd and

others drew heavily on what i s known as the theory of psychological

r eve r sa l (Smith and Apter, 1975), The main contention of the

theory is tha t some psychological systems involve b i s t a b i l i t y ,

bel ieving tha t there are two preferred s table s t a t e s . This i s

in contradic t ion to the view tha t most psychological systems

are homeostatic and involve one s table s t a t e of the organism.

The two members of such b i s t ab le s t a t e may be complementary to

each other and when there is s h i f t from one s table s t a t e to the

other a reversa l i s believed to have taken p lace . To explain i t

they argue tha t in r e l a t i on to f e l t arousal there are two d i s t i n c t

s tab le s t a t e s . In one of the s tab les the goal of the individual i s

to gain optimum arousal because t h i s i s experienced as p leasant

-10 -

(excitement) and low arousal as unpleasant (boredom). In the

complementary stable s t a t e the individual aims a t reducing

arousal to the maximum extent because t h i s i s experienced as

unpleasant (anxiety) and low arousal as pleasant ( re laxa t ion) .

I t means tha t i t i s not the l eve l of arousal i t s e l f which i s

seen to be s table but the way the arousal i s in terpre ted

subject ively and affec t ively by the organism.

Reversal theory stands in the t r a d i t i o n of ac t ion

theor ies (Gauld & Shotter , 1977; Harre & Secord, 1972;

Shot ter , 1975) in tha t i t i s concerned with understanding

human act ion by reference to the motives people have for

t h e i r act ion not Just with t h e i r behaviours. Unlike other

ac t ion theor ies , such as scheme theory (Eckblad, 1981) or

a t t r i b u t i o n theory (Shaver, 1976), reversa l theory is

concerned with the deep s t ruc ture of motivation and not

simply the surface s t ruc ture of motives (Chomsky, 1965).

A main tenet of th i s theory i s tha t a person can perform

grossly s imilar behaviours on d i f fe ren t occasions but have

d i f fe ren t raetamotives for doing so. The grossly s imi lar

behaviours performed on two occasions involve d i f fe ren t

motivational s t a t e s . To understand behaviour i t i s

necessary to understand motives by reference to metamotlves.

- 1 1 -

Individuals display a propensity for b i s t a b i l i t y of

metamotives. At some time the individual i s motivated by a

des i re to achieve goals , which Ke jfeUs to be both ex terna l ly

imposed and essen t i a l , they seek to complete a c t i v i t i e s or

t a sks .

Reversal theory is e s sen t i a l l y a s t r u c t u r a l phenomeno-

log ica l theory of human act ion (Apter, 1982). Although

dominance can be measured by using a psychometric t r a i t

measure (Murgatroyd e t a l , , 1978), the measurement of s t a t e s

i s a l so necessary if a study is to have meaning in the context

of the theory, Svebak and Apter have developed some s t a t e

measures for the t e l l e and p a r a t e l l e s t a t e s t h a t have been used

in experimental studies (Svebak, 1983; Svebak e t a l . , 1982),

The measurement of s t a t e i s a notoriously d i f f i c u l t problem.

Adjective checkl i s t s , s e l f - r a t i n g sca les , are the best

approximations of the person 's s t a t e experience,

A number of pa i rs of opposites in the form of b i s tab le

s t a t e s have been suggested in the theory of which one p r inc ipa l

pa i r has been picked up for spec ia l treatment towards working

out a scale (Murgatroyd & others , 1978), The theory of b i s t a b i l i t y

- 1 2 -

also maintains that a given individual may remain in one s t a t e

more often than the other for a given pa i r of opposite s t a t e s .

One member of the pa i r may ac t in a more dominant fashion over

the other indicating a s t ab le s t a t e or feature of h is pe r sona l i ty .

This dominance as such has been conceived by Murgatroyd and

others as a personal t r a i t . The t e l i c s t a t e i s the s t a t e of mind

in which the individual sees himself, persuing some e s s e n t i a l

goal .

The Source of pleasure in th i s s t a t e i s the achievement

or an t i c ipa t ion of achievement of a goal . The complementary

s t a t e i , e , , the p a r a t e l i c , i s one in which the individual does

not see himself as aiming a t a goal , or i f he does, the goal

i s not considered as e s s e n t i a l , but as a p r e t ex t to perform the

behaviour. Here pleasure derives from the performance of the

behaviour i t s e l f and the associated feel ings and sensat ions .

Also, the t e l i c s t a te is oriented to the future and p a r a t e l i c

to the present^the immediate sensat ion,

Telic dominance thus seems to combine fear and hope -

Highly Telic individuals expressed stronger fear and those with

a low degree of t e l i c dominance (para te l ic dominance), s t ronger

hope. Anxiety,also a v i t a l element of t e l i c dominance, was found

to have pos i t ive re la t ionships in two separate s tudies by

Murgatroyd and others (1978) (cf. Chapter Two).

Approval motive as one dimension having to do

with hope and fe«r was believed to come from two

f a c t o r s ; ( l ) a motive to seek approval - an approach behaviour

- 1 3 -

and (2) a motive to shun disapproval- avoidance behaviour. Approval

motive, as Marlowe and Crowne preferred to c a l l i t , in f ac t ,

owe's to Edward's concept of soc ia l d e s i r a b i l i t y ( l957). However,

to Marlowe and Crowne (1964) there were inherent l imi ta t ions in

the measure, which were claimed to have been removed in t h e i r

conceptual izat ion of approval motive. The soc ia l des i rabi l i ty-

var iable (Edwards, 1957) consisted of two d i s t i n c t but i n t e r _

r e l a t ed aspects, i . e . (a) soc i a l d e s i r a b i l i t y as a property of

t e s t items which described the respondents^ and (b) as a d i f f e r e n t i a l

tendency of the respondents to endorse soc ia l ly desi rable items.

Since the soc ia l d e s i r a b i l i t y concept has been known to have

been developed following the MMPI, i t s bias for psychopathology

i s well obvioas and to eliminate intennixing of soc ia l d e s i r a b i l i t y

and psychopathology, Marlowe and Crowne proposed to develop a

measure tha t obtained items free of any psychopathological

contents .

Like the socia l d e s i r a b i l i t y measure of Edwards, t h a t of

Marloweand Crowne too has two s ign i f i can t ly but only p a r t i a l l y

re la ted response tendencies: (a) the tendency to character ize

one-self with whatever i s soc ia l ly desirable but not necessar i ly

probable (b) the tendency not to own what i s soc ia l ly undesirable

but i s indeed probable of one-self . That MGSD has sometimes shown

incons i s ten t re la t ionships with various behaviours may be due to

adding up together the two complementary components of a t t r i b u ­

t ion and den ia l .

- 1 A -

Although developed as an Improved version of Edward scale

without psychopathological b ias , the MGSD scale has not been, for

sure , quite independent of psychopathological content , as d i sco­

vered by Marlowe and Crowne themselves. While on the various

sub-scales of MMPI the SSD score showed a g rea te r convergence

than did the MCSD, the l a t t e r however showed a higher co r r e l a t i on

with L scale for MMPI, popularly known as a faking-good sca le ,

where the sub jec t ' s motivation i s to appear good and acceptable

to o the r s . This provided a suggestive indica t ion to the presence

of a need for soc ia l approval, to Marlowe and Crowne. Hence

fo r th , soc ia l d e s i r a b i l i t y fac tor was subs t i tu ted by approval

motivation.

The behaviour co r re la t e s of approval motivation were

assumed to include conformity, persona l i ty , and s u s c e p t i b i l i t y

to soc ia l influence. Those with high approval motivation appeared

to pay grea ter regard to soc ia l customs and sanc t ions . Those

avoidant of disapproval were expected to be defensive in s i t u a t i o n s

where they could be subjected to soc ia l censor and disapproval .

The fact tha t approval motive i s a combination of two

diverse o r ien ta t ions , i t posed a number of d i f f i c u l t i e s both

to the author of the concept and o the r s . Whether i t was the need

to obtain approval or a need to avoid disapproval , the components

of the uni tary construct of approval motive,^.^s to be answered

for the c l a r i t y of the conception, ^fumel'ous s tudies (Berger,

1971J Efran & Boylin, 1967; Jacobson, Berger & Mlllharn, •)970;

Kanfer & Marston, 1964; Millham, 197A; Thaw & £fran, 1967)

- 1 5 -

provided a c lear cut evidence to a strong tendency of avoidance

than approach in s i tua t ions of social , censor. Whereas there i s

no evidence t o a high MCSD score indicat ing approach approval

motive, there i s suf f ic ien t evidence to the contrary^avoidance of

disapproval being appreciably higher among high scores on the

s c a l e . In the event of a choice made avai lable to the subjects

between approaching evaluation and avoiding evaluat ion the

subjects almost invariably opted for the l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e . This

means tha t a censor—avoidant intei^jretat ion of need for approval

i s more c red ib le .

I t i s indubitably true t ha t what cons t i tu t e s soc ia l ly

des i rably behaviour is largely determined by c u l t u r a l norms of

a soc ie ty . Thus, i t i s se l f evident t h a t soc ia l d e s i r a b i l i t y

scales constructed and standardized abroad cannot be considered

adequate for measuring the phenomenon of soc ia l d e s i r a b i l i t y in

the kind of socia l conditions t h a t p reva i l in t h i s country. On

the other hand, the term 'approval motive' has been used, a t

l e a s t by Crowne and Marlowe (1964), as an explanatory cons t ruc t .

I t has been assumed tha t one agrees or disagrees with soc ia l ly

des i rable or undesirable statements because of a motivational

d i spos i t ion which has been designated as approval motive. I t i s

furtiier assumed tha t one having high degree of approval motive

would agree to greater number and v a r i e t i e s of soc ia l ly des i rable

s ta tements . But i t is a l so assumed tha t approval motive r e f l e c t s

i n other types of behaviours a l so which may, a t times, be qui te

d i f f e r en t from socia l d e s i r a b i l i t y . With such assumptions, i t

-16 -

bec<ime methodologically e s s e n t i a l for Tr ipathi & Tr ipath i (1980)

to develop some tool which measured approval motive in i t s

broader perspective and t h a t too d i r e c t l y . Having made such

assumptions, I t was considered unadvisable to t r ans l a t e and

adopt them for our research purpose. Consequently new scale

for measuring the various aspects of approval motive, hereaf ter

occasionally referred to as AMS, was developed by Tr ipa th i and

Tr ipa th i , which has been used in the present study.

I t may be recalled t h a t the purpose of the present inves t i ­

gat ion consisted also in exploring the impact of some soc ia l

va r iab les on hope and fear. Admittedly, fear and hope are inter*-

personal phenomena, and operating in a goa l - se t t ing s i t ua t i on

are bound to be subject to several influences such as age, sex,

r e l i g ion and so worth. For example subjects of varying age wi l l

not have the same pat tern of hopes and fea r s . There is a poss i ­

b i l i t y tha t the differences between the emotional and physical

maturity of the two age groups may l ike ly be an effect ive source

of va r i a t i on in the strength and substance ol t he i r fear and

hope. Perhaps the sex-role s tereotyping, c u l t u r a l conditioning,

se l f concept are not the same with the males and the females

in our socie ty . As members of the majority and minority

community, the Hindu and Muslim subjects respect ive ly do not

appear to r eac t s imilar ly to s i t ua t ions having po ten t i a l s of

hope and fear . The a t t i t u d e , be l ief and values of members of

the two re l ig ious fa i ths would be unlike each other and hence

the relevance of the var iable of r e l ig ion .

- 1 7 -

To wind up the discussion, i t may be res ta ted tha t the

study i s mainly concerned with assessing 'hope' and ' f e a r ' among

subjects of the two re l ig ious f a i t h s , both male and female,

through ce r t a in personal i ty var iab les - leve l of a sp i r a t ion ,

t e l l e dominance and approval motive - t heo re t i ca l ly believed to

r e f l e c t approachr- avoidance, o r i en t a t i on in r e a l l i f e s i t u a t i o n s .

Some of the major object ives of the study were :

1, lb study differences between Hindu and Muslim subjects on

l eve l of asp i ra t ion , t e l l e dominance and approval motive.

2, To study the differences between Hindu boys and Muslim.boys,

Hindu g i r l s and Muslim g i r l s , on level of a sp i r a t ion ,

t e l l e dominance and approval motive.

3, To study differences between Hindu boys and Hindu g i r l s ,

Muslim boys and Muslim g i r l s on leve l of a sp i r a t ion , t e l l e

dominance and approval motive.

4, To study differences between older Hindu and older Muslim,

younger Hindu and younger Muslim subjects on level of

a sp i ra t ion , t e l l e dominance and approval motive,

5, To study the differences between older Hindu and younger

Hindu, older Muslim and younger Muslim subjects on l eve l

of asp i ra t ion , t e l l e dominance and approval motive,

6, To study the re la t ionsh ip between leve l of a sp i r a t ion and

t e l l e dominance, leve l of a sp i r a t i on and approval motive,

t e l l e dominance and approval motive among Hindu and Muslim

subjec ts .

-18-

7 . To study the re la t ionsh ip between leve l of a sp i r a t i on

and t e l i c dominance, l eve l of a sp i r a t ion and approval

motive and t e l i c dominance and approval motive among

the subgroups formed on the basis of the var iab les of

age, sex and re l ig ion ,

8, To study the re la t ionship between two personal i ty va r i ab l e s ,

p a r t i a l l i n g out the e f fec t of the remaining va r i ab l e .

Chapter Two

RSViaW OF STUDIES

As po in ted out in the preceeding c h a p t e r , the r o o t s of

f e a r and hope a re to be found in the s t u d i e s of l e v e l of a s p i r a ­

t i o n , a n x i e t y and r e l a t e d d imens ions . Being a r e l a t i v e l y new

e n t r y t o the empi r i ca l r e s e a r c h , l i t e r a t u r e on hope and f e a r as

such i s r a t h e r s c a r c e . The aim of t h i s chap t e r i s to p r e s e n t

an account of s t u d i e s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e hope and f ea r which may

no t be r e l e v a n t to the e x t e n t d e s i r e d , and a l s o those involv^inj

d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n a l i t y dimensions which have a d i r e c t or i n d i r e c t

bea r ing on hope and f e a r .

S tud ie s on hope and f e a r a re not many; except for those

c a r r i e d out i n a s e r i e s of s t u d i e s on mot iva t ion and the ones t h a t

may be mentioned f i r s t a re i n f a c t i n d i c a t i v e of the f a c t t h a t on

t h i s a s p e c t , much needs t o be done.

