THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY

VOLUME ONE

EDITORIAL ADVISORS

Luis de AlbuquerqueJ. H. AndrewsJ6zef BabiczMarcel Destombesto. A. W. DilkeL. A. GoldenbergGeorge KishCornelis Koeman

Joseph NeedhamDavid B. QuinnMaria Luisa Righini BonellitWalter W. RistowArthur H. RobinsonAvelino Teixeira da MotatHelen M. WallisLothar Z6gner

tDeceased

THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY

1Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe

and the Mediterranean

2Cartography in the Traditional Asian Societies

3Cartography in the Age of Renaissance and Discovery

4Cartography in the Age of Science, Enlightenment, and Expansion

5Cartography in the Nineteenth Century

6Cartography in the Twentieth Century

THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY

VOLUME ONE

Cartography in Prehistoric,

Ancient, and Medieval Europe

and the Mediterranean

Edited by

J. B. HARLEYand

DAVID WOODWARD

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS • CHICAGO & LONDON

J. B. Harley is professor of geographyat the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, formerly

Montefiore Reader in Geography at the University of Exeter.

David Woodward is professor of geographyat the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London

© 1987 by The University ofChicagoAll rights reserved. Published 1987

Printed in the United States ofAmerica

11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 8 7 654

This work is supported in part by grants from the Division ofResearch Programs of the National Endowment for the

Humanities, an independent federal agency

Additional funds were contributed byThe Andrew W. Mellon Foundation

The National Geographic SocietyThe Hermon Dunlap Smith Center for

the History of Cartography, The Newberry LibraryThe Johnson Foundation

The Luther I. Replogle FoundationThe British Academy

and the following individualsRichard B. Arkway John T. Monckton

Joe C. W. Armstrong Mr. and Mrs. Kenneth NebenzahlClive A. Burden Rear Admiral G. S. Ritchie

Gerald F. Fitzgerald Walter E. ScottPeter J. Guthorn Richard H. Sigel

Arthur Holzheimer Mrs. L. M. C. SmithMr. and Mrs. Roderick Webster

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

The history of cartography.

Bibliography: p.Includes index.Contents: v.I. Cartography in prehistoric, ancient,

and medieval Europe and the Mediterranean.1. Cartography--History. I. Harley, J. B. (John

Brian) II. Woodward, David, 1942-GA201.H53 1987 526'.09 86 6995ISBN: 0-226-31633-5 (Vol. 1)

0-226-31635-1 (Vol. 2, Book 1)0-226-31637-8 (Vol. 2, Book 2)

§

The paper used in this publication meets theminimum requirements of the American NationalStandard for Information Sciences-Permanence ofPaper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI239.48-1992.

List of Illustrations IX

Contents

PART Two Cartography in Ancient Europe and theMediterranean 103

Preface xvJ. B. Harley and David Woodward

1 The Map and the Development of the History ofCartography 1

The Historical Importance of the MapRenaissance to Enlightenment: The Early Antecedents

of the History of CartographyThe History of Cartography as Handmaiden:

Traditional Themes from the Nineteenth CenturyThe Growth of a Scholarly IdentityJ. B. Harley

PART ONE Cartography in Prehistoric Europe and theMediterranean 43

2 Prehistoric Maps and the History of Cartography:An Introduction 45

Catherine Delano Smith

3 The Origins of Cartography 50G. Malcolm Lewis

4 Cartography in the Prehistoric Period in the OldWorld: Europe, the Middle East, and NorthAfrica 54

Prehistoric Maps and Historians of CartographyThe Source Material and Its InterpretationRecognition of Topographical Maps by Antiquarians in

European Rock ArtThe Classification of Prehistoric Maps from Europe, the

Middle East, and North Africa in the PrehistoricPeriod

Topographical MapsCelestial MapsCosmological Maps

ConclusionCatherine Delano Smith

v

5 Cartography in the Ancient World: AnIntroduction 105

o. A. W. Dilke

6 Cartography in the Ancient Near East 107Babylonian Geographical KnowledgeBabylonian Mensuration and CalculationBabylonian PlansBabylonian Small-Scale MapsCelestial GeographyCartographic Knowledge in Syria and PalestineA. R. Millard

7 Egyptian Cartography 117Topographical Drawing and Religious CartographyTurin Map of the Gold MinesLand Survey, Cadastral Maps, and Building PlansA. F. Shore

8 The Foundations of Theoretical Cartography inArchaic and Classical Greece 130

Circular Maps and the Flat Earth: Anaximander andHis Successors in the Sixth Century B.C.

