The Hearth as System Central

7/28/2019 The Hearth as System Central

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Project Main RtRorts

Pro ject Count cy Stu die s

THE HEARTH AS SYSTEM CENTRALby

K i r k R . S m i t hEAPI, East -We st Cen terHono lu lu , Ha wa i i 96848

Pr o jec t M a in Report #3

EWC/ESMAIVUNDp E v a l u at i o n o f I l 2 r o v e d Coo ksto ve Pr2gramsD r a f t F i n a l R e p o rt

August 10, 199 2Risk and Development ProgramE nv iro nm en t a nd P o l i c y I n s t i t u t eEast-West CenterHono lu lu , Haw ai i 96848

1. "Res ul t s and Analy sis o f th e Global Survey on Improved CookstovePrograms," Ram akr ish na2. "Improve d Cookstove Programs: Where A re We Now? S m i t h & Ramakrishna.3. "The H earth as System Cen tra l ," Smith

1. "10 0- mi l l io n Improved Cookstoves i n China: How was i t Done?" G u ,Huang, Qiu, & Smith.2. "Th e In dia n N at ion al Improved Stoves Program," Ramakrishna.3. "Improved Cookstove Programs i n S r i Lanka: Percept ions o f Success,"

M a l y .4. "Th e Sta tus o f Improved CoOkstove Programs i n Nepal" Shre stha,Gorkhali , & Smith.5. " Improved Cookstove Programs i n East and Cent ral Af r i ca : A Review,"Wickramagamage.


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WARNING

T hi s d oc um en t i s m ea nt t o b e s p e c u l a t i v e , r u m i n a t i v e a n dp ro vo ca ti ve . A s a r e s u l t , i t m ay b e , i n p l ac es , a nn oy in g, f r u s t r a t i n g ,and c l o y i n g . I t w i l l , f o r e xample, i n some i n st an c es o f f e r n e i t h e r t h el i t e r a t u r e b a ck up n o r m a l l y e xp ec t ed n o r t h e a r g um e n ta t i ve t i g h t n e s su s ua l ly de s i re d . I t a lm os t c e r t a i n l y w i l l n o t seem c oh er en t, f o r b y t h en a tu r e o f w o r l d vi e w s, t h e y c a n n o t b e e n t i r e l y c o mp a ti b l e w i t h o neanother .

I r e c o gn i z e a l s o t h a t many o f t h e i d e a s fo u n d h e r e a r e n o t m in e, b u thave f o u n d t h e i r w ay i n t o my t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h t h e many u s e f u li n t e r a c t i o n s I h av e h ad w i t h c o l l e a g ue s a ro un d t h e w o r l d an d t h e i rw r i t i n g s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , I s ome ti me s n o l o n g e r kn ow w hi ch i d e a s a r emine a nd w h i ch a r e n o t . F o r t h o s e c o l l ea g u es I i n a d v e r t e n t l yp l a gi a r iz e , I c an b u t a p ol og i ze an d o f f e r t h e s o la c e t h a t i t i s t h eg re at e st fo r m o f f l a t t e r y .

I d o h ope , h ow ev er, t h a t i t w i l l s t i m u l a t e i t s r e ad er s t o h e lp meremove some o f i t s d e f i c i e n c i e s o n t h e n e x t r o u n d .


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THE HEARTH AS SYSTEM CENTRALS ince t he m as t e ry o f f i r e and t h e concom i t an t deve lopm en t o fc i v i l i z a t i o n , t h e h e a r th ha s h e l d a u ni qu e p o s i t i o n i n human a f f a i r s .At o n e l e v e l , i t h o s t s some o f t h e m o st mundane o f human a c t i v i t i e s a nd