In one study (Aijaz & Kureshi , 1990), forming p a r t of a

l a r g e r r e sea rch towards developing a psychometr ic measure of

hope and f e a r , some se r ious a t tempt was made to focus on hope

and f e a r i n a sample of a d o l e s c e n t s , r e p r e s e n t i n g the two

r e l i g i o u s f a i t h s - Hindu and Muslim - (25 Ss each) and a l s o males

and females (25 Ss each) on whom a need measure, s p e c i f i c a l l y

designed fo r the s tudy c o n s i s t i n g of 60 a d j e c t i v e s , h a l f of

which r e f l e c t i n g hope and t h e o t h e r h a l f f ea r on t h e b a s i s of

consensus among a couple of judges t o t h i s e f f e c t , was admin i s t e red

-20-

in small group sessions of five Ss at a time. Results indicated

that the main effects of religion and sex were not significant on

both hope and fear measures. The interaction effects of religion

and sex were significant on hope and fear measures beyond .01

level of significance, Hindu girls scored significantly-

higher on needs having to do with 'hope' in comparison to Muslim

girls. Within the Muslim group the boys showed stronger tendency

to hope than girls, whereas among the Hindu subjects sex differences

on both hope and fear were insignificant.

In a study of motivej involving adolescent subjects

(Kureshi, 1975)» Muslim subjects were found to be more fearful

of failure in respect of achievement situations than Hindu

subjects. These two groups did not show any significant difference

with regard to threat oriented temdency in respect of aggre­

ssion. On need security they did show differences in fear and

not in hope, Strickingly, girls as compared to boys were found

to be both more hopeful and fearful than boys, in achievement

related situations. Boys and girls did not show any difference

in the fear aspect of agt^ression, but in hope aspect they did show

differences, toys having an upper edge,Older and younger subjects

showed significant differences in hope aspect of aggression

motive and not in fear.

The effect of proximity of examination was determined in

a study of n-achievement, hope of success and fear of failure by

Kureshi, Husain & Arlf, (1979). The results indicated that both

-21-

hope of success and fear of failure scores underwent a drastic

rise towards the approaching examination as it acted as an aroused

condition.

I^reshi, Husain and Bano (1981) investigated approach-

avoidance aspects of security and affiliation motives among the

highly secure - insecure adolescents. A set of six pictures

from the AApAS motive test was administered to the 16 highly

secure (Male: 8, Female: 8) and 16 highly insecure (Male: 8,

Female: 8) subjects. The purpose of the study was to discover

differences between the highly secure and highly insecure subjects

in the amount of approach and avoidance tendencies (affiliation

and security motives) and (b) differences between the highly

secure male and female, and between the highly insecure male and

female subjects in approach and avoidance tendencies involved in

affiliation and security motives. In the approach and avoidance

components of both the affiliation and security motives the highly

secure and highly insecure subjects showed significant differences.

Whereas in relation to the variable of sex, the highly

secure and the highly insecure subjects did not show significant

differences in the approach and avoidance tendencies with regard

to both affiliation and security motives.

In a cross-cultural comparison of n~achievement, hope of

success and fear of failure among the Indian and African students

by Kureshi, Husain and Bhatnagar (1979), differences and simi­

larities in the strength and pattern of achievement motive

- 2 2 -

betv/een two divergent c u l t u r a l groups - Indian and African were

determined. A se t of s ix T.A.T. p i c tu re was used to e l i c i t

themes of achievement motive from the 42 Aligarh Muslim

University graduate students of whom 21 were Indian and the 21

African, The African students showed a s t ronger achievement

motive and appeared to en te r t a in higher hopes and fears , as

compared to the Indian s tudents . However, the African and the

Indian g i r l s did not show any differences in t h e i r amount of

hope of success,

Kureshi, Khan and Singh (1980) studied fear of f a i lu re ( F F )

among Indian and Non Indian s tudents a t Aligarh. A thematic

apperception t e s t developed a f t e r Mc Clelland and Birney (1969)

was used as the main t o o l . No s ign i f i can t difference was d i s ­

covered between the Indian and non-Indian sub jec t s . However,

differences existed between the Indian and non-Indian Ss on

ce r t a in indices of fear of f a i l u r e .

In a study of Power Motive, hope of power and fear of

power among male and female pol ice personnel, Fatma and

Kureshi (1984), found tha t hope of power is s ign i f i can t ly higher

among the policemen than among the police women. Police women,

r a the r than policemen express a s tronger fear of power.

Power motive among the University students in r e l a t i o n

to ce r t a in soc ia l d i f f e r en t i a l s was studied by Kureshi and

Fatma (1981). A special ly designed thematic apperceptive t e s t

was administered on a sample of 88 Aligarh Muslim University

graduate and post graduate s tudents , drawn following a 2x2x2

- 2 3 -

f a c t o r i a l design (representing the var iab les of age, sex and

a l so socio-economic s t a t u s ) . 'Hope of Power* was found to be

s ign i f i can t ly higher among the males and ' f ea r of f a i l u r e '

among the females,

Kureshi and Khan (1981) studied fear of f a i lu re motivation

as re la ted to ce r ta in soc ia l v a r i a b l e s . i n a sample of 128 s tudents

of Aligarh Muslim University, The study intended to determine

the influence of var iables of age, sex and r e l i g ion on FF

motivation by means of e ight TAT - l ike p i c t u r e s , spec ia l ly

designed for th i s study. Atkinson's method was followed for the

purpose of administrat ion, and the Hosti le Press Scoring System

(Birney, e t a l . 1969) was used to analyse the s t o r i e s . The Muslim

Ss showed a grea ter amount of FF than the Hindu Ss, The older Ss

were found to be more fa i lu re - avoidant than the. younger Ss.

Male and female Ss did not show any s ign i f i can t difference in

the s t rength of FF.

Peplau (1976) invest igated impact of fear of success and

sex ro le a t t i t u d e on women's competitive achievement. Among the

91 college aged dating couples, who were p a r t i c i p a t i n g in a

study on dating re la t ionsh ip , i^nteraction of fear of success and

condit ion fai led to reach s igni f icance; some evidence was found

t h a t women who combine t r ad i t iona l i sm and high fear of success

may be most affected by v a r i a t i o n in achievement s e t t i n g s .

Further, fear of success was not correla ted with women's own

sex ro le a t t i t u d e s , career a sp i r a t i ons , college grades Scholast ic

Aptitude Test (SAT) scores or s e l f - r a t i n g i n t e l l i gence . I t was

- 2 4 -

found tha t sex role t rad i t iona l i sm was associated with s i g n i f i ­

cant ly lower career a sp i r a t ions , lower SAT verbal scores and

lower s e l f - r a t i ngs of i n t e l l i gence . I t was concluded tha t sex ro le

a t t i t u d e s appeared to have g rea te r impact than fear of success

on women's achievement.

Merchand, Roberg and Trudel C1978) studied the e f fec t of

l eve l of fear, types of i n s t ruc t ions and a r e t e s t a t the time of

a behavioural approach t e s t among 56 female s tudents (age 16-22)

years old, Ss with the 'h igher l eve l of fear showed less approach

behaviour, went more slowly through the steps of the approach

t e s t , and verbal ly expressed, s t ronger anxiety.

Fear of negative evaluat ion and the reluctance to t ransmit

bad news were explored by Rosen and Tesser (1972), They conducted

an experiment to determine i f reluctance to t ransmit an over card

message intended for a s t ranger depends on fear of negative

evaluation by " the s t ranger and f ea r " of the message an t i c ipa ted

consequences for him, Ss were 46 male undergraduates. I t was

reasoned tha t a messenger would fear negative evaluation i f he

was ident i f ied by the r ec ip i en t . The hypothesis tha t bad news

would be transmitted less completely and spontaneously than good

news content was supported. Greater communication occured under

non-anonymity than under anonymity,

Teevan and Fisher ' s (1974) study was about inves t iga t ing

Host i le press and in te rna l versus external standards of success

and f a i l u r e . The predict ion tha t subjects with high Hostile

Press Scores would be higher on external locus of control than

-25-

the subjects low on Hostile Press was found to be t r u e . In two

more r ep l i ca t ion studies in t h i s se r i e s with 64 high school

juniors and 50 college s tuden t s , s imi la r r e s u l t came about.

In a study by Bimey and Rolf (1965), i t was confirmed t h a t

Host i le Press (HP) scores implied dependency r e l a t i o n s h i p . They

predicted tha t high scores on HP would have t h e i r work

" underchase" in a s i tua t ion where t h e i r performance was evalua­

ted d i r e c t l y by others for group purposes and So would be

threa ten ing . Going by o the r s ' Judgement presumably the high HP

scores showed the leas t concern whether they fa i led in t h e i r

eyes because they did not exercise t h e i r own choice in a s o c i a l

s i t u a t i o n . Although, there i s su f f i c ien t evidence tha t being

r i g h t in i t s own r igh t serves as a reinforcing factor^ yet it

has been acknowledged that what i s more important is proving

r i g h t in the eyes of o thers . Contrasted with the in t e rna l frame

of reference which the high - n-Ach people use (Mc Glelland,

1953), the frame of reference with high HP people i s ex te rna l ,

whereas, the high n-Ach people, compete with an in te rna l standard

of excellence and perceiving a need they tend to sa t i s fy i t ; the

HP people do not, ra ther they r eac t because as far as they are

concerned the d i s t inc t ion between i n t r i n s i c and ex t r i n s i c reward

does not ex i s t and a l l reward have an ex t r i n s i c character .

The presumption t h a t HP ref lec ted a motivation to avoid

evaluat ion, indicating tha t subjects high in HP wi l l tend to

avoid a competetive s i t ua t i on i f i t i s in t h e i r cont ro l , has

been put to t e s t in a number of s tudies using the " p r i s o n e r ' s

- 2 6 -

Dilemma" (Bimey & S t i l l i n g s , 1967; Evan & Cruinbaugh, 1966;

Rapaport, 1962; Teevan & Stamp, 1966). Rapaport discovered t h a t

in aTJexperimentally manipulated soc ia l s i t ua t i on some subjects

did not adopt co-operative s t r a t e g i e s of t r u s t s for many t r i a l s

even though t h e i r scores were coming down. The r e s u l t s of such

kind of s tudies i l l u s t r a t e well the way in which cognitive

va r iab les or the s t r a t eg ie s ava i lab le i n t e r a c t with motivational

va r iab les to af fec t behaviour. They a lso provide evidence for

the in te rp re ta t ion of HP score as a measure of fear of f a i l u r e

and adaptive behaviour as a concomitant of avoidance motivation.

These were some of the s tudies on hope and fear and some

re la ted var iables which may provide a context for the present

inves t iga t ion . Besides hope and fear the other var iable which

concerned us for i t s bearing implications for hope and fear

seemed to be level of a sp i r a t ion on which some re levent s tudies

may be reviewed now.

That asp i ra t ion level or the level of the goal s e t by an

individual in an ego-threatening s i t ua t ion r e f l e c t s primary the

urge to defend the self-esteem, a t l e a s t , in one's own eyes i s

indicated from the f i r s t recorded observation of level of a s p i r a ­

t ion made by Dembo (published, 1951). While studying f ru s t r a t i on

produced by the subjects f a i lu re to reach the unat tainably high

leve l goal se t for him by the experimenter, i t was noted t h a t

many of the subjects had se t up on t h e i r own a goal of such a

low level for at tainment. Set t ing of the low leve l goal in

the face of s t r e s s could only be motivated by ego-defense

considerat ions .

-27-

Worklng on the leads provided by Gould (l939), Gardner

(I940a) took two groups of subjec ts , one being character ized by

high goa l - se t t ing and the other by low goa l - s e t t i ng , and using

ra t ing technique, t r i ed to ident i fy the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s associa ted

with each of the two modes of goal s e t t i n g . The high goal

discrepancy subjects were rated highest on d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n and

the importance attached to academic achievement. The low

discrepancy subjects , on the other hand, were rated highest on

fear of f a i l u r e , but lowest on securi-ty and real ism. Sears (1941),

using children as subjects and following the approach of Gardner,

attempted to find out the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of personal i ty associa ted

with low pos i t i ve , high pos i t i ve , and negative goal discrepancy

p a t t e r n s . The low pos i t ive goal discrepancy chi ldren , besides

being academically successful were rated as a se l f -conf ident ,

sel t -motivated with good se l f - appra i sa l and a moderate wish for

a t ta inment . The high pos i t ive goal discrepancy subjec ts , besides

being academically successful, were rated low in se l f appra i sa l

and high in wish for at tainment. The negative goal discrepancy

chi ldren , on the other hand, were soc ia l ly ra the r than self-

motivated, cautions and low in wish for at ta inment . Academically^

t h i s group included successful as well as unsuccessful ch i ldren .

The most extensive se r i e s of s tudies carr ied out to

determine the modes of r e a l i s t i c and defensive goa l - se t t ing and

the cha rac t e r i s t i c s of persona l i ty associated with them wa* were

t h a t of Ro t te r ' s (1945, 1954). On the basis of intensive

c l i n i c a l s tudies and expert ra t ings she iden t i f ied nine pa t t e rns

of goal se t t ing response and the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of personal i ty

-28-

associa ted with each pa t t e rn . Out of the various pa t te rns so

iden t i f i ed some were primarily based upon the s ize and d i r ec t ion

of goal discrepancy, because goal-discrepancy was considered to

be the most objective and dependable indica t ion of r e a l i s t i c and

defensive goal s e t t i ngs .

Low pos i t ive and medium high p o s i t i v e , and D-score p a t t e r n s ,

according to Rotters , indicate normal and r e a l i s t i c g o a l - s e t t i n g .

While the former pat tern i s characterized by realism and f l e x i ­

b i l i t y , the l a t t e r pa t tern i s characterized by ambition, s t r i v i n g

aggressively for success, but remaining within the l imi t s of

real ism, and also possibly by a strong feeling of inadequacy.

Of the remaining pa t t e rns , while the very high pos i t ive D score

pa t t e rn indicates defensive goa l - se t t ing of one form, the low

negative and high negative D-score pa t t e rn s , indicate defensive

goa l - se t t ing of jus t the opposite form. The persona l i ty charac­

t e r i s t i c s found to be associated with the two forms of defensive

goa l - se t t ing were also d i f f e ren t . While cautiousness and f a i l u r e

avoidance were the chief c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s associated with the low

and negatively directed goa l - s e t t i ngs , loss of cont rac t with

s e t t i n g s , loss of contact with r e a l i t y , repression of f a i l u r e ,

and deriving sa t i s fac t ion from appearing to look very ambitious

were cha rac t e r i s t i c s associated with the high pos i t ive mode of

defensive goa l - se t t ing .