The Impact of New Theories on Cartography from theSixth to the Fourth Century B.C.: Pythagoras,Herodotus, and Democritus

Theory into Practice: New Celestial Globes and Mapsin the Fourth Century B.C.

Prepared by the editors from materials supplied by

Germaine Aujac

9 The Growth of an Empirical Cartography inHellenistic Greece 148

Exploration and Discovery in the Reform of the WorldMap

The Measurement of the Earth and the World Map byEratosthenes

The Dissemination of Cartographic Knowledge

Prepared by the editors from materials supplied byGermaine Aujac

VI

10 Greek Cartography in the Early Roman World161

Continuity and Change in Theoretical Cartography:Polybius, Crates, and Hipparchus

Maps and Globes in EducationThe Map of the Inhabited World Recommended by

StraboPrepared by the editors from materials supplied by

Germaine Aujac

11 The Culmination of Greek Cartography inPtolemy 177

Updating the World Map: Ptolemy's Criticism ofMarinus of Tyre

Ptolemy's Instructions for MapmakingThe Celestial Globe in the AlmagestThe Climata in the AlmagestThe GeographySize and Dimensions of the Inhabited World in the

GeographyMap ProjectionsPtolemy as a Mapmaker: The Tables of Coordinates

Cartographic Insights from Ptolemy's Topography: TheCoordinates and the Regional Maps

Ptolemy's Topography in the Coordinates and Maps:General Considerations

Ptolemy's Coordinates: The Examples of the BritishIsles and Italy

Ptolemy's Maps: Some Regional ExamplesO. A. W. Dilke with additional material supplied by

the editors

12 Maps in the Service of the State: RomanCartography to the End of the AugustanEra 201

Etruscan BeginningsGeographical and Cadastral Maps from the Republican

PeriodGeographical MapsAgrippa's World MapCadastral Maps

O. A. W. Dilke

13 Roman Large-Scale Mapping in the EarlyEmpire 212

Survey Methods of the AgrimensoresThe Corpus Agrimensorum

The Cadasters of ArausioLarge-Scale Town Maps: The Forma Urbis RomaeEngineering Plans for Tunnels and AqueductsO. A. W. Dilke

Contents

14 Itineraries and Geographical Maps in the Earlyand Late Roman Empires 234

Itineraries and the Peutinger MapThe Latin Geographical Manuscripts and

Their MapsMaps as Decorative and Symbolic ImagesThe Use of Maps in the Roman PeriodO. A. W. Dilke

15 Cartography in the Byzantine Empire 258Roman Influences: The Theodosian Map and the

Ravenna CosmographyReligious Cartography: Cosmas Indicopleustes and the

Map MosaicsThe Greek Revival and Ptolemy's GeographyThe Greek Manuscripts of Ptolemy's GeographyO. A. W. Dilke with additional material supplied by

the editors

16 Cartography in the Ancient World: AConclusion 276

O. A. W. Dilke

PART THREE Cartography in Medieval Europe and theMediterranean 281

17 Medieval Maps: An Introduction 283P. D. A. Harvey

18 Medieval Mappaemundi 286The Context and Study of Mappaemundi

Map and TextTermsRealism versus SymbolismRelationship of Mappaemundi to Other Medieval

MapsProblems in the Study of MappaemundiClassification Systems

Main Periods of MappaemundiMacrobius to Isidore: The Late Greco-Roman and

Patristic PeriodBede to Lambert of Saint-OrnerHenry of Mainz to Richard of HaldinghamPietro Vesconte to Fra Mauro: The Transitional