t hu s o f t e n seems t o b e t r e a t e d w i t h d i s r e g a r d . A t t h e same t i m e ,h owe ver, i t i s e ndowed w i t h a n c i e n t sy mb ol is ms as s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e l u r eo f t h e womb, t h e m y st e ry o f f l a m e , a n d t h e s a n c t i t y o f human s u st e na n ce .From t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , i t seems s om et im es t o b e t r e a t e d a s i n v i o l a t e .This d ic ho to my p l a y s i t s e l f o u t i n e f f o r t s t o e nhance t h e p r o d u c t i v i t yo f t h e h e a r t h i n t h e f o r m o f i mp ro ve d s t o v e p ro gr am s i n d e v e l o p in gc o u n t r i e s .No t e c h n o lo g y i s m or e p e r v a s i v e t h a n t h e c o o k st o ve - - b e i n g us e d f o rth e b e n e f i t o f e v e r y member o f e v e ry ho us eh ol d e v e r y d a y. T h e f a c t t h a tt he ho u se h ol d s t o v e t o u c he s s o many a s p e c t s o f l i f e may b e q u i t e

m i s le a d in g , h o w ev e r. I t seems t o i m p l y t o s ome o b s e r v er s t h a t i m p ro v edc oo ks to ve s ( I C s ) o f f e r a g oo d l e v e r t o i m pr o ve a l l t h e s e a sp e c t s , w he n,i n f a c t , i t m ay i n d i c a t e so met hi ng q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , i . e . , t h a t t h e s t ov ei s a r a t h e r p o o r i n s t r u m e n t f o r h o us e ho l d i mp ro ve me nt p r e c i s e l y b e ca us ei t i s l i n k e d t o s o many n ee ds . T h e s e e x t e n s i v e l i n k a g e s may a c t u a l l ymake change more pro b lem at i c because th ey ser ve t o connec t improvementI n on e o f t h e s t o v e' s Ch a r a ct e r is t i c s, e . g . f u e l u t i l i z a t i o n , w i t hp o t e n t i a l l y ne ga t i ve im pa ct s o n o t h e r c h a r a c te r i s t i c s , e . g . f l e x i b i l i t y .I t c e r t a i n l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t s o l e l y t op -d ow n d i ss e mi n at i on programs w i l lbe p ro b le ma t i c , bec au se i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r o u ts i d er s t o a n t i c i p a t e a l lt he i n t e n d e d an d u n in t e nd e d e f f e c t s .I t i s c l e a r , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h a t t h e manner i n w h i ch t h e co ok st ov ei n t e r a c t s w i t h s o many a s pe c ts o f l i f e i s a s t r o n g component o f t h e

a t t r a c t i o n a nd j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f i mp ro ve d c o ok s to v e p ro gr am s ( I C P s ) a sw e l l a m a j o r r e as o n w hy t h e y a r e s o d i f f i c u l t t o manage a nd m o n i t o r. T ob e t t e r e v a l u a t e b o t h t h e a t t r a c t i o n s a nd t h e p ro bl em s o f I CP s a sde vel op me nt t o o l s , t h e r e f o r e , i t i s n e c es s ar y t o u n d e rs t an d t h e wa ys t h ecoo kstove h as b ee n s ee n t o f i t i n t o t h e a sp e ct s o f l i f e t h a t a r e w i t h i nthe purv iew o f deve lopment p rograms.

Development i s an examp le o f wha t has been te r med a " s ph e r i c a l l ys ym me tr ic al p r o b l e m , " i . e . , o n e t h a t c a n b e a pp ro ac he d f r o m a ny n umb ero f a n gl e s. O n c e e nt er ed , h ow ev er, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e s i s t g oi n garound i n c i r c l e s , b ec au se a l l t h e p a r t s o f t h e p ro b le m a r e s oi n t e rc o n n ec t e d. O v e r t h e y e a r s , v a r i o u s a pp ro ac he s ( w o r l d v i e w s ) h a v ebeen p rom ot ed t o cu t t h r ough t he sphe r e t o a t t em p t t o unde r s tand i tb e t t e r . E x a m p l e s a r e e n e r g y, w om en 's s t a t u s , o r e d u c a t i o n , e a c h o fwhich, l i k e a n e l e c t r o n i c o a t - sc a n s l i c e t h r ou g h a l i v i n g b o dy, r e v e a l sa d i f f e r e n t s e t o f c r i t i c a l components, r e l a t i o n s h i p s , p a t h o l o g i e s, an dp r i o r i t i e s . T h e , u s u a l l y h i dd en , hy p o th e s is b eh i nd pr om ot io n o f o ne o ra no th er w or ld vi e w i s t h a t n o t o n l y c r i t i c a l p ro bl em s, b u t a l s o p o i n t sf o r u se f u l i n t e r ve n t i on ca n b e e f f i c i e n t l y i d e n t i f i e d i n t h i s way. T obe t r u l y v a l i d , t h e r e f o r e , a n ew w o r l d v i e w ( We l ta ns ch au ug g) m u s t b e a b l et o i d e n t i f y a new w o r l d t oo l ( W e l t g e r at ) [ S m i t h , 1 9 8 1 ] .