Studies as discussed above indicate t h a t normal

©r^ r e a l i s t i c indivldual5set the goal of a moderate l eve l . In

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con t r a s t to th i s the individuals who are cautious and f a i lu re

avoiding s e t the goal of a low level^and individuals with a

strong tendency to repress t h e i r f a i l u r e , loss of contact with

r e a l i t y , and gaining sa t i s f ac t ion by appearing to be ambitious^

s e t the goal very high. Either modes of u n r e a l i s t i c goal s e t t i n g s

were considered to be based upon strong ego-defensive tendencies .

Substantive support for the aforesaid c l i n i c a l findings

for the r e a l i s t i c and defensive goal se t t ings have been provided •

by a number of s tudies cor re la t ing goal discrepancy with various

indices of maladjustment. The underlying assumption is tha t

individuals who are highly maladjusted should s e t t he i r goals of

achievement u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y in comparison to the individuals who

are well adjusted,

Frank (1938), Gould and Kaplan (19A0) attempted but fa i l ed

to obtain a re la t ionship between leve l of a sp i r a t i on as measured

by goal-discrepancy and ce r t a in measures of maladjustment, presumably

because they could not conceive tha t the re la t ionsh ip could be

o ther than l inea r in nature, Gruen (1945) found tha t maladjusted

adolescents e i t he r keep t h e i r estimates below the leve l of p a r t

performance or make gross compensatory over-es t imates . In

con t ra s t to t h i s , the well-adjusted adolescents keep the i r

est imates c loser to but somec;what above the leve l of pas t

performance,

Cohen (1954), using 50 adu l t pa t i en t s of both sexes who

were suffering from hypertension, asthma and psychoneurosis, found

-30-

a cu rv i l inea r re la t ionship s ign i f i can t a t ,05 leve l between goal

discrepancy and sel f re jec t ion . The r e s u l t showed tha t while

the individuals with a high degree of s e l f - r e j e c t i o n se t the

goal e i t h e r very high or very low, the individuals with a low

degree of se l f re ject ion s e t the goal some^what s l i g h t l y to

moderately above the level of pas t performance, A number of

other inves t iga tors (Ansari & Zuberi, 1972; Ali & Masooda, 1973),

using well adjusted and maladjusted subjec ts , have obtained

r e s u l t s in the same d i rec t ion .

The r e s u l t of co r r e l a t i ona l s tudies only provide firm

support for the modes of r e a l i s t i c and defensive goa l - se t t ing

derived from the theory of Sscalona (19 ^©) but a l so indicate in

a general way the kind of persona l i ty c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t ha t are

l i ke ly to be associated with r e a l i s t i c as well as the two opposing

modes of defensive goa l - se t t i ngs . Some inves t iga tors have

at tacked es sen t i a l ly the same problem experimentally by studying

l eve l of a sp i ra t ion .

These invest igat ions revealed high and low goa l - se t t ing

as the chief modes of defense in level of a sp i r a t i on . There was

a l so some indicat ion tha t these defensive modes of goal s e t t i ng

responses were associated with d i f fe ren t persona l i ty c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

Goal-sett ing behaviour and personal i ty factors as de t e r ­

minants of level of asp i ra t ion were invest igated by Yoshida

(1971) who assumed tha t leve l of a sp i ra t ion was compositsof

many complex fac tors , 3A males and 28 females high school

s tudents completed a Japanese version of the M,A, Scale and the

- 3 1 -

Yatabe-Guilford personal i ty inventory. The subjects took a d i g i t

symbol subs t i tu t ion task or an addi t ion t e s t . Result suggested

the high anxiety group showed a higher goal discrepancy which

resu l ted from th i s groupfs lack of self-confidence, i n a b i l i t y to

show a pos i t ive a t t i t ude towards goal escapism, and a tendency

to avoid f a i l u r e . Previous experience of success and fa i lu re

resu l ted in s igni f icant goal s h i f t s for the factors of s o c i a b i l i t y

and int rovers ion-extrovers ion.

Kureshi, Husain and Akhtar (1978) carr ied out a study to

t e s t n-achievement hope of success and fear of f a i lu re in

r e l a t i o n to level of a s p i r a t i o n . Employing the L.A. coding t e s t

two extreme groups were drawn from a sample of adolescent

(N = 24; Age: 15 to 19 •••) on whom a thematic apperceptive t e s t

was administered to assess n-achievement. Hope of success and

fear of f a i l u r e . Level of Aspirat ion and n-achievement were

found not to be re la ted . The high and low L.A. groups did not

show any s ign i f ican t difference in t h e i r n-achievement and hope

and fear scores. However, there was grea te r incidence of both

hope of success and fear of fa i lu re categories in the low L.A,

groups. •

Telic dominance being a new entry in the f ie ld of perso­

n a l i t y research appears in some va l ida t ion s tudies ojf the authors

who concerned th i s dimension. Another var iable with the poten­

t i a l of arousal avoidance defined as a measure of fear and hope

was t e l i c dominance^which may be discussed here with reference

to some studies on t h i s dimension.

- 3 2 -

In a study aimed a t va l ida t ing the const ruct , Murgatroyd

and others (1978) used Ta-Ach (Robinson, 196l) and t e l i c

domlance sca le , the former believed to provide n-achievement

measure which re la ted d i r e c t l y to those a lso measured by^ps>-

Dkt^ were found pos i t ive ly re la ted with fear and negatively

r e l a t ed with hope indicat ing tha t those regarded as highly t e l i c

had g rea te r fear and those low on t e l i c dominance (pa ra t e l l e )

g rea te r hope of success. I t was a l so suggested t h a t highly

t e l i c dominance individuals were more prone to feel ings of

anxiety than th&s^ with low t e l i c dominance score.

In other study, to t e s t the aforesaid assumptions

Murgatroyd and others (1978) administered two d i f fe ren t anxiety

measures the t r a i t measure of Spielberger and others (1970) and

the Anxiety Defensiveness Measure of Millimet (1970). Mil l imet ' s

measure employs a bipolar scale and i s believed to r e f l e c t low

anxiety and effective avoidance of defenses aga ins t anxiety a t

one pole and high anxiety and in^pffective avoidance defense a t

the other pole . Although pos i t ive cor re la t ions between TDS on

the one hand^and each one of the two anxiety measures on the

other , were obtained s ign i f i can t re la t ionsh ip exis ted only

between TDS and Mill imet 's measures. This indica tes t ha t TDS

compares well with higher leve l of anxiety expressed in terms

of weak defense against anxie ty .

Depressed male and female undergraduates appeared to be

high in self-esteem. (Bat t le , 1978) suggesting tha t a s t a t e of

absence of arousal (depression) and res ignat ion from ac t ive

involvement in tasks where one may face poss ib le t h r e a t to

-^^~

sel f -es teem,are probably the components common to both fear of

f a i lu re and t e l l e dominance.

Some kind of perceptual defense operating in subjects

high in t e l i c dominance,was suggested to be present in subjects

of two d i f fe ren t s tudies , one r e l a t i ng to approval motive (Prasad &

Prasad, 1971) and the other on t e l i c dominance i t s e l f . Whereas,

the r e s u l t s of the former study showed tha t subjects high in

approval motive took longer to perceive emotional words^the l a t t e r

study indicated tha t r e c a l l of emotive words was negat ively

corre la ted with t e l i c dominance.

Meta motivational dominance; A multimethod va l ida t ion of

r eve r sa l theory constructs was observed by Svebak and Murgatroyd

(1985). The theory of psychological reversa ls pos tu la tes

dominance in r e l a t ion to t e l i c (seriousminded, planning or iented,

a rousa l avoiding) and p a r a t e l i c (playful, " here and now"

or iented, arousal seeking) s t a t e s as discriminatory features of

pe r sona l i ty . The term serious mindedness includes an o r i en ta t ion

toward future goals tha t the individual in t h a t dominant s t a t e

regards as being e s sen t i a l . Reversal theory fur ther purposes

t h a t dominance i s characterised both by b io log ica l and psycholo­

g i c a l differences, which have bearing on the person ' s l i f e s ty l e

and planning a b i l i t i e s . One hundred ten subjects completed a

measure of dominance (the t e l i c dominance sca le) from which 10

t e l i c and 10 pa ra t e l i c subjects were extracted as representa t ives

of extremely dominant groups according to a long-term perspect ive

on goal directed behaviour p a t t e r n s . Each subject completed a

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continuous perceptual-motor task in a psychological approach to

goal -d i rec ted behaviour in a p a r t i c u l a r experimental s i t u a t i o n .

In addi t ion , a sub-example (6 t e l i c and 6 p a r a t e l i c ) pa r t i c ipa t ed

in a s t ructured interview on goal-di rected l i f e - s t y l e throughout

a p a r t i c u l a r working day. Taken together , the data obtained from

the survey, experiment, and interview gave strong const ruct

v a l i d i t y support to the t e l i c and p a r a t e l i c constructs outl ined

in reversa l theory. Physiological group differences were due to

s teeper electromyographic a c t i v i t y grad ien ts , higher tonic skin

conductance, and grea te r thoracic resp i ra to ry amplitudes in the

t e l i c than in the pa ra t e l i c subjec ts ,

Schultz and Pomerantz (l974) invest igated motive to

succeed and probabi l i ty of success and t h e i r appl ica t ion to

achievement s i t ua t ions , with the help of two d i f fe ren t measures

of motive to success,administered to 93 males 9th c lass students',

they wanted to know the i r performance for motive to succeed and

motive to avoid. Both the Tn<2A,sures were multi-dimensional and

were correlated with i n t e rna l achievement, r e spons ib i l i t y for

success and measures for academic achievement^and they were

s ign i f i can t ly re la ted with each other.Over - est imation of the

p robab i l i t y of success was found to be d i r e c t l y re la ted to motive

to succeed. Both the success and fa i lu re -or ien ted subjects over

estimated probabi l i ty of success more on d i f f i c u l t tasks than on

easy t a sks .

Khan and Kureshi (1986) carr ied out a study to t e s t the

in t e rac t ing effect of ce r t a in soc ia l d i f f e r e n t i a l s in the

re la t ionsh ip between fear of f a i lu re and t e l l e dominance. A

-35-

s e t of e ight p ic tures with impl ic i t fear of f a i lu re (FF) ^GJ&S^

spec ia l ly designed, and t e l l e dominance scale (TDS) , were

administered on a randomly drawn sample of graduate students to

measure FF and t e l l e dominance. The two var iab les were found to

be s ign i f i can t ly corre la ted . Within the comparison groups a l so

t h i s pos i t ion of re la t ionship remained unphanged, though the

pos i t i ve re la t ionship was of d i f fe ren t order among Hindu, Muslim,

Male, Female, Older and Yoiinger subjec ts .

In a number of s tudies approval motive was re la ted to

cheating behaviour (Berger, 1971; Jacobson, Berger & Millham,

1970; Millham, 1974). Those high on th i s dimension expressed a

strong motivation to cheat a f t e r fa i lure experience because i t

provided an opportunity to avoid negative evaluat ion. I n t e r e s ­

t ing ly , an opportunity to achieve recognit ion and good name did

not su f f ic ien t ly motivate the high M-C scores to indulge in

cheating, which further gives s trength to the avoidant nature

of evaluative dependence among high M-G scores .

In a ser ies of s tudies (Altrochi, Palmer, Hellman &

Davis, 1968; Fishman, 1965; Larsen, 1974; Miller & Miller, 1973;

Palmer & Altrochi , 1967; Taylor, 1970), evaluat ive dependence^

the main ingradient of the approval motive^ and so of fear of

f a i lu re motivation^have been re la ted to aggressive behaviour

te«VB b»«s Jduiilud. The r e su l t s indicated t h a t high and low M-C

SrtxJlMszis did not show any difference in the in t ens i ty of unprovoked

aggression^but under provocation and arousal^low M-C sasaags^i*.h-^ecls

expressed aggression uninhibi tedly against an opponent, and

-36 -

following t h i s , experienced a kin<i. of reduction in tension. On

the other hand, the high M-G s^n^ds were foiond to be generally-

inhib i ted in aggression but when they did express aggression

they experienced l i t t l e r e l i e f in the amount of tension.

In a number of s tudies (Growne & Marlowe, 1964; Fisher &

Parsons, 1962; Hewitt & Goldman, 1974; Katkin, 1964; Kimble &

Helmreich, 1972; Shranger & Rosenberg, 1970; Stone, 1965;

Tr ipa th i & Tripathi , 1981; Tr ipa th i , 1982) evaluat ive dependence

(approval motive) and such var iab les as defensiveness, psycho-

pathology, f ie ld dependence, dependence proneness, locus of

cont ro l e t c , have been re la ted to show the inherent commonalities

among them. I t was observed tha t an increase in the evaluat ive

dependence beyond the mid-range covaried with a heightened

pathological s t a t e of vulnerable self-esteem. Hewitt and

Goldman (1974) a lso found tha t high self-esteem subjec ts , i f

they scored higher on the M-CSD scale^were not very d i f fe ren t

from the low self-esteem subjects in t h e i r overt behaviour. This

i s suggestive of high self-esteem subjecffe,, g rea t e r defensiveness

because while responding on se l f - r epo r t inventory of self-esteem_,

they do not probably give a genuine account of self-esteem. This

deception of the others on the p a r t of the high M-G scores i s , i n

fact^an attempt a t impression management ac t iva ted by a strong

and possibly a pathological fear of disapproval .

Kimble and Helmreich (1972) found t h a t both high and low

self-esteem persons expressed a g rea te r need for approval from

others than the moderates.

- 37 -

Using two measures of f ie ld dependence - The Rod and

Frame Test and Thurstone's Embedded Figures TestjRosenfeld (1967)

attempted to t e s t the hypothesis t ha t the high M-G scores depend

more on cues from the frame ra the r than those from t h e i r body

and discovered tha t high M-C scores were less s e l f - r e f r e n t i a l

and more f i e l d - r e l i a n t in t h e i r perceptions than the low M-G

scores . In view of the d i f fe ren t nature of the Embedded Figures

Test in which there was no room for i n t e rna l cues and only the

ex te rna l cues were present , no differences were found between

high and low M-C scores,

Tr ipathi and Tripathi (1981) determined the role of

approval motive in field dependence and soc ia l dependence. On

two extreme groups of londer-graduate subjects iden t i f ied on the

basis of Tripathi and T r ipa th i ' s approval motive scale (1979),

Rod and Frame Test, and Sinha 's (1968) Dependence Proneness Scale

were administered. The hypothesis t h a t high approval motive

subjects would express g rea te r dependence than lows was upheld.

I t was further confirmed t h a t approval motive and dependence

proneness were pos i t ive ly re la ted (Tr ipathi , 1982).

Neither pos i t ive nor a negative re la t ionsh ip between

approval motive and locus of cont ro l has been c lea r ly es tabl ished

and the r e su l t s of most of the s tudies have been incons is ten t

(Altrochi e t a l . , 1968; Gold, 1968; Vunchinich & Bass, 1974).