Period to 1460Themes in the Study of Mappaemundi

FormContent and Meaning

ConclusionsDavid Woodward

Contents

19 Portolan Charts from the Late Thirteenth Centuryto 1500 371

IntroductionThe Origin and Compilation of the Portolan ChartsDraftingStylistic ContentHydrographic DevelopmentToponymic DevelopmentThe Business of ChartmakingThe Function of the Portolan ChartsConclusionsTony Campbell

20 Local and Regional Cartography in MedievalEurope 464

Scope and CharacteristicsOrigins and DevelopmentMaps of Palestine and Its CitiesMaps of Italian CitiesNorthern Italian District Maps

Vll

The Isolarii: Buondelmonti's Liber Insularum ArcipelagiOther Local MapsPurpose and UseSurveying and MappingItinerary Maps and the Development of Maps Drawn

to ScaleP. D. A. Harvey

21 Concluding Remarks 502Gaps and DiscontinuitiesCognitive TransformationsSocial ContextsJ. B. Harley and David Woodward

List of Contributors 511

Bibliographical Index 513

General Index 559Jeffrey Pinkham

IllustrationsWith Tables and Appendixes

123456789

101112131415

161718192021222324252627282930313233

343536

37

COLOR PLATES

(Following page 106)The Star Fresco from Teleilat Ghassul, JordanMap in the Book of the Two WaysThe Thera frescoFresco from the Boscoreale villa, near PompeiiThe Peutinger map: RomeThe Notitia Dignitatum: BritainThe Madaba mosaic mapJerusalem on the Madaba mosaic mapMap of the inhabited world from a thirteenth­century Byzantine manuscript of Ptolemy'sGeographyEmperor Charles IV with orbOrb in the Last JudgmentThe three sons of NoahThe Beatus map from the Silos ApocalypseThe Duchy of Cornwall mappamundiHigden's mappamundi: Oval type, mid­fourteenth centuryVesconte's mappamundi, 1321Western Europe in the Catalan atlasThe Fra Mauro mapMappamundi of Pirrus de NohaMappamundi of Giovanni Leardo, 1448The world map of Andreas WalspergerThe "Anglo-Saxon" mapAn extended "normal-portolano"The 1439 Valseca chartA contemporary derivative of a portolan chartA Catalan chart in the Italian styleAn Italian chart in the Catalan styleRepresentation of the Madonna and ChildCity flagsThe Carte PisanePortrait of a chartmakerThe wheel diagram from the Catalan atlasRome from an undated manuscript ofPtolemy's GeographyMap of the district around VeronaPlan of the Isle of Thanet, KentA portion of the boundary of the Duchy ofBurgundy, 1460Map of Inclesmoor, Yorkshire

IX

383940

4.1

4.24.34.44.5

4.64.74.84.9

4.10

4.11

4.12

4.13

4.144.154.16

4.17

4.18

4.19

4.20

4.21

Itinerary map of Matthew ParisGreat Britain by Matthew ParisThe Gough map, ca. 1360

FIGURES

Principal areas and sites associated withprehistoric rock art in the Old World 56The prehistoric and historical time scale 57The Rajum Hani' stone 61Elements in a modern topographical map 62Cup-and-ring marks from Northumberland65Kesslerloch bone plaques 65Kesslerloch lignite ornament 65"Topographical figures" from Mont Bego 67Picture with possible map elements fromPenalsordo, Badajoz, Spain 69Rock paintings from La Pileta, Malaga,Spain 69Picture with possible map elements from I-n­Eten, Tassili Mountains, Algeria 70Picture with possible map elements from theTassili Mountains, Algeria 70Picture with possible map elements: Side 4 ofthe Borno stone from Valcamonica 71Paleolithic engraving on mammoth bone 71The Tepe Gawra (Iraq) Landscape Jar 72Picture map on the Tepe Gawra (Iraq)Landscape Jar 72Picture map: The "Great Disk" from TalatN'Iisk, Morocco 73Picture map on the silver vase from Maikop,Russia 73Picture map: The Neolithic wall painting from<::atal Hiiyiik, Turkey 74Petroglyph map from Val Fontanalba, MontBego 74Petroglyph map from Val Fontanalba, MontBego 74