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The s l i c e s b y many o f t h e w o r l d vi e w s i n p r e s e n t c u r r e n c y sh owbiomass c o ok s to v es t o b e p a r t o f t h e s ys te ms t h e y r e v e a l . T h i sc o n t ri b u t es t o t h e c o o ks to v e m y st i qu e a nd se r v e s a s a l u r e t o t h i n k o ft he i mp ro ve d s t o v e a s a w o r l d t o o l . W h a t f o l l o w s h e r e a r e b r i e fe xa mi na ti on s o f t h e wa y I CP s f i t i n t o v a r i o u s i m p o r t a n t w o r l d vi e w s a n dsome o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e i r r o l e a s w or l d t o o l s :I . Ene r gy Ladde rI I . B a l a n ce o f P a ym en tsI I I . S u b s i di e s , Ta x e s , a nd E q u i t yI V . G lob a l Ca r bon Cyc leV. E n e r g y E f f i c i e n c yV I . H ea l t h I m pac t s/ M a in t enanceVI I . G lo ba l War mingVI I I . De f o r es t a t i on / B io m ass Fue l Cyc l e / Na t u r a l Resou rces Managemen tIX. E n v ir o n me n t al E x t e r n a l i t i e s a n d B e n e f i t s o f C o n t r o lX. M u l t i p l e Househo ld Func t i ons / A pp r op r ia t e TechnologyX I . K i t ch en a s Wor kplaceX I I . Women i n DevelopmentX I I I . P o l i t i c s a nd Pa tr on ag e

4

I . E n e r g y L ad d e rH i s t o r y h a s s ho wn t h a t h o u se h ol d s s w i t c h t o h i g h e r q u a l i t y c o o k i n gf u e l s wh en t h e y ha v e t h e means a nd o p p o r t u n i t y . T h e g e n er a l r e s u l t o v e rt im e i s m ovement up , w ha t has been t e r m ed , t h e "Ene r gy Ladder. n1 T h i sr e f e r s t o t h e n a t u r a l t e n de n cy f o r h o us eh ol ds t o move fr o m t h e l o w e rq u a l i t y f u e l s ( s t e p s o f t h e l a d d er ) to wa rd h i g h e r l e v e l s . T h e e xa ctc om po si ti on o f t h e l a d d e r d ep end s o n l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s . I n C hi n a, f o rexample, t h e l a d d e r g e n e r a l l y g oe s f r o m a n i m a l d un g ( r e l a t i v e l y f e wp eo pl e ), t h r o u g h c r o p r e s i d u e s , w oo d, c o a l , L PG, c o a l o r n a t u r a l g a s,

and, i n a fe w c as es , t o e l e c t r i c i t y , a l t h ou g h f i n e r d i s t i n c t i o n s c ou l dbe made ( e . g . , among d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f c r o p r e s i d u es an d c o a l s ) . I nChina, m o s t o f t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s t an d s o n t h e r u ng s f r o m c ro pr e si d ue s t o w ood t o c o a l , w h i l e m os t u r b a n ho u se h ol d s u s e c o a l o r g a s .I n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s t h e l a d d e r may b e d i f f e r e n t , e . g . , c h a r c o a l o rkerosene may fo rm imp or t an t run gs .F ig ur e 1 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e l a d d e r commonly f ou nd i n S o ut h A s i a . I tshows t h a t movem en ts up t h e l add e r a r e u su a l l y ass oc ia t ed w i t h use o ff u e l s o f h i g h e r en er gy d e n s i t y an d l o w e r a i r p o l l u t i o n e mi ss io ns .