The s tudies reviewed on the foregoing pages followed a

ce r t a in pa t te rn ; those per ta in ing to 'hope and fea r ' in genera l^

as re la ted to the demographic var iab le in question, were

-38-

discussed first. Then, in separate categories, the studies

relating to each of the three personality variables were

reviewed. These studies present points of reference in

relation to which the relevence of the present study can be

assessed.

Chapter Three

METHOD AND PLAN

In working ou t the method and p l a n of the s tudy , the main

considerat ions were the object ive se t for the study (1) determin­

ing the s t rength of hope and fear among the subjects in r e l a t i o n

to differences of religion,^ sex, and age (2) finding out the hopes

and fears between Hindu and Muslim subjects on the leve l of

a sp i ra t ion , t e l i c dominance and approval motive. For t h i s i t

was necessary (a) to work out an appropriate too l for measuring

hope and fear (b) to adopt su i tab le tools for measuring approval

motive, t e l i c dominance and leve l of a sp i r a t i on , (c) to draw a

sample of subjects representing d i f fe ren t groups in terms of *the

ex te rna l var iables of the study (d) to s e l ec t su i tab le s t a t i s t i c a l

techniques for analysis of the data , which included the c r i t i c a l

r a t i o , pearson product moment co r re l a t ion method, p a r t i a l r ,

s ignif icance of p a r t i a l r , -afnt multiple corre la t ion.and F t e s t .

Tcx>ls :

Level of Aspiration : L.A, coding t e s t (Ansari & Ansari, 1964)

was the f i r s t measure for t h i s dimension, which cal led for

performing ce r t a in tasks of mechanical na ture . The t e s t was

divided in to a ser ies of sub te s t s , a l l of them being exactly the

same with regard to the nature of task and the manner in which

i t was s e t .

- 4 0 -

The subject was required to s t a t e a t the ou t se t , and a t

the beginning of each subtes t the leve l of attainment he expected

to reach in the subsequent t e s t ; and a t the end of each subtes t

the leve l he ac tua l ly reached. The t e s t s were scored in terms of

the number of tasks completed or the level of performance actually-

reached, and the number of tasks the individual expected to

complete, or the level he s e t for himself, in each t e s t .

Evaluation of l eve l of a sp i r a t i on , based upon a number of

pa s t performance and future goals on the same se r i e s of t a sks ,

were then made. The indices of leve l of a s p i r a t i o n tha t could be

obtained through th is process , were (a) Ideal goal and Action

goal (b) Inner Discrepancy (c) Attainment Discrepancy and (d) Goal

Discrepancy, the l a t t e r of which was usually the index used in

the present study for determining level of a sp i r a t i on .

The differences between the pas t performance and the next

a sp i r a t i on may also change from one t r i a l to another. In psycho­

log i ca l termSjthe distance between the pas t performance and the

next goal i s cal led goal discrepancy and i s taken as the main

measure of a person's level of a sp i r a t i on . Ckjal discrepancy was

obtained by substract ing pas t performance from the next goal .

The L,A, coding t e s t comprised eleven s u b - t e s t s , each

sub- t e s t occupying one fu l l page. On the top r i g h t of each page

there was a key giving codes (symbols) for l e t t e r s A, B,C,D,E,F, G,

The codes corresponded to the above l e t t e r s as +, =, / , , ? ,

: : , X, Each sub- tes t comprised 75 codes. On the l e f t top of

- 4 1 -

each page^ there was a space provided for wr i t t ing the number of

codes the subject expected to complete in the given time, and on

the bottom l e f t a space for the number of codes and subject

ac tua l ly completed, (cf Appendix)

The time given for each sub - t e s t was one minute. Before

s t a r t i n g , the subjects were required to write the number of codes

they expected to complete. When the time was over the subject

had to count the codes and put down the number of codes he had

completed. All the eleven sub- tes t s were of the same nature, only

d i f fe r ing in the arrangement of codes,

Kiareshi and Khan's (1988) Hindi version of Telic Dominance

Scale (iMurgatroyd, Rushton and Michael, 1978 )was used for measuring

t e l i c dominance (cf Appendix), The scale consisted of 42 items

divided into three subscales i . e , serious-mindedness, planning

o r i en ta t ion and approval avoidance, which may be br ief ly described:

Serious mindedness: The degree to which an individual

i s oriented towards goals seen as e s sen t i a l or important to

himself or herself or o thers , iden t i f i ed with physical ly or

psychological ly, ra ther than goals seen as being t r i v i a l ,

a r b i t r a r y or i nes sen t i a l .

Planning or ien ta t ion : The degree to which an individual

plans ahead and organizes in pu r su i t of goals , r a ther than taking

things as they come. That i s , i t i s the degree to which a

person i s oriented towards the future ra ther than the present

- 4 2 -

and the extent to which pleasure i s gained from the achievement

of goals or in an t ic ipa t ing goal achievement ra ther than, from

immediate behaviour or sensat ion.

Arousal avoidance: The degree to which an individual

avoids s i tua t ions which generate high arousal and seeks s i t u a t i o n s

in which arousal levels are low (Murgatroyd & o thers , 1978),

There were fourteen items in each subscale. Each item

required the subject to choose between two a l t e r n a t i v e s of t e l i c

and p a r a t e l i c choices. For respondents, uncer ta in as to t h e i r

choice, a " not sura" option was also available,^ Each item

had been lebel led with the subscale to which i t belonged (S,

for serious-mindedness, P^ for planning o r i en t a t i on and A,for

arousal avoidance) and the t e l i c choice within each item was

marked with an a s t e r i s k . Responses were scored in a t e l i c

d i r ec t ion , A t e l i c choice was scored as 1, p a r a t e l i c choice was

not scored, and " n o t su r e " response was scored. 5. Scores for

each subscale were obtained and summed up to give a t o t a l score

which acted as an Indicator of the t e l i c dominance of each

subjec t . The higher the score, the grea ter the t e l i c dominance.

The s p l i t - h a l f r e l i a b i l i t y of the Hindi version was found to

be , 63 .

For measuring Approval Motive, Approval Motive Scale (AMS)

developed by Tripathi and Tripathi (1980) was used. This scale

contains 72 items In s e l f - r e p o r t format of which 37 items are

t rue and remaining 35 items have false option as indica t ive of

approval o r ien ta t ion .

-k3-

The items of the t e s t cover seven areas which are

( i ) normative behaviour ( i i ) soc i a l conformity, ( i i i ) pos i t ive

se l f p resen ta t ion (iv) defensiveness (v) dependency (vi) soc ia l

responsiveness (v i i ) socia l approval. Al l of these deal with

some aspect of soc ia l approval,

A score of 1 i s given to each response i f i t i s approval-

ind ica t ive , i r respect ive of ±ts being true or f a l s e . Thus the

score can range between 0 and 72, In th i s system of scoring,

l a rger score indicated grea ter s t rength of approval motive.

Sample : A sample of 200 students was drawn from the A.M.U,,

Gir ls High School, Women's College, City High School and the

Senior Secondary School Cer t i f i ca t e Program of Aligarh Muslim

Universi ty, I t was desired tha t the number of subjects f a l l i ng

in each group formed according to the var iab les of the study,

i . e , r e l ig ion , sex and age^ was equal. The sub jec t ' s age

ranged from 14 to 18 years . In terms of the var iable of sex

a l so , the sample was equally d iv i s ib le into the males (100) and

females (100), Religion was also a var iable considered. Half

of the sample was represented by the Hindu subjects and the other

half by the Muslim subjects .

Administration of the t e s t : The t e s t s were administered in

three sessions, each one devoted to each of the three dimensions:

(a) Level of asp i ra t ion (b) Telle dominance (c) Approval motive.

The t e s t s were administered in small groups of e ight subjects a t

a time, on an average.

-44-

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-45-

S t a t l s t l c a l Technique Used: Suit ing the requirements of the

s t u d y , t e s t of significance as well as co r re l a t ion t e s t s were

used. C r i t i c a l Ratio was used to determine the s ignif icance of

differences between the ccwnparison groups formed on the basis

of age, sex and re l ig ion . The s ignif icance of differences between

the re la tedness of the var iab les those of hope and fear were

again determined by c r i t i c a l r a t i o . The pearson-product moment

co r r e l a t ion was used to discover re la t ionsh ip between the scores

on personal i ty va r i ab les . P a r t i a l cor re la t ions were computed to

p a r t i a l out or eliminate the ef fec ts of var iab les tha t may

influence the re la t ionship between two var iab les whose r e l a t i o n ­

ship was to be considered. Significance of a p a r t i a l r were

determined a t the ,95 confidence in t e rva l for d i f fe ren t groups

of subjec ts . Multiple coeff ic ient of cor re la t ions (R) were

computed to determine the co r re l a t ion between scores ac tua l ly

earned and scores predicted on the leve l of a sp i r a t i on from the

two var iab les - t e l l e dominance and approval motive. That i s ,

to what extent level of a sp i r a t i on scores are re la ted to t e l l e

dominance and approval motive scores . Significance of multiple

R were computed by F- tes t .

C h a p t e r Four

RESULTS

The d a t a a n a l y z e d by means o f C r i t i c a l R a t i o (GR).

P e a r s o n P r o d u c t Moment C o r r e l a t i o n Method, P a r t i a l r , s i g n i f i ­

c a n c e o f P a r t i a l r and M u l t i p l e C o r r e l a t i o n [ R ^ ( 2 3 ) ] a r e

p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r .

The d a t a a n a l y z e d by means o f C r i t i c a l R a t i o a p p e a r i n

Table 1-15, which were used t o f i n d o u t the s i g n i f i c a n c e of

d i f f e r e n c e s between the c o m p a r i s o n g r o u p s . The d a t a computed

by t h e P e a r s o n P r o d u c t Moment C o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e l a t i o n method

a r e p r e s e n t e d i n Table 1 6 - 1 9 , R e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by means o f

P a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e s 2 0 - 2 1 . The v a l u e s o f

M u l t i p l e R and F a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e s 22 and 2 3 .

T a b l e - 1 : Showing a v a l u e o f C r i t i c a l R a t i o i n d i c a t i n g

d i f f e r e n c e be tween Hindu and Muslim s u b j e c t s ,

on Leve l of A s p i r a t i o n .

S u b j e c t s N Mean SD S E Q CR

Hindu

Muslims

100 65.47 3 7 . 8 1

100 63 .7 4 2 . 1 3

5.32 .33 >.05

-47-

Table-2: Showing va lues of C r i t i c a l Ra t io i n d i c a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e

between Hindu Boys and Muslim Boys and Hindu G i r l s and

Muslim G i r l s , on Level of A s p i r a t i o n .

Subjec ts N Mean SD SEj GR P

Hindu Boya 50 57.98 36.75

7.61 .22 >.05 Muslim Boys 50 56.26 3A.45

Hindu G i r l s 50 72.96 31 .58

Muslim G i r l s 50 74.14 37.71 6.95 .26 >.05

Tab l e -3 : Showing va lues of C r i t i c a l Rat io i n d i c a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e between Hindu Boys and Hindu G i r l s , Muslim Boys and Muslim G i r l s , on Level of A s p i r a t i o n .

Sub.lacts N Mean SD SE^ CR P

Hindu Boys 50 57.98 36.75 6.85 2.18 <.05

Hindu G i r l s 50 72.96 31 .58

Muslim Boys 50 56.26 39.35 7.70 1.93 >.05

Muslim Girls 50 71.14 37.71

- A 8 -

Table-4 : Showing values of C r i t i c a l Rat io i n d i c a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e

between Older Hindu and Older Muslim, Younger Hindu

and Younger Muslim s u b j e c t s , on Level of A s p i r a t i o n ,

Sub jec t s N Mean SD SE^ CR p

Older Hindu 50 73.54 3A.68

Older Muslim 50 72.44 43.99 7.92 .13 >.05

Younger Hindu 50 57.4 33.57

Younger Muslim50 54.96 34 .86 6.84 .35 >.05

' I ^b le -5 : Showing va lues of C r i t i c a l Rat io i n d i c a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e between Older Hindu and Younger Hindu s u b j e c t s and Older Muslim and Younger Muslim s u b j e c t s , on Level of Asp i r a t i on .

Sub jec t s N Mean SD SE^ CR P

Older Hindu 50 73.54 34.68 6.82 2.36 <.05

Younger Hindu 50 57.4 33.57

Older Muslim 50 72.44 43.99 7.93 2.20 <.05

Younger Muslim 50 54.96 34.86

- 4 9 -

Ifeible-S: Showing a v a l u e of C r i t i c a l R a t i o i n d i c a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e

be tween Hindu and Muslim s u b j e c t s , on T e l i c Dominance.

S u b j e c t s N Mean SD SE^ GR P

Hindu 100 2 5 . 8 7 4 . 3 5

„64 1.12 > . 0 5

Muslim 100 2 6 . 5 9 4 . 8 1

T a b l e - 7 : Showing v a l u e s o f C r i t i c a l R a t i o i n d i c a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e

between Hindu Boys and Muslim Boys, Hindu G i r l s and

Muslim G i r l s , on T e l i c Dominance.