x

4.22

4.23

4.24

4.25

4.26

4.274.28

4.29

4.304.31

4.32

4.334.344.354.364.37

4.38

4.39

4.40

4.414.42

6.1

6.26.36.4

6.56.66.76.8

6.9

6.10

6.11

6.12

Noncartographic petroglyph from ValFontanalba, Mont Bego 75Simple topographical map from Seradina,Italy 75Photograph of Capo di Ponte, Valcamonica76Simple topographical map from Ponte SanRocco, Italy 77The "Skin Hill Village" map from ValFontanalba, Mont Bego 77The "Monte Bego Village" 77Composite petroglyph map from Bedolina,Valcamonica 79Petroglyph map from Giadighe,Valcamonica 79The Clapier rock, Italy 80The limestone sculpture from Tarxien,Malta 81Cup marks on stones at Venslev, Denmark82Cup marks on stones at Dalby, Denmark 83The "Star Stone" from Tal Qadi, Malta 84Celestial ladders 86Tree of Life representations 87Cosmographical sign on the Bagnolo stone88Cosmological map on a predynastic bowlfrom Egypt 89Labyrinthlike rock painting from NorthAfrica 90Cosmological painting from the Magouratacave, Bulgaria 90The Triora stela 90Cosmological map: The gold disk fromMoordorf 91Principal places associated with maps in theancient Near East 108The Gudea statue, ca. 2141-2122 B.C. 109The tablet on the Gudea statue 109Fragment of a city map, probably Babylon110Fragment of a city map of Uruk 111Fragment of a city plan, possibly Tfibu 111Plan of Nippur, ca. 1500 B.C. 112Plan of fields from Nippur, ca. 1500 B.C.

113Map of Sippar and its surroundings, firstmillennium B.C. 113The Babylonian world map, ca. 600 B.C.

114Clay tablet map excavated at Yorgan Tepe114The Louvre tablet map 115

7.1

7.2

7.37.47.5

7.6

7.7

7.87.9

7.107.117.12

7.138.1

8.2

8.38.4

8.5

8.6

8.78.88.98.108.118.12

8.13

8.148.15

9.1

9.2

9.39.49.59.6

9.7

Illustrations

The main dynasties and periods of Egyptianhistory 118Rudimentary topographic designs on Egyptiandecorated pottery 118Plan of an Egyptian garden 119Sekhet-Hetepet, or the "Fields of Peace" 119Cosmographical map: The land of Egypt withthe goddess Nut 120Celestial map of the planets, constellations,and zodiac 121Map of gold mines from the Turin papyrus122The second section of the Turin papyrus 124Plan of Egyptian tomb from the Valley of theKings 126Papyrus plan of Egyptian tomb 127Architectural drawing from D"ir al-Ba1)r"i 127Schematic plan of dikes and canals in theFaiyum 128Plan of canal and palisade 129Reconstruction of the shield of Achilles fromHomer's Iliad 131Principal places associated with maps in theGreek world 133The Aegean (detail of fig. 8.2) 133Asia Minor from the third century B.C. (detailof fig. 8.2) 133Reconstruction of the world according toHecataeus 135Reconstruction of Plato's spindle ofnecessity 138Mine diagram from Thorikos, Attica 139The celestial circles 141Reconstruction of latitude of observer 141The Farnese Atlas 142Detail of the Farnese Atlas 143Cosmas's schematic representation of theearth 144Aristotle's concept of the position and shapeof the inhabited world 145Aristotle's system of the winds 145The "ever-visible circle" at 66°N (a) and at24°N (b) 146Pytheas's observation of the latitude ofMarseilles 151Reconstructed world map of Dicaearchus,third century B.C. 153Timosthenes' system of the winds 153Eratosthenes' measurement of the earth 155The chlamys 156Reconstruction of Eratosthenes' Sphragides157Ionian coin map 158

Illustrations Xl

10.1

10.2

10.310.410.510.610.7

10.8

10.9

11.1

11.2

11.3

11.411.511.611.7

11.811.9

11.10

11.1111.12

11.13

12.1

12.212.312.4

12.5

12.6

13.113.2

13.313.413.513.6

Polybius's estimate of the length of thewestern Mediterranean 162Reconstruction of the globe of Crates ofMallos, ca. 150 B.C. 163Coin of Lucius Aemilius Buca, 44 B.C. 164The lion of Commagene 166The meridian of Alexandria 167Theodosius's figure of a celestial sphere 168Distances between the parallel circlesaccording to Geminus 170The reconstructed world of DionysiusPeriegetes, A.D. 124 172The shape of the inhabited worldreconstructed from Strabo 175Marinus's projection reconstructed fromPtolemy's description 180Ptolemy's instructions for constructing a starglobe 182A reconstruction of the world of ClaudiusPtolemy 184Ptolemy's first projection 187Ptolemy's second projection 187Ptolemy's third projection 188Ptolemy's third projection as seen by theobserver 188Britain according to Ptolemy 193The Mull of Galloway in different versions ofPtolemy 194Britain represented as an obtuse-angledtriangle 194The Ptolemaic map of Italy 195Comparison of Ptolemaic and moderncoordinates of towns on the Via Aemilia,northern Italy 196Centuriation in the Po valley around Parmaand Reggio Emilia 196Principal places associated with maps inancient Italy and Sicily 202The Bronze Liver of Piacenza 203The Bronze Liver of Piacenza, side view 204Caesar's edict on the Hereford world map206The stone "map of Gaul" from the Romancamp at Mauchamp, France 207The inscription on the Tusculum aqueduct211The method of numbering centuries 213Inscription on a Roman surveyor'stombstone 213Reconstruction of a groma 214A portable sundial, disassembled 215A portable sundial, assembled 215Roman areal units 216

13.7

13.8

13.9

13.1013.11

13.12

13.1313.1413.15

13.1613.17

13.18

13.1913.2013.2113.2213.2313.2413.2513.26

13.27

13.2813.29

14.1

14.2

14.3

14.414.514.6

14.714.814.914.10

14.1114.1215.1

Miniature of the centuriation aroundTarracina, Italy 218Miniature of the centuriation aroundMinturnae, Italy 219Miniature of the centuriation aroundHispellum, Italy 219Ager Arcifinius 220A ground plan from the CorpusAgrimensorum 221Miniature from the Corpus Agrimensorum221Adjacent centuriation schemes 221The mapping of smallholdings 221The probable layout of Orange Cadaster A222Fragment 7 of Orange Cadaster A 223The probable layout of Orange Cadaster B224Reassembled plaque III J from OrangeCadaster B 224Orange Cadaster C 225Fragment of a Roman plan 225Plan of Roman baths 226The "Urbino plan" 227Vignettes from the Casae litterarum 228The Isola Sacra fragment 229Forma Urbis Romae 229The Ludus Magnus on the Forma UrbisRomae 230Aqueduct arches on the Forma UrbisRomae 230The Cisiarii mosaic, Ostia 231Heron's technique for tunneling through ahillside 232Principal places associated with itineraries andgeographical maps from the Roman Empire235The Peutinger map: Western Asia Minor andEgypt 240The Peutinger map: The easternMediterranean 241Town signs on the Peutinger map 240The Notitia Dignitatum: Lower Egypt 245A sesterce of Nero showing Ostia harbor246The Ostia River mosaic 247The Pesaro wind-rose map 249The map on the Dura Europos shield 250Principal place-names from the Dura Europosshield 250Plan on a Roman lamp 251Labyrinth designs on Cretan coins 251The universe of Cosmas Indicopleustes 262