S u b j e c t s N Mean SD S E Q CR P

Hindu Boys 50 2 5 . 1 6 4 . 3 3

. 8 5 2 .51 < . 0 5

Muslim Boys 50 2 7 . 3 0 4 . 1 9

Hindu G i r l s 50 2 6 . 5 9 4 . 1 8

. 9 5 . 7 4 > . 0 5

Muslim G i r l s 50 2 5 . 8 8 5 .29

• 5 0 -

Table-8 : Showing va lues of C r i t i c a l Ratio i n d i c a t i n g

d i f fe rence between Hindu Boys and Hindu G i r l s ,

Muslim Boys and Muslim G i r l s , on Tel le Dominance,

Sub.lects N Mean SD SE^^ GR

Hindu Boys 50 25.16 4 .33

Hindu G i r l s 50 26.59 4 .18

Muslim Boys 50 27.3 4 .19

Muslim Gi r l s 50 25.88 5.29

.85 1.68 >.05

.97 1.46 >.05

' I^ble-9: Showing va lues of C r i t i c a l Ratio i n d i c a t i n g d i f f e rence between Older Hindu and Older Muslim s u b j e c t s and Younger Hindu and Younger Muslim s u b j e c t s , on Te l l e Dominance,

Sub.lects N Mean SD SEQ CR P

Older Hindu 50 24.79 4.91

.95 1.62 >.05

Older Muslim 50 26.33 4.63

Younger Hindu 50 18.93 8.67

1.43 5.33 <.01

Younger Muslim 50 26.58 5.27

- 5 1 -

T a b l e - 1 0 : Showing v a l u e s o f C r i t i c a l R a t i o i n d i c a t i n g

d i f f e r e n c e be tween Olde r Hindu and Younger

Hindu s u b j e c t s , O lde r Muslim and Younger

Muslim s u b j e c t s , on T e l l e Dominance,

S u b j e c t s N Mean SD SE^ GR

Olde r Hindu 50 2 4 . 7 9 4 . 9 1

1.40 4 . 1 8 < . 0 1

Younger Hindu 50 1 8 . 9 3 8 . 6 7

O l d e r Muslim 50 2 6 . 9 3 4 . 6 3

Younger Muslim 50 2 6 . 5 8 5 .27

. 9 9 . 2 5 > . 0 5

T a b l e - 1 1 : Showing a v a l u e o f C r i t i c a l R a t i o i n d i c a t i n g

d i f f e r e n c e be tween Hindu and Muslim s u b j e c t s ,

on Approval M o t i v e ,

S u b j e c t s N Mean SD S E Q CR P

Hindu 50 4 3 . 8 7 5 . 6 l

. 8 6 2 , 6 8 < .01

Muslim 50 4 1 . 5 6 6 .58

- 5 2 -

T a b l e - 1 2 : Showing v a l u e s of C r i t i c a l R a t i o i n d i c a t i n g

d i f f e r e n c e be tween Hindu Boys and Muslim Boys,

Hindu G i r ] s and KusJim G i r l s , on Approva l M o t i v e ,

S u b j e c t s N Mean SD __S^EQ CR P

Hindu Boys 50 4 3 . 6 6 6 . 3 6

Muslim Boys 50 4 0 , 3 7 . 2 7

Hindu G i r l s 50 4 4 . 0 8 5 .68

1.36 2 . 4 7 < . 0 5

1.12 1.19 > . 0 5

Muslim G i r l s 50 4 2 . 7 4 5 .56

T a b l e - 1 3 : Showing v a l u e s o f C r i t i c a l R a t i o i n d i c a t i n g

d i f f e r e n c e be tween Hindu Boys and Hindu G i r l s ,

Muslim Boys and Muslim G i r l s , on Approva l Motive,

S u b j e c t s N Mean SD SEj^ CR P

Hindu Boys 50 4 3 . 6 6 6 . 3 6

1.20 . 3 5 >,05

Hindu G i r l s 50 4 4 . 0 8 5 .68

Muslim Boys 50 4 0 , 3 7 . 2 7

1.29 1.89 > . 0 5

Muslim G i r l s 50 4 2 . 7 4 5 .56

•53 -

T a b l e - 1 4 : Showing v a l u e s o f C r i t i c a l R a t i o i n d i c a t i n g

d i f f e r e n c e be tween Olde r Hindu and O l d e r Muslim

s u b j e c t s , Younger Hindu and Younger Muslim

s u b j e c t s , on A p p r o v a l M o t i v e ,

S u b j e c t s N Mean SD SE^ CR P

Olde r Hindu 50 4 2 . 5 4 5 . 82

1.15 2 . 4 5 < . 0 5 O l d e r Muslim 50 3 9 , 7 2 5 .70

Younger Hindu 50 45 .1 4 . 9 2

Younger Muslim 50 4 3 . 1 2 6 .70 1.17 1.69 > . 0 5

T a b l e - 1 5 : Showing v a l u e s o f C r i t i c a l R a t i o i n d i c a t i n g

d i f f e r e n c e be tween O l d e r Hindu and Younger

Hindu s u b j e c t s , Older Muslim and Younger

Muslim s u b j e c t s , on Approva l M o t i v e .

S u b j e c t s N Mean SD 3 E Q CR P

Olde r Hindu 50 42.54 5,82

1.07 2,39 <,05

Younger Hindu 50 45,10 4,92

Older MI slim 50 39.72 5.70

1.24 2.74 <.01

Younger Muslim 50 43.12 6.70

_5Z^

! I ^ b l e - l 6 ; Showing t he v a l u e s o f c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n

( r ) betvveen Leve l o f A s p i r e i t i o n ( L . A , ) and T e l i c

Dominance (T.D, ) , Leve l o f A s p i r a t i o n and Approva l

Motive ( A . M . ) and T e l i c Dominance and Approva l

Motive s c o r e s among Hindu and Muslim s u b j e c t s

V a r i a b l e s

L . A . / T . D .

L .A. /A.M.

T.D. /A.M.

. 09

. 0 8

.03

Hindu

N=100

> . 0 5

> . 0 5

> . 0 5

r

.25

.23

.02

Muslim N = 100

P

<.o?

<.05

>.05

Table-17: Showing the values of coeff ic ients of co r re la t ion

( r ) indicat ing the re la t ionsh ip between Level of

Aspiration and Telic Dominance.

Sub.jects

Hindu Boys

Hindu G i r l s

Muslim Boys

Muslim G i r l s

Older Hindu

Younger Hindu

Older Muslim

Younger Muslim

N

50

50

50

50

50

30

50

50

r

.22

.03

.17

.23

.10

,23

.07

.04

P

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>,03

>.05

>.05

•55-

Table-18: Showing the va lue s of c o e f f i c i e n t s of c o r r e l a t i o n

( r ) i n d i c a t i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p between Level of

Asp i r a t i on and Approval Motive.

Subjects

Hindu Boys

Hindu Girls

Muslim Boys

Muslim Girls

Older Hindu

Younger Hindu

Older Muslim

Younger Muslim

N

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

r

.20

,04

.50

.01

.35

.03

.28

.19

P

>.05

>.05

<.01

>.05

<.01

>.05

<.05

>.05

Table-19: Showing the values of coeff ic ients of co r r e l a t ion ( r ) indicat ing the re la t ionsh ip between Telic Dominance and Approval Motive.

Subjects

Hindu Boys

Hindu Girls

Muslim Boys

Muslim Girls

Older Hindu

Younger Hindu

Older Muslim

Younger Muslim

N

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

r

.19

.13

.29

.22

.05

.31

.33

.02

P

>.05

>.05

<.05

>.05

>.05

<.05

<.05

>.05

-56-

Table-20: Showing the values of partial (r) at .95 Confidence

Interval (CI) for Hindu and Muslim subjects.

Subjects

Hindu (N=100)

^12.3 ^I

.09 .10-.27

13.2

.08

GI 23.1

.11-.26 .03

GI

.16-.22

Muslim (N=100)

.23 .0A-.40 .23 .04-.04 .02 .17-.24

Table-21: Showing the values of partial r at .95 Confidence

Interval (CI) for various group of subjects.

Subjects 12.3 CI 13.2 CI 23.1 CI

Hindu Boys .18 .05-.49 .16

Hindu Girls .02 .24-.29 .03

Muslim Boys ,03 .10-.44 .47

Muslim Girls ,23 .04-.46 .04

Older Hindu .08 .35-.17 .34

Younger Hindu ,23 ,04-,46 .04

Older Muslim .02 .24-.29 .28

Younger Muslim .03 .10-.44 .18

.07-.44 ,15

.23-.30 .12

.23-.64 .24

.25-.27 .22

.55-.08 .01

.24-.29 .31

.01-.55 .32

.42-. 09 .01

.08-.43

.14-.38

.02-,51

.05-.45

.31-.22

.04-.52

.06-.54

.2>-,28

•57-

Table-22: Showing the va lues of Mul t ip le R and F fo r Hindu

and Muslim s u b j e c t s .

Sub jec t s N R^(23 )

Hindu

Muslim

100

100

.16

,3h

.83 >.05

Table-23: Showing the va lues of Mult iple R and F for v a r i o u s

group of s u b j e c t s .

Sub jec t s N

Hindu Boys

Hindu Girls

Muslim Boys

Muslim Girls

Older Hindu

Younger Hindu

Older Muslim

Younger Muslim

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

R^(23)

.94

,06

.50

.27

.36

.27

.31

.24

F

1.16

.05

5.19

1.22

2.27

1.22

1,68

.96

P

>.01

>.05

<.01

>.05

<.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

- 5 8 -

The r e s u l t s based on CR presented^may now be d e s c r i b e d .

As i s ev iden t from Table 1, no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found

between Hindu and Muslim s u b j e c t s on Level of A s p i r a t i o n

(CR = . 3 1 , P > . 0 5 ) .

Re l ig ious d i f f e r ences were no t found among s u b j e c t s

c l a s s i f i e d on the bas i s of sex va r i ab l e .H indu G i r l s , as compared

to Hindu Boys^scored s i g n i f i c a n t l y h igher on Level of A s p i r a t i o n

(CR = 2 .18 , P < .05 ) . Muslim Boys and Muslim G i r l s did not

d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y on Level of A s p i r a t i o n (CR = 1.93, P > . 0 5 ) .

S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were not found between o l d e r

Hindu and o l d e r Muslim s u b j e c t s (CR = . 1 3 , P > . 0 5 ) , younger

Hindu and younger ^1uslim s u b j e c t s (CR = . 3 5 , P > . 05 ) on Level

of A s p i r a t i o n . S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were found between

o l d e r Hindu and younger Hindu s u b j e c t s (CR = 2 .36 , P < . 0 5 ) ,

o l d e r Muslim and younger Muslim s u b j e c t s (CR = 2 .20 , P < , 0 5 ) .

Hindu and Muslim s u b j e c t s did no t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y

on Itelic Dominance (CR = 1.12, P > . 0 5 ) . The mean score of

Muslim boys was found to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ighe r on Tel le

Dominance i n comparison with Hindu boys iCR = 2 . 3 1 , P < . 0 5 ) ,

S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e rence was not found between Hindu g i r l s and

Muslim g i r l s on Tel le Dominance (CR = .74 , P > . 0 5 ) . There

were no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between Hindu boys and Hindu

g i r l s (CR » 1.66, P > . 0 5 ) , and Muslim boys and Muslim g i r l s

(CR = 1.46, P > . 0 5 ) , on Te l l e Dominance.

-59 -

Religious difference was not found among older subjects

on Telic Dominance (GR = 1.62, P > .05 ) . Younger Muslim

subjects scored s ign i f ican t ly higher than the younger Hindu

subjects on Telic Dominance (CR = 5,33, P < .01) , The mean

score of older Hindu subjects was s ign i f i can t ly higher on Telic

Dominance than younger Hindu subjects (CR = A. 18, P < ,01) .

Age difference was not found among Muslim subjects on Ttelic

Dominance (CR = ,25, P > .05) .

Hindu subjects scored s ign i f i can t ly higher than Muslim

subjects on Approval Motive (CR = 2.68, P < .01 ) . There was

s ign i f i can t difference between Hindu boys and Muslim boys in

terms of the mean score on Approval Motive (CR = 2,47, P < .05 ) .

Religious difference was not found among g i r l s on Approval

Motive (CR = 1.19, P > .05) . Sex differences did not ex i s t

among Hindu subjects (CR = .35 , P > .05) and Muslim subjects

(CR = 1.89, P > .05) on Approval Motive.

Younger Hindu subjects as well as younger Muslim

subjects scored s ign i f ican t ly higher than the i r counterparts on

Approval Motive (Cf, l^ble 14), Religious difference was found

among older subjects on Approval Motive (CR = 2.45, P < . 0 5 ) .

Hindu and Muslim subjects did not d i f fe r s ign i f i can t ly on

/^proval Motive (CR = 1.69, P > .05) .

Coefficient of co r re la t ion computed towards finding out

re la t ionsh ip between the personal i ty var iables indicated t h a t

s ign i f i can t posi t ive re la t ionsh ip existed between Level of

Aspiration and Telic Dominance (r « ,23 , P < .05) and Level of

- 6 0 -

A s p i r a t i o n and Approval Motive (r = . 2 3 , P < ,05 ) as f a r as

s co re s of Muslim sub jec t s a re concerned. S i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n ­

sh ip were not found between Level of A s p i r a t i o n and Tel ic

Dominance, Level of Asp i r a t i on and Approval Motive among Hindu

s u b j e c t s and Tel ic Dominance and Approval Motive scores^among

Hindu and Muslim sub j ec t s both.

S i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p were no t found between Level of

A s p i r a t i o n and Tel ic Dominance sco re s among Hindu boys (r = , 2 2 ,

P > . 0 5 ) , Muslim boys (r = , 1 7 , P > . 0 5 ) , Muslim g i r l s ( r = , 2 3 ,

P < . 0 5 ) , o lde r Hindu s u b j e c t s (r = . 10 , P > . 0 5 ) , younger Hindu

s u b j e c t s (r = , 2 3 , P < . 0 5 ) , o l d e r Muslim s u b j e c t s ( r = , 0 7 ,

P > ,05) and younger Muslim s u b j e c t s (r = . 04 , P > . 0 5 ) .

S i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p 5 e x i s t e d between Level

of Asp i r a t i on and Approval Motive scores among Muslim boys

( r = , 4 0 , P < . 0 1 ) , o lde r Hindu (r = , 3 5 , P < . 0 1 ) , and o l d e r

Muslim sub j ec t s ( r = , 2 8 , P < . 0 5 ) . No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s

e x i s t e d between Level of A s p i r a t i o n and Approval Motive s co re s

among Hindu boys (r =» . 20 , P > . 0 5 ) , Hindu g i r l s (r = . 0 1 ,

P > . 0 5 ) , Muslim g i r l s (r = , 0 1 , P > . 0 5 ) , younger Hindu

( r = , 0 3 , P > . 0 5 ) , and younger Muslim s u b j e c t s (r = , 19 , P > . 0 5 ) .

S i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s were not found between Te l i c

Dominance and Approval Motive s co re s among Hindu boys (r = . 1 9 ,

P > . 0 5 ) , Hindu g i r l s (r = , 1 3 , P > . 0 5 ) , Muslim g i r l s ( r = . 2 2 ,

P > ,05)t o lde r Hindu (r = , 0 5 , P > .05) and younger Muslim

s u b j e c t s (r = , 02 , P > . 0 5 ) , S i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s

e x i s t e d between Tel ic Dominance and Approval Motive sco res

- 6 1 -

among Muslim boys (r = ,29, P < .05) , younger Hindu (r = , 3 1 ,

P < .05) and older Muslim subjects (r = ,33 , P < .01)'.

ftesults obtained by means of Multiple ft, (Tables 22 and

23) indicate tha t using Level of Aspirat ion as the c r i t e r i a n

va r i ab le , both Telic Dominance and Approval Motive came out as

s ign i f i can t predic tors for Muslim subjects,-+{indu boys, Muslim

boys and older Hindu subjec ts , whereas for a l l other groups

these fa i led to be s ign i f i can t ind ica to r s .