xu

15.2

15.315.415.5

18.118.218.318.418.518.618.718.8

18.9

18.1018.1118.1218.13

18.1418.15

18.1618.1718.1818.1918.2018.21

18.22

18.2318.24

18.2518.2618.27

18.28

18.2918.3018.3118.32

18.3318.3418.35

The world according to CosmasIndicopleustes 263The Nicopolis mosaic 264The Beth-Alpha mosaic 267India according to Eustathius of Byzantium268"Jerome" map of Asia 289Christ's head in the Ebstorf map 291Christ's left hand in the Ebstorf map 291The tripartite type of mappamundi 297The zonal type of mappamundi 297The quadripartite type of mappamundi 297The transitional type of mappamundi 297Extant mappaemundi: Absolute numbers bycategory from the eighth to the fifteenthcentury 298Extant mappaemundi: Relative numbers bycategory from the eighth to the fifteenthcentury 298The Macrobian model of mappamundi 300Isidorian T-O map 302Isidorian T-O map with the Sea of Azov 302Isidorian T-O map with the fourthcontinent 303Mappamundi from Isidore 303General stemma for the large Beatus maps305The treatise of Sacrobosco 307The Vercelli map 308The Vercelli map: Detail of Philip 309The Ebstorf map 310The Hereford map, ca. 1290 311General stemma for the extant world maps ofRanulf Higden 313A Higden world map: Mandorla type, mid­fourteenth century 313A scale on a mappamundi 314Sketch from the Vienna-Klosterneuburgcorpus 317Paradise on a Higden world map 319Isidore's view of the earth's five zones 321Demonstration of the earth's sphericity in thethirteenth century 321Reconstruction of Roger Bacon's mapprojection 322An eleventh-century graph 323Map on vellum showing repair 325The rivers of paradise 329The Nile as an extension of the four rivers ofparadise 330Descendants of Noah 331Cynocephali on the Borgia map 332The wall about the kingdom of Magog 333

18.3618.3718.3818.3918.4018.4118.42

18.4318.4418.4518.46

18.4718.4818.4918.50

18.51

18.5218.5318.5418.5518.5618.5718.5818.5918.6018.6118.6218.6318.6418.6518.66

18.6718.6818.6918.7018.71

18.72

18.73

18.7418.7518.7618.77

Illustrations

Prester John 333T-O map with tau cross 334The symbolism of the number four 335Diagram of the elements from Isidore 337Leardo world map, 1452 338The mosaic of the goddess Fortuna 339The twelfth-century world map of Henry ofMainz 341Figures 18.43-18.79 comprise a graphic indexcharacterizing the various types ofmappaemundi discussed.Isidore T-O map 343Sallust T-O map, west orientation 344Sallust T-O map, south orientation 344Sallust T-O map, Africa as the largestcontinent 344Sallust T-O map with truncated rivers 344Gautier de Metz T-O map 345Miscellaneous T-O map, Y-O variant 346Miscellaneous T-0 map, symmetrical rivers346Miscellaneous T-0 map, modified river Nile346Miscellaneous T-O map, high crossbar 346Reverse T-O map 347Y-O map with Sea of Azov 347V-in-square map 347The Albi map 348The "Anglo-Saxon" map 348Mappamundi by Matthew Paris 349The Henry of Mainz world map 349The Hereford map, ca. 1290 350Orosian-Isidorian mappamundi 350Mappamundi by Guido of Pisa, 1119 350The Psalter map, thirteenth century 350The Wiesbaden fragment 351The Ebstorf map 351Cosmas Indicopleustes' map from theChristian Topography 351Higden's oval mappamundi 352Higden's circular mappamundi 352Higden's mandorla-shaped mappamundi 353Macrobian zonal mappamundi 354Zonal mappamundi by Lambert of Saint­Orner 354Zonal mappamundi by William of Conches354Zonal mappamundi by Petrus Alphonsus355Tripartite/zonal mappamundi 355Quadripartite mappamundi: Beatus type 355Vesconte's mappamundi 355The Catalan atlas, [1375] 356

Illustrations XlII

18.78

18.79

19.1

19.2

19.319.419.519.6

19.719.8

19.919.1019.1119.12

19.13

19.14

19.15

19.1619.17

19.1819.1919.2019.21

19.2219.23

20.120.220.320.4

20.520.620.720.820.920.1020.1120.1220.1320.14

Mappamundi from the Vienna-Klosterneuburgschool 357Mappamundi showing Ptolemaic influence357Physical characteristics of a portolan atlas376Major place-names on medieval portolancharts 379A chart in an intermediate style 394Scale bar on an early portolan chart 395Compass rose from the Catalan atlas 396Compass rose from the 1492 chart of Jorgede Aguiar 396Rhumb line centers 397Genoa and Venice in a fourteenth-centurycalendar diagram 398Paleographic comparison (1) 402Paleographic comparison (2) 403The Cortona chart 405The changing configuration of the BritishIsles (1) 408The changing configuration of the BritishIsles (2) 408The changing configuration of the BritishIsles (3) 408The changing configuration of the BritishIsles (4) 409Scandinavia by Bianco 409The address to the reader on the 1403 Beccarichart 428A timely postscript on a portolan chart 436Istria in the Medici atlas 439A toleta 442The Black Sea on the 1409 chart of Albertinde Virga 445A whaling scene 446A combined lunar calendar and Easter tablefrom a portolan atlas 447Rosselli's map of Florence, ca. 1485 465Plan of the Holy Sepulcher 467The plan of Saint Gall 468Plan of Canterbury Cathedral and its priory469Plan of a water supply 470Map of an area near Sluis, Zeeland 471Plan from Winchester College 472Plan of Vienna and Bratislava 474Jerusalem 475Palestine 475Palestine by Vesconte 476Bird's-eye view of Rome 477Verona 479Map of Lombardy 480

20.1520.1620.1720.1820.19

20.2020.21

20.22

20.23

20.2420.25

20.2620.27

10.111.1

12.1

18.1

18.218.3

18.4

18.5

18.6

19.1

19.2

19.3

19.4

The district of Padua 480Map of Italy, ca. 1320 481Corfu by Cristoforo Buondelmonti 483Cos by Cristoforo Buondelmonti 483Principal places in England associated withmedieval local maps 484Plan of Clenchwarton, Norfolk 485Principal places in the Low Countriesassociated with medieval local maps 486Map of the Picardy-Netherlands border,1357 487Map of part of Overflakkee, South Holland487The lower ScheIdt, 1468 488-89Principal places in Central Europe and Italyassociated with medieval local and regionalmaps 490Map of the county of Gapen~ais 491Talamone harbor, 1306 492

TABLES

Posidonius's terrestrial zones 169Selected Greek manuscripts of Ptolemy'sGeography 192Ancient measurements for Sicily in Romanmiles 209Comparison of the main features ofclassification of mappaemundi 295Proposed classification of mappaemundi 295Dates of translation of the main Greek andArabic manuscripts of cartographic interestinto Latin 306Survey of representational styles of selectedmedieval maps 327List of the main semimythical races found onmappaemundi 331The number four and its symbolic associationwith medieval mappaemundi 336Flags and chartmakers' response to politicalchange 400The cartographic record of the western coastof Africa 412Significant place-name additions from datedworks applied to undated atlases and charts416Adriatic names between Otranto and Vlore(Valona) on the three relevant sheets of theMedici atlas 448

XIV

4.14.28.1

15.1

18.1

18.2

19.1

ApPENDIXES

List of prehistoric maps 93Short list of prehistoric landscape figures 97Definitions of some basic terms relating to thecelestial sphere 146Greek manuscripts of Ptolemy'S Geography272Reference guide to types of mappaemundi343Chronological list of major medievalmappaemundi, A.D. 300-1460 359Calendars as a guide to dating: The case ofthe Medici and Pinelli-Walckenaer atlases446

19.2

19.319.4

19.520.1

20.2

20.3

Illustrations

Biographical index to the atlases and chartsproduced up to 1500 449Atlases and charts known by name 459Chronological index of the atlases and chartsproduced up to 1500 460Methodology of the toponymic analysis 461Chronological list of local maps fromnorthern Italy before 1500 498Chronological list of local maps and plansfrom England before 1500 498Chronological list of local maps and plansfrom the Low Countries before 1500 499