Chapter Five

DISCUSSION AND CONGIUSION

Resu l t s obtained by means of s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t of da ta

r e l a t i n g to comparisons between groups formed accord ing to the

s o c i a l v a r i a b l e s on the given p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s , and those

r e l a t i n g to r e l a t i o n s h i p s among these v a r i a b l e s , may now be

d i s c u s s e d .

On l e v e l of a s p i r a t i o n , which was used as a measure of

hope and f e a r , and so used to a s s e s s the comparison groups in

tenns of the amount of p o s i t i v e e x p e c t a t i o n s and the l i k e l y

apprehensions which the members belonging to the group exper ienced ,

no d i f f e r e n c e s were found - between Hindu and Muslim s u b j e c t s .

One could perhaps ejcpect a d i f f e rence between the two groups in

view of p e r c e p t i o n of members of minor i ty communities t h a t i n

m a t t e r of p r o v i s i o n s of q u a l i t y of o p p o r t u n i t y , some groups a r e

more p r i v i l e g e d . And presumably, the minor i t y communities f e e l

t h a t they do n o t always g e t a f a i r d e a l and a r e apprehens ive of

being d i s c r im ina t ed a g a i n s t the s t anda rds they, wi th in t h e i r

own a r e a s , s e t fo r themselves to reach t h e i r a s p i r e d g o a l s ,

being n o t the same and the exper iences of t h e i r success and

f a i l u r e a l s o being u n l i k e , i t seems h igh ly p robab le t h a t the

two groups would no t have the same s t and ing on the dimension of

l e v e l of a s p i r a t i o n . A f i nd ing nega t i ng the expected would

perhaps r e q u i r e a deeper a n a l y s i s to be e x p l a i n e d . May be , the

- 6 3 -

experiences of success and f a i l u r e , q u a l i t a t i v e l y , may not be

the same for members of the two groups, they may have t he i r own

standards of excellence and judgements on t h e i r s t r i v ings to

achieve t he i r goals .

One important aspect of the finding which needs to be

underlined in intercommunity s tud ie s , such as Hindu-Muslim, i s

t h a t perhaps a l l i s not t ha t bad with the minority community in

respec t of a v a i l a b i l i t y of conditions which are equally favourable

to be motivated, aspire for and achieve, and tha t there i s l i t t l e

to guess of something of a discr iminat ion observed in respect of

avenues to prove one's met t l e . I t seems tha t conditions to

develop asp i ra t ion level and the meanings attached to the experiences

of success and fa i lure are perceived by member of the two as

being not very di f ferent , though over t ly these may appear to be so.

An ind i r ec t support to the above finding comes to the fore

when subjects are compared on the basis ot sex variablef Hindu

boys compared with Hindu g i r l s and muslim boys with Muslim g i r l s .

Nowhere i s there any evidence of re l ig ion playing a role in

differences on level of a sp i r a t i on . However, in ce r ta in of the

within-group comparisons, there did e x i s t some dif ferences . A

uniform pa t t e rn , based on mean differences, not always reaching

s i g n i f i c a n t levels of confidence, seemed to emerge among both

Hindu and Muslim subjects , grouped in terms of age and sex. The

older subjec ts , may they be Hindu or Muslim, had higher level of

-64 -

asp i r a t lon in comparison to t h e i r younger counterpar ts . This was

a lso true for g i r l s , both Hindus and Muslims.

Telic dominance, a composite measure of hope and fear with

i t s t e l i c and para t e l i c components, seemed to f igure var iously

among Hindu and Muslim subjec t s . However, th i s did not happen:

Hindu and Muslim, subjects did not show s ign i f i c an t differences

on th i s dimension. Looking a t the s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l and the

in t ro jec ted psychological make-up which the two communities are

perceived to have developed, i t was but na tu ra l to expect t ha t

Muslimswill have a higher placing on this as the gross output of

the three major components - ser ious minded, planning o r i en ta t ion

and arousal avoidance - had an appreciable t i l t towards fear and

apprehension (Murgatroyd e t a l . , 1978), which perhaps seemed to

be more compatible to Muslims, Telic dominance, presenting an

overa l l pos i t ion of the dominance of a th rea t -o r ien ted tendency

with comparatively l e s se r emphasis on f u t u r i s t i c approach and

tenac i ty of purpose, turned out to be a measure of fear in

g rea te r proportion than hope. I t would have been a more revealing

a l t e r n a t i v e to compare the two groups separa te ly for the t e l i c and

para t e l i c sub dimensions.

Religious differences, on the whole, have been found not to

e x i s t v i s - a -v i s t e l i c dominance. In smaller comparison groups,

there appeared differences in ce r t a in cases, whereas Hindu g i r l s

and Muslim g i r l s did not show s ign i f i c an t difference on t e l i c

dominance, Hindu boys and Muslim boys did show s ign i f i can t

- 6 5 -

differences (cf. Table-7), the l a t t e r being higher, Muslim

boys ' , upper edge on t e l i c dominance is perhaps expected in

view of Muslims' general approach to things being more p a s t -

ridden than f u t u r i s t i c and t h e i r tendency to avoid s i t u a t i o n s ,

r ep le te with p o s s i b i l i t i e s of unpleasant arousal and apprehended

fa i lu re (Kureshi & Khan, 1986 ) .

To r ep l i ca t e th is observation which tends to uphold th i s

s tereotype about Muslims and to accept i t as a tenable pos i t ion ,

some more evidence wil l have to be obtained.

Neither between Hindu boysA^indu g i r l s nor between Muslim

boys/Muslim g i r l s , s ign i f i can t differences have been found to

e x i s t in respect of t e l i c dominance, implying tha t gender i s not

a var iab le of consequence to t e l i c dominance.

In another comparison of a sub-group formed on the basis of

r e l i g i o n with age being constant , the younger Hindu and younger

Muslim subjects show s ign i f i can t di f ferences , (cf, Table-9) the

l a t t e r being more tel ie-dominant, whereas between the older Hindu

and o lde r Muslim subjects , there were no s ign i f i can t d i f ferences .

I t appears, to the unexpected observation of Muslims, on the

whole, being a t par with t h e i r Hindu counterpar ts , on t e l i c

dominance, the younger Muslim subjects contr ibut ion might probably

be g r e a t e r which might have been neutral ized by the lower score

among older Muslim subjects with the r e su l t tha t Muslim or Hindu

subjects showing no s ign i f ican t difference on t e l i c dominance.

"66-

What was true of the younger Muslim subjects seems to apply-

to the older Hindu subjects in relation to telic dominance. That

a " here and now" orientation characterizes the older Hindu

subjects, is what one would normally expect in the case of

Muslims as a whole.

On approval motive, Hindus were higher than Muslims

(cf, Table-11). There also appeared a consistent trend across

variations of age and sex. Whereas Hindu boys expressed stronger

need for avoidance of disapproval, as compared to Hindu girls,

the younger subjects, both Hindus and Muslims were more censQr^

avoidant.

It may be noted that of the two measures which may be

termed as fear related, it is with approval motive that overall

differences of religion have been found to exist. That Hindu

subjects rather than Muslim subjects are disapproval-threatened,

is some-what unexpected a finding in view of the assumption

prevailing in certain quarters^and among Muslim subjects also,

supported by some earlier studies involving aspects of avoidance

behaviour (Rareshi, 1975)f that there are greater reasons for

Muslims to be dominated by threat and apprehension than Hindus,

This observation goes contrary to the stereotype that Muslims,

as minority community,are generally more apprehensive of unfair

treatment meted out to them in all walks of life. What should

have applied to Muslims, coming out to be true for Hindus, sounds

inconsistent with the self concept and cultural conditioning of

-67-

members of minority community^who perceive themselves as not

getting their due share in the affairs of various areas of

activity in Indian Society,

One small group comparison also is in line with Hindu

subjects higher placing on a dimension expressing the apprehen­

sion of disapproval, anxiety and denial and other negative

motivational state. As in the sample as a whole,so also in the

comparison groups, it was Hindus, both boys and girls separately,

who were high on approval motive as compared to Muslim boys and

Muslim girls (cf, Table-12). This provides further support to

the observation that in approval motive Hindus may be higher

than Muslims.

In small group comparisons^the younger subjects, both Hindu

QiiqfMuslim, expressed stronger tendency to approval, indicating

that they are more apprehensive about the possibility of dis­

approval and of being let down in the eyes of others.

Although, the present study was basically addressed to

discovering the possible differences between the comparison

groups in level of aspiration, telic dominance, and approval

motive, coreelational analysis was also carried out in the

belief that this would offer further information to be used in

support of intergroup differences on the given personality

variables. However, this was not to be, as most relationships

studied were found to be insignificant. Without regard to the

social variables in question the Pearson Product-moment

-69-

correlation did not yield any significant relationship between

level of aspiration/telic dominance, level of aspiration/

approval motive, telic dominance/approval motive. In some

smaller groups, however, there existed significant relationships.

Level of aspiration and telic dominance, level of aspiration

and approval motive, were found to be significantly related among

Muslim subjects, whereas telic dominance and approval motive

were found to be unrelated in all the groups (cf, Table-l6).

Whereas, level of aspiration and telic dominance were

found to be unrelated in all the smaller groups (cf, Table-17),

level of aspiration and approval motive showed significant

relationship among groups of Muslim boys, older Hindus and older

Muslims. Telic dominance and approval motive were significantly

related among Muslim boys and younger Hindu subjects'^ in rest

of the groups these remaining unrelated. Conceived as measures

of fear, t«ll« dominance and approval motive were expected to be

higher in the same group^but in the comparison involving the

largest group only,one of the two was higher among the Hindus,

One may surmise that telic dominance and approval motive may not

necessarily be related to each other in terms of the quality of

fear and apprehension, though they may still be the dimensions

of fear and avoidance.

In the case of Hindu girls and younger fluslims, telic

dominance and approval motive covaried, suggesting that among

subjects in these groups in particular, avoidance of arousal and

of disapproval meant not the same. These solitary instances,

-69-

however, may not be presented as evidence for the going-

togetherness of telle dominance and approval motive. It would be

safer not to place undue reliance on this observation. As already-

indicated, the multiple correlation analysis in relation to

level of aspiration, telic dominance and approval motive (of.

Table 22 and 23), using the first as the criterian variable,

indicated the rest two to be significant predictors among Muslims

as a whole,Muslim boys, Hindu boys and older Hindu subjects.

The position of the three dimensions of personality which

in view of their conceptual essence, was presumed to be consistent

across groups formed on the basis of religion, sex and age, showed

an unexpected pattern. That telic dominance and approval motive

represented fear and avoidance, they were likely to show up in

the same strength among members of the same group. And level of

aspiration being a measure of hope and approach was perhaps less

likely to be present in these groups. However, since the results

are not consistent with the expected outcome, it may be assumed

that, may be, the composite score of both telic dominance and

approval motive is the sum of components which are not necessarily

similar, and if treated separately would have given different

results. This tends to suggest that analysis of scores on these

dimensions should be carried out in terms of their components,

and the overall score gives a deceptive picture.

For example, whereas " serious mindedness" and "planning

orientation" , apparently represent positive goal orientation,

another components viz, " arousal avoidance" , represents threat

-70-

orientation. So, also the areas of approval motive pertain both

to positive self presentation and defensiveness, though the

overall measure being a case of the need for avoidance of social

disapproval.

Logically, should telic dominance and approval motive be

treated as measures of fear and avoidance, if one has figured in

significant strength in one group (approval motive being higher

among Hindu subjects), the other, namely, telic dominance, should

also be higher among the Hindu subjects, which it is not. Likewise,

if telic dominance is not higher enough among Muslim subjects to

be significantly different from that among Hindu subjects,

approval motive should also show the same pattern. However,

although being conceptually identical, only one of the two

(approval motive among Hindus) has been found to be higher, with

telic dominance showing up in equal amount among both Hindu and

Muslim subjects.

The measure of hope and positive goal-setting (level of

aspiration) was found to be insensitive to any social variable.

However, looking at the nature of results it would not

be safe to leap to any conclusive generalizations unless the

study is replicated with some other measures knov/n for their

attributes of hope and fear.

SUMMARY

The study was mainly concerned with assessing 'hope' and

' fear ' in male and female subjects of Hindu and Muslim communi­

t i e s , through ce r ta in personality var iab les - Level of a sp i r a t i on ,

t e l l e dominance, and approval motive, Hopes and fears are the

contant companions of human being in t h e i r day - today a c t i v i t i e s .

These may be defined in many ways. In l i t e r a t u r e , poetry, fine

a r t s , these concept have been used ra ther frequently, s t r e ss ing

t h e i r relevance to human behaviour. That most human behaviour

may be boiled down to these p r inc ipa l s t a t e s i s indica t ive of

t h e i r indispensabi l l ty to human motivation and performance. In

goa l - s e t t i ng and accomplishmentS;,or otherwise, the role of hope

and fear i s only two evident; while hope i s precursor to

at tainment, fear is a prelude to f a i l u r e .

Fear means the feeling of being in danger, of being scared.

I t can be ident i f ied in such c l i n i c a l problems as anxiety,

i n f e r i o r i t y , shame and g u i l t . Hope Is a feel ing of wanting some

spec ia l thing and a feeling t h a t i t may be a t t a ined . There can

be dreams without hope but not hope without dreams.

'Level of aspiration* used as a measure of hope in t h i s

study, means the standard t h a t an individual expects to reach^a

t a rge t of performance^of which he has had some previous experience,

L.A, coding t e s t was used to measure this dimension. The indices

of l eve l of asp i ra t ion were, (a) Ideal goal and Action goal,

(b) Inner discrepancy (c) Attainment discrepancy and (d) Goal

- 72 -

discrepancy, the l a t t e r of which was usually the index used in

the present study for determining leve l of a sp i r a t i on .

Telle dominance was used as a dimension of fear and hope.

According to Murgatroyd and o thers , Telle dominance i s a s t a t e

of mind in which an individual sees himself persuing some

e s s e n t i a l goal . The source of pleasure in t h i s s t a t e i s achieve­

ment or an t i c ipa t ion of achievement of a goal or a general future

o r i en t a t i on . Of the three i n t e r r e l a t e d components of t e l l e

dominance serious mindedness, planning o r i en ta t ion , and arousal

avoidance - the f i r s t two appear to be re la ted to hope and the

l a t t e r appears to be re la ted to fear .

Approval motive, another dimension having to do with hope

and fear , according to Marlowe and Growne, means something of

a re l iance on the evaluative judgements of o thers which i s

believed to come from two fac tors : (a) a motive to seek approval

an approach behaviour and (b) a motive to shun disapproval -

avoidance behaviour. The behaviour co r re la t e s of approval

motivation were assumed to include conformity, personal i ty and

s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to socia l inf luence. Those with high approval

motivation_,appeared to pay g rea te r regard to soc i a l customs and

sanct ions . Those avoidant of disapproval were expected to be

defensive in s i tua t ions where they would be subjected to s o c i a l

censor^ and disapproval.

Whatever studies were ava i lb le on these dimensions were

reviewed with a view to emphasizing the need for embarking upon

th i s study.

-73-

A sample of 200 students was dravm from A.M.U, Gir ls High

School, Women's College, City High School and the Senior

Secondary School Cer t i f i ca te Program of Aligarh Muslim Univers i ty .

I t was desired tha t the number of subjects f a l l i n g in each group,

formed according to the va r iab les of r e l ig ion , sex, and age

should be equal. The tools consistedofL.A, coding t e s t , a Hindi

vers ion of t e l i c dominance sca l e , and a Hindi version of approval

motive sca le , developed by Tr ipa th i and Tr ipa th i . These t e s t s

were administered in two separate sess ions , and general ly in

small groups.

The data were analyzed by means of C r i t i c a l Ratio,

pearson product moment co r r e l a t ion method, p a r t i a l r , s ignif icance

of p a r t i a l r and multiple co r r e l a t i on .

The major findings of the study were :

- Hindu g i r l s , as compared to Hindu boys, scored s i g n i f i ­

cantly higher on leve l of a sp i r a t ion ,

- On leve l of a sp i ra t ion s ign i f i can t differences were found

between older Hindu and younger Hindu subjec ts , older

Muslim and younger Muslim subjec ts .

- Muslim boys were found to be s ign i f i can t ly higher on t e l i c

dominance in comparison with Hindu boys.

- Younger Muslim subjects scored s ign i f i can t ly higher than

the younger Hindu subjects on t e l i c dominance.

-7A-

Older Hindu subjects were significantly higher on telle

dominance than younger Hindu subjects.

Hindu subjects scored significantly higher than Muslim

subjects on approval motive.

There was significant difference between Hindu boys and

Muslim boys on approval motive, the former scoring higher.

Younger Hindu subjects as well as younger Muslim subjects

scored significantly higher than their counterparts on

approval motive.

Older Hindu subjects, as compared to older Muslim

subjects were significantly higher on approval motive.

Significant positive relationship existed between level

of aspiration and approval motive scores among Muslim boys,

older Hindu and older Muslim subjects.

Significant positive relationships existed between telle

dominance and approval motive scores among Musi^m boys,

younger Hindu and older Muslim subjects.

Results obtained by means of multiple R, indicated that

using level of aspiration as the criterion variable, both

telle dominance and approval motive came out as significant

predictors for Muslim subjects, Hindu boys, Muslim boys

and older Hindu subjects.

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M i l l e r , T. I.^ & Mi l l e r , P.M. Some fan tasy c o r r e l a t e s of

exper imenta l ly aroused a g g r e s s i o n . Journa l of S o c i a l and

C l i n i c a l Psychology. 1973, 12, 378-383.

Mlllham, J . Two components of need for approva l score and t h e i r

r e l a t i o n s h i p to chea t ing fol lowing success and f a i l u r e .

Journa l of Research in P e r s o n a l i t y . 1974, 8 , 378-392.

Mi l l ime t , C.R, Manifest a n x i e t y - defens iveness s c a l e : F i r s t

f a c t o r of the MMPI r e v i s i t e d . Psycho log ica l Repor t s , 1970,

27, 603-616.

Murgatroyd, S . , Rushton, C. , Apter , M, J . ,& Ray, C. The deve lop­

ment of the Tel le Dominance Sca l e . Jou rna l of P e r s o n a l i t y

Assessment. 1978, 42, 519-528.

pa lmer , J.^ & A l t r o c h i , J . A t t r i b u t i o n of h o s t i l e i n t e n t as

unconscious . Journa l of P e r s o n a l i t y . 1967, 35, 164-177.

Pep lau , A. Impact of f ea r of success and sex r o l e a t t i t u d e on

women's compet i t ive achievement . Jou rna l of P e r s o n a l i t y

and Soc i a l Psychology. 1976, 34, 561-568.

P rasad , M.,. & Prasad , A. An exper imenta l i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o

p e r c e p t u a l defense a s a func t ion of need for app rova l ,

Behaviourometrica. 1971, 1, 8A-88.

-83-

Rapoport, A,, Ghammah, A., Dwyer, J., & Cyr. J. Three-personon-

Zero - Sun nonegotiable games Behavioural Science. 1962,

7, 38-58.

Robinson, P. The measurement of achievement motivation,

unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oxford,

1961,

Rosenfeld, J.M. Some perceptual and cognitive correlates of

strong approval motivation. Journal of Consulting and

Clinical Psychology. 1967, 31, 507-512.

Rosen, S.,& Tesser, A. Fear of negative evaluation and the

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1972, 22, 124-141.

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fiducatlonal Psychology. 1974, 66, 599-608.

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-84-

Shaver, K,G. An introduction to attribution processes. Cambridge,

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-85-

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-86-

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APPENDICES

THfi: L. A. CODING TEST

A. ANSARI and G. A. ANSARI

A L I G A R H

Date 3 / ^ . . ? N a m e . . ^ . . . . : . ^ ^ S ^ . .

Age ./f.j^!?y.: Sex f ^ . & i ^

Education or Class Dr.. Occ\x^dX\on..S^.i^rf^i^.L (If in service specify type of job)

Father's Occupation..^^;^^^^.rfr<:^ Own lncom£f^^..^.l&d^. (In case of students)

Father's Income •:^.^..Qf?J^. YitWgio^l^^^.. Caste (If any).

Schoo\dtLL]:.fLt{:?^^^ov Place of Work

IIVSTIIUCTIOIVS

On the left side is given a key to the coding system. Go through it and solve the example on the right.

K E Y EXAMPLE

A

+

1 B 1 C

1

= /

D

v/

E F

? ::

G

X

1

/ +

1

1 1

? i X i v/ 1

This test measures your expectations regarding your performance in a series of task in which you have to write letters for symbols according to the above key. On each of the following pages there is the key followed by seventy-five (75) codes. Your task is to write the letter A, B, C, D, E, F or G, above each symbol according to the key. Work as quickly as possible, but not at the expense of accuracy. There are eleven (11) parts of the test, all exactly alike. Each part has five rows of codes just like those in the example. You have to write a letter above each symbol. You will have only 1 minute for each part. Start when I tell you to start and don't work when I say STOP. ON THE LEFT TOP OF EACH PART WRITE THE NUMBER OF CODES YOU EXPECT TO COMPLETE IN THE I MINUTE THAT WILL BE ALLOWED TO YOU FOR EACH PART. WRITE THE NUMBER BEFORE YOU START TO WORK.

3

6. IN EACH PART, AFTER YOU HAVE STOPPED WORKING, C O U N ^ THE NUMBER OF CODES YOU HAVE COMPLETED, AND WRITE THE NUMBER IN THE SPACE PROVIDED AT THE LEFT BOTTOM OF THE PAGE.

7. You will get one mark for each code correctly solved. For example, if you correctly solve 20 single codes in a page you will get 20 marks, if you solve 50 single codes correctly you will get 50 marks, and so on.

8. Write the correct letters for the symbols in a continuation, starting from the first symbol, then doing the second, then the third, then the fourth, and so on. DO NOT LEAVE ANY SYMBOL UNSOLVED IN THE MIDDLE. •

9. If there is anything you would like me to clarify or any question you would like me to answer in this connection it should be done now, but don't ask any question after you have started working.

PLEASE CONCENTRATE OVER THE TASK

f?T»T

^ H m ^\T( ^T% ^ wfu^

3T*RT Wl^ (3niT ^^^TTt I eft iTf f%f«q % f%fr sr fR r ^ | )

sr^r 5lTf?T (sniT ^ rrfcT | )

mi V pTRfwT^ f ^ ' sftT f s 3r^^ % 1 ^ sfm. w\^i 5f f ^ fir | afV?: f^ arsr % fm. f%?f (code) %^ ffv%

^=rrf^ ^ ^w ¥tf5itr I KEY EXAMPLE

A

+

B

=

C

/

D

^/

E

?

F G

X '•'• 1 + = ? X v/

SPBT l:?3 "FT ^ 3 ^ ^ 3TN% ^ « n ? r T ^ ^?r 3n!TT wt nT<rTT I 3ft 3 m f%?ft ^nrrmr ^'i? ^> JPT^ ^ 7^% ?nn^ I I ^ ^ (Test) ^ sTTTSFt 1%^ T T f ^ t % g?n: ^JT% fffft^cr 3T?TT f ^ r ^ | ) snr^ ^ ^ s T T

A, B, C, D , E, F ^ G, # % 5ft PrfRcT ar^n: ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^tfanr t JT ^^m 3m i^? f t ^ ?r ^T ff^'

sTTWt t^z % ^T «rnr ^ ^ r ^ % ftrtr ^ r r T ITT^TJ ( i Minute ) ^ gTTJT f JTF ^rnrrr i sr? ?T^ Jt arnr^

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iTTqt 3ftT ^ "TT ^ f r ? ^ ^ T ? TT fwg gtfiTir |

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f'T^'t I

t:- STH^ f%?|t % 3?r^ H ^ 3T?in; 5TTT TR f%^ f I anr T 7^% f^J^ ^TJ R: q ^ ^ 1 ^ ^sriT, f«B7; f%f|

^n r?: ?> ^ , PIT?: f^?? JT gr cft^ ^ , ftsr ^ f ^TRT ==rrT Ft, aftT w t ^n:^ ar?^ CT^ I

qsq- ^ f%^ f ^ f ?rt ^ f ^ fkm ?r gtff% i

?T? ^ 5(7^ T ^f®^ I

ar^r 3Tg FT?r aPT^ ?T3f # aftT ^ T r - ^ S2TR ^tfsrq I

C^ ^ . ) ^

LT*^ r^ ^ ^ i _ / ^ k j y^ t ( ,, ^ "

; ( u i * rA»f'«» *>j=- / O •** *5 r •

^ i ^ f ^f ^b ^iu^f ; }

(fi* o l i ^ y />)

yi^tu^

y uaGUii r j jS^ ^ jjjf j j» c j j a . . ^ l^k b^ o * - AJla. J t j ^ ^ ^J^ (Codc) jjUJ

A

+

B

=

C

/

KEY

D E

y\ 7

F

::

G

X "•

EXAMPLE

/ + ? X V

t r ^ v ^ <->*- 2 j ^ ^JH i^ (Task) pis' j t j ^ i - i - ^ ^ i i ^ AJ j-aS^ f (Test) ^ ^ y t — r

o*^ (Test) «5-.** if'^ - ^ ^ (-y*- y t>-* ' u i * I j ^ t * y J ^J < > ^ t ^^ ls ' <-^ '^

jjlk- ^ ^ j ^ t ^ c»j> ^ «!- ui- A, B, C, D, E, F, li G, yj A u ^ j * V^ *

gitJ ^ otJLiJ , j i ^ d-aa. jA - yJiA ^--ja. «-Ot V - J ^ U** «f^ I I «£ (TCSt) « - * ^ t^t—f

j ^ y i u ) ^ J * y V^ - o** J ^ ^ uA- J ^ J> u* * j * J ' ^ ' ^ ^ *^ - u * * t ^ t^ii o * « ^

K Jla. U4> «i«3j b' (1 Minute) o-*- OCJ! U»J*9 ^iJ ^ ^ j ^ <>• ^ <£^ j*" <i «i—i? y y?—r

«- J UJ*^ 'r'^ J ^ ' u l t ^ y - i j ^ tir" *»- V ' Vr^ u i j ^ L j J ^ * ^ J u*' | ^ V^

gi*?- QtS' 'i>*3^ ^ (1 Minute) c>*^ tJi^t ^ c^ i j L j j ^ (-1 ^>j p <>>^ A <!S^ j ^ — 0

J * ^ < / ^ j ^ J * Oi* e)^*J«i y Ui^i j^ L j J ^ fl^ *:-?• u ; ^ u i ^ j ^ f J ^ " ^ J tT-' y U**^

- i^ io ttfUfcj t j jeb^ ^ j ^ c/ r* 4*' ' ' t/ ' jv «i'y v' ^* -o*«?-^ *

PART I

No. of Codes I exp

— A ^ n r n ^ % dr- fi... 55r dJlSlI 1 H H"'

( . ^ Jjj*j)

>ect '

dD.

{^wn i rfeti)

If ^Jfi)i ij^ VSJULAJ

KEY

A

+

B

=

C

/

D

V

E

?

F G

X

B / /I S A 4 I A L1 D ^ ^^ A B = + X X ^ X +

B

16 17

10 11 12 13

18 19 20 21 22

14 15

fe =

/

? ^

+ D

v/

r ;:

^-)

X

r ?

f "

/ ^

+ C)

X

n v/

L ? /

F ••

S :=

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

/\

+ IT

D

E

61

'".

X

% f) 0 + v/

C f-

32 33

6 • ^ t \ l!\,\

= 1 X v/ +

^/

X

34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

62 • 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

l^

+ 44

•L

45

a X

46

+

f:^ :;

47

/

A + 48

?

6 =

49

V

0 v /

50

X

n 1

X

51

X

7-

7

52

?

1

X

53

V

h ^

54

+

h + 55

=

C^

X

56

?

jZ?

=

57

X

/

;:

58

v /

r] +

59

=

D

V

60

?

72 73 74 75

Not. of Codes I Completed...

sta- ./

(#5qT fnfetT)

( , ^ ^I^-)

.....6/

' ^ ^ 1^ ftr^

PART II

No. of Codes I e>

^ t 3TT5IT 1 r^ ^•

f^XJ ol^J)

tpect ^ 0

(?r^r f%%tT)

KEY

A

+

B

=

C

/

D

V

E

?

F G

X

(^WT f^fgtr)

{ J ^ ^IJJU)

..lf...C

•• f%?5 ^ % ^

A

B

C

D

t

/I 1

1

1

1 16

f ~

31

A '

v/

46

/

/

"

2

ri X

17

;

32

/

?

47

?

^

+ 3

/

;;

18

/ )

+ 33

;

+ 48

;;

%

=

4

/ i

+ 19

0 V

34

• /*-

=

49

•+

i ?

5

0 ' V

20

? :;

35

I

::

50

^/

fj

V

6

A

?

21

/

?

36

-S

X

51

+

^)

X

7

r ?

22

A. =

37

^ i

?

52

7

/ :

V 8

/^

—

23

^)

X

38

1 53

=

A + 9

t ;;

24

f. =

39

/I + 54

X

c-7

10

^ )

X

25

/ '

;;

40

f ;:

55

?

/ )

+ n

i^ ?

26

/y

v /

41

r v/

56

+

r-) X

12

f :;

27

/ )

+ 42

/ )

+ 57

v /

P

13

c x /

28

I—

/

43

r ;;

58

+

/

14

i

+ 29

f

7

44

I

n 59

/

-

/

15

/

30

/

45

"

^ „ 60

\----61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75

PART III

No. of Codes I expect to complete ^..Q.

1^? ^ ^x mi {t^j f^rfetr)

(J^ «}^-)

KYE

A

+

B

=

C

/

D

V

E

7

F

• • • •

G

X

61 62 63 64 65

(?f©TT T^Tmrr)

IJ^ ^U^)

....Jb...(,

•• pEFf 5?T % ^

A

B

C

D

E

A + 1

r 1 16

A + 31

A + 46

=

c /

2

f

17

r

/

32

t — - ^

?

47

?

/-

?

3

/I + 18

I A) v^

33

*

X

48

+

A + 4

6 =

19

£ ?

34

/

49

?

^^

X

5

0^ v/

20

^

X

35

r X

50

::

/ .

=

6

C) X

21 •

J]

+ 36

P ?

51

X

r ?

7

I ?

22

f ?

37

/

52

^/

c 1 8

X

23

Ir ?

38

n N/

53

/

/I + 9

r/ >/

24

/i + 39

P ^/

54

+

/.

=

10

/)

+ 25

A. =

40

f)

+ 55

X

t^ 1

11

tS X

26

t

?

41

^

=

56

v/

^ .

X

12

r-,' =

27

C\ X

42

;;

57

?

/ ;

+ 13

I ' :;

28

0 V

43

A X

58

?

^

=

14

t

/

29

f '''•

44

h ~

59

:;

f :;

15

/ )

V

30

n v/

45

c

/

60

X

66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75

10

PART IV

No. of Codes I expect to complete

(?mT f^rfetr)

(^^xj dUkS)

KE^

A 1 B

+ =

C

/

D

v/

E

?

F G

X

No.

JS

of Codes I Completed...

J-(?rwT f rfetr)

(.>4XJ t>|A*i)

. .i,-5 5r f%^

A

B

C

D

F

£ 9

1

/] + 16

c /

31

0 V

46

I ?

6 D 1 X 1 V

2 3

1^

/

0^

17 18

^)

X

/ )

+ 32 33

^

X

r ;;

47 48

X

^

?

/

4

,

••

19

a 7

34

/) 1 1

49

/

fi

5

^ • »

X

20

(T /

35

1

50

=

;v + 6

£ =

21

A + 36

r

X

51

+

6 X

7

/

?

22

E ?

37

5 7

52

/

f

8

/]

+ 23

0 X

38

6 —

53

:;

t 7

9

/I + 24

^

=

39

^^

X

54

X

v 10

r6 =

25

A + 40

^

/

55

v

^

?

11

L

7

26

6 X

41

I 7

56

?

•- )

X

12

tj^ X

27

f

42*

/:? V

57

X

c /

13

t ;;

28

5 =

3

/I

+ 58

/

/] x/

14

/^•5

=

29

€ 7

44

c 1

59

7

ci8

=

15

::

30

/

>/

45

^.

?

60

=

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75

11

PART V

No. of Codes I expect > to complete CD..

^ 3TTm I % ^• (?fsq7 f^rfeti)

(^<J .SUAJ)

KEY

A

+

B

=

C

/

D

v/

E

?

F

:;

G

X

No. of Codes I Completed

(wrr M%tT)

{J^ |A*J)

. .^4

A

B

C

r>

t ?

1

t ?

16

n, ^

%

=

^

X

2

0 s/

17

c ^/

32

e ?

ZT ?

3

^

1 18

;

-

33

4 +

c 1 4

X

19

4 + 34

0 V

^

=

5

£ ?

20

/)

^

35

y'~ ;:

4 + 6

/ J

v 21

A X

36

X

6 =

7

F ::

22

/O v/

P

Z: ?

r ••

8

y ;;

23

L

/

38

c , 1

<s X

9

/)

+ 24

/'

+ 39

/^

+

D v/

10

6 =

25

.^)

X

40

6 X

/

?

11

h ?

26

/)

V 41

^

x/

^/

X

12

G X

27

L ?

42

6 ?

r 1 ?

]^

13 14 15

A v/

C) X

^^

28 29 30

e ?

f 6 X

43 44 45

0 V

f ;:

o

X

B

46

/s

61

47

P ::

62

48

f\ + 63

49

h =

64

50

e 7

65

51

'.'1

X

66

52

/

67

53

6 =

68

54

i — •

?

69

55

h + 70

56

X

71

57

h =

72

58

(T /

73

59

0 v/

74

60

r '•'•

75

12

PART VI

No. of Codes I expect to complete C..^.

^t anm I ftj ?r {'ST n f?Tf^)

(. U;)

KEY

A

+

B C

/

D E

?

F G

X

Cl 1 n 1 U<-l^ I ^ 1 \ € £ /^ ^ /

X v/ = ? + 4-1

L

/

2

,/] +

3

/ )

v /

4

^ )

X

5

/i =

6

6 X

7

£ 7

10 11 12 13 14

16

F ;:

17 18

/) 1^ + —

19

/ ;

v/

20

/

21

6 X

22

'1 +

23 24 25 26 27 28 29

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

u v/ X

Y ^. z? b C L /: .n X

/^

46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59

/ n = V

1 +

A ^ +

h +

E r r,

X

r X

K ^

61 62 63 64 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74

( SJTT f^Fsrir)

iS' ^Sk. uylA.&J (^«X) ^b*j)

H :.

<r

15

/D v

f 1

• • « •

C

1

t / )

? +

R

= X

30

(T)

X

C

1

t)

+ 6 =

r '•'• ?

^

?

--

/

45

l) V 60

/)

+ 75

PART VII

13

No, of Codes I exp to complete

- . -. «

f ^ f5T ^X 'TTT

( J ^ ^UW)

:!k..2 (H^TT Mstr)

8" »J> ^J^ uyUlxJ

KEY

A

+

B

=

C

/

D

v/

E

9

F

::

G

X

^ £ = ?

^

X

£ ?

6 1/) = v/

A 4-

f ?

r ?

/ )

+ '^)

X

^

? 0 v/

(::

/ + 1

r

'•'•

2

/b =

3

r

1

4

D v/

5

6 X

6

/ )

+

7

F ?

8

+

9

F ;;

10

/ )

+

11 12

6i f = ?

13

^

X

14

0 v/

15

^

/

16

1

17

r r

'•'•

18

6A

X

19

/ '

+

20

«

21

y) ^

22

I

23

/ (1>.

X

24

^ ?

25

^

v/

26

6 X

27

f ..

28

1/) +

29

<:

/

30

b ?

31

E 1

32

fl +

33

t 1

34

h

35

/^

• •

36

X

37

o v/

38

r /

39

/ )

+

40

^

X

41

0 V

42

r 1

43

A X

44

F '•'•

45

-:^

+ 46

?

47

c 1

48

. )

+

49

n v/

50

f ::

51

?

52

6 X

53

6 =

54

D V

55

F ?

56

£ ?

57

F :;

58

X

59

/

60

=

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75

No. of Codes I Completed..

^ >

(H^T Mm)

(Jl XJ fA*.

• ^

0

f^f ^ f ^

14

PART VIII

No. of Codes I expect , . to complete If....^.

{^^^T firfetr)

(^<cj JU*;)

KEY

A

+ /

B

=

C

/

D

x/

E

?

F

::

G

X

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74

No. of Codes I Completed

{?fWT Hrlfe i)

(^^ ^}*W)

.A

A

B

C

D

n

' ^

=

1

f '•'•

16

/? v/

31

/

V

46

/? v/

t ?

2

^ ^ =

17

-1 X

32

/

47

I 7

/ )

+ 3

A + 18

?

33

^

48

r/ V

/ )

x/

4

X

19

^

::

34

r

1 49

r

/ )

+ 5

L ?

20

/

35

r ::

50

X

/

"

6

1 =

21

A:; =

36

D v/

51

0 v/

£ ?

7

/)

+ 22

/I + 37

A

52

/)

+

c 1 8

r /

23

f^^

=

38

z: ?

53

(1 ?

r

X

9

Z5 ?

24

X

39

X

54

/

T

?

10

/^

+ 25

c /

40

/

H-

55

/9 v/

+ 11

1 ^

/

26

X

41

-'-V

/

56

v_

/

V

12

c ?

27

-

1 42

^ ^

/

57

o7

X

/ ^

+ 13

F\ + 28

r-) X

43

c I 58

/^

=

r

/

14

X

29

n V 44

f ::

59

L ?

2 ?

15

^

=

30

- O

/

45

£ ?

60

^

/

75

15

PART IX >

No. of Codfs I expect to complete^^- fa-^-

5 ^ STTOT I 1 ^ ^ ' I (WTT f<Hfk'(i)

KEY

A

+

B

=

C

/

D

V

E

?

F G

X

A

B

C

D

E

F 11

1

^

'1

16

4 + 31

X

46

)-:

V

(

1 ^

1 17

^

=

32

c /

47

W

/

D v/

3

X

18

/)

v/

33

F ;;

48

^

?

^ L,-)

X

4

.^

••

19

C)

X

34

L ?

49

/

=

/)

+ 5

/? =

20

t 7

35

P v/

50

L-l

X

^ ?

6

. , • )

X

21

L )

X

36

'-)

X

51

/

••

/f + 7

r

;;

22

/:..'

v/

37

/ )

+ 52

L ?

7

?

8

/)

v/

23

/)

+ 38

f ::

53

/)

V

0 v/

9

^

=

24

G X

39

L ?

54

A +

^ e

/

10

/ ! )

v/

25

A

40

L

X

55

A

+

X

11

/? =

26

/)

+ 41

/ .

=

56

t ?

^>

=

12

D v/

27

f ::

42

C" /

57

C)

X

f"

;:

13

/ ^

;:

28

'D v/

43

Q X

58

/)

+

•

=

14

/)

+ 29

(

1 44

0 V 59

h ;;

/"

/

15

o X

30

/5 —

45

t' ?

60

C x/

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75

No.

^ c

of Codes I Completed.

(^ssiTT f^rfeir)

(^^A^X) C > \ ^

4§'" ^ fe^

L L>*^

16

PART

No. of Codes I expect -.

{mm r^ffgcr)

A

B

C

D

E

(^XJ a|j*;) S' ^

C

/

t r / ;

? 1 / 1 V / )

+

f ;;

6 =

r ^1 X

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A +

h

+ 6 =

r

9

^^

X

/

••

^

=

^

+ 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

/^

/

^ .

=

/ )

+ f ;;

A ;:

D V

I 1

G X

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

f' v/

r 1

/ ^ 6

+ 1 X D s/

E 1

t ?

r ;:

46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

L

1 u s/

r :: X

p. =z

h +

t ?

'v_

/

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68

No. (

(?f5JTr f^rfetr)

{J^ ^ )^J)

X

A

+

/2.

—

9

A

?

24

c 1

39

G

X

54

5 =

69

B

=

^

?

10

t

?

25

r. %/

40

/ )

+ 55

X

70

C

/

/-

;;

11

n V

26

t =

41

L--")

X

56

ft

=

71

K E Y

D

V

0 V 12

^ ^

X

27

G X

42

t ?

57

L ?

72

E

1

,1 + 13

c

/

28

^

?

43

/^,

=

58

/I + 73

T

;:

f • '

14""

n v /

29

X

44

/ .

x /

59

F ::

74

G

X

n =.

\5

')

X

30

^ \

M 45

r v /

60

fi x /

75

17

PART XI

No. of Codes I expect ^ to complete .T/.-V?.,

5 ^ 317917 I f^ t * ( €TT firfy^)

{J^ o)jju)

A

+

B

=

C

/

KEY

D

V

E

?

F

• •

G

X

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68

No. of Codes I Completed "/"'i^"

69 70 71

^ f^l ^ r f ^

(ffs?T Mm:) JS J a . uyUl&J 2 |_ 4

D V

1

r /

16

=

31

^

X

46

t ?

/^

::

2

f ;:

17

0 V

32

5 =

47

A

+

^

/

3

Ci

X

18

1/1 + 33

r

/

48

f :;

^

X

4

r -f-

19

/ '

"

34

f ::

49

6 =

A + 5

o\ v/

20

/? >/

35

0 v/

50

/ )

v/

6 X

6

/ )

+ 21

f) + 36

£ ?

51

/

^

/

7

t ?

22

6 X

37

/ )

+ 52

'"l

X

D x/

8

^

=

23

^

=

38

<t ?

53

£? ?

/ ^

::

9

6?

X

24

£ 7

39

- ^

=

54

B =

£ ?

10

0 s/

25

/C

:;

40

o v/

55

F :;

«

=

^

=

11 12

A +

*

=

26 27

S =

^ )

X

41 42

C; X

^

/

56 57

A +

/ ^

=

f. 7

13

F ;:

28

D v/

43

£ ?

58

D

v/

c /

14

^

1

29

t ?

44

^

59

C

/

/^

+ 15

C 1

30

e. X

45

A

+ 60

r—

t ?

72 73 74 75

18

scoRiiVG sueer

o z H

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

X

XI

mwmm mmnn mmmm

Total

Mean

nOw

t"

/ ^

i "

^

^ s-

^ «

r 6r 7 " ?'•

mmsmmmm

o

z H

<

STASIS

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

X

XI

mmmm mmmm

mmmii mmsm mmmm

mmmmimmm.

(:\

£'

C-^

6 3 T>'

?">'

11-

! <

IC ?c 7 ^

S C O R E S

A. D. SCORE

mAmmmmmM

G. D. SCORE

With a Algebraic

Sign ( + or - )

mmmsmmssm

mmssmmmmm winmmmmismmm mmwimmmtmmm M's.mmmmmmmm

With out Algebraic

Sign

. 1

0

0

^

; G

7

1

• o

t

^

mmmmmm?m wmmmmmm mmmmmmmm

"-'}

S H I F T S

Extent &

Nature of

Shifts (+ or - )

mmmmmm

& .

1

mmm-^mm m mmmmm

mmsmmmlmsmmm mmmmmmmmmmm

mmmxmm 'Sii&WimmiM

mmmm^M

& . § . to

It;

li«9BSt»S

m^mmmm amiiii

mmmmmm mmmmmm

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

Copy right by the author 1977. First Published by the Department of Psychology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 1963.

Second Publication 1966.

Communication regarding the test may be made with the author at the following address :

Mishkat Medical College Road, Aligarh.

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m 4!230 Xi PSYCHOIiOGlCab CORPORflTiON

XACHSRi SHAT, ASitA-2E2(XH (INOtA)

@ 1980. Copyright reserved with the authors. ileprodQction of the test in any form is a violation of copyright act.

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