E qu al l y i m p o r t a n t , b u t l e s s e a s i l y m ea su ra bl e, a r e t h e t r e n d s o fi n c r ea s i n g c on ve ni en ce a nd c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y . S t o v e t e n d i n g re q ui r e me n ts ,f o r e xa mp le , l e s s e n a nd t h e f i n e n e s s o f c o n t r o l r i s e s a s o ne moves u pt h e l a d d e r .

1 A l t h o u g h t h e e ne rg y l a d d e r i s b r o a d l y a p p l i c a bl e , t h e r e a r e manyf a c to r s t h a t a f f e c t l o c a l ho us eh ol d f u e l c h o i c es , i n c l u d i n g f u e l a nds to ve p r i c e s ; s u p p l y r e l i a b i l i t y ; h o us eh ol d s i z e , i nc om e, l a nd h o l d i n g,and e t h n i c g r o u p . F o r a u s e f u l r e v i e w , s e e H o s i e r & Dowd [ 1 9 8 7 ] . L a t e rwork i n c l u d e s L e a ch [ 1 9 8 7 ] , J o n e s [ 1 9 8 8 ] , C a v a rd [ 1 9 8 9 ] , D u n k e r l e y e ta l . [ 1 9 9 0 ] , S a t h ay e & T y l e r [ 1 9 9 11 , Sa za ma [1 9 9 11 , EDG [ 1 9 9 2 ] , a s w e l las a number o f ESMAP s t a f f r ep o r t s .


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5F i gu r e 1 a l s o c o n t a i n s a r o u g h g l o b a l b re ak do wn o f c o o k i n g f u e l ,showing t h a t a b o u t h a l f t h e ho us eh ol ds i n t h e w o r l d u s e s o l i d f u e l s(biomass a nd c o a l ) . W i t h t h e ma st er y o f f i r e , o f c o u rs e , a l l h u ma ni tys t ar t ed o u t i n t h e m id d le o f t h e l a d d e r , a t w ood. O n l y a b o u t h a l f ha ve

p rogr essed up t he lad de r , howeve r , t h e r em a inde r have s t ayed w i t h wood,o r r eg r es s ed t o p o o r e r q u a l i t y b io ma ss f u e l s .R el eva nt al s o , ho we ve r, i s t h a t n eed s f o r f u e l - c y c l e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e

g en er al ly in cr ea se as w e l l . B i o m a s s c o l l e c t i o n r e q u i re s l i t t l e ,c h ar co a l s u b s t a n t i a l l y m or e, k e r os e n e e ve n m or e, b o t t l e d a n d p i p e d g a smore s t i l l , b u t a l l l e s s th a n e l e c t r i c i t y . A s s hown i n F ig ur e 2 , t h es to ve s a l s o t e n d t o i n c r e a s e i n c o s t w i t h movement u p t h e l a d d e r [O TA ,1992]. C o n s e q u e n t l y, t h e r a t i o o f c a p i t a l t o o p er a t in g c o s t s i n t o t a lf u e l c o s t g e n e r a l l y r i s e s w i t h e v er y s te p u p t h e l a d d e r .S in ce t h e e f f e c t i v e e co no mi c d i s c o u n t r a t e u se d f o r m a ki ng ho u se h ol d

e xp en di tu re d e ci s i o n s i s u s u a l l y a s t r o ng f u n c t i o n o f p o v e r t y, t h e r ew i l l b e a n a t u r a l r e s i s t a n c e f o r t h e p o o r t o move t o h i g h e r r u ng s ont h e i r o wn. T h e u p f r o n t c o s t s o f a n LPG s t o v e an d c y l i n d e r , f o r e xa mp le ,may g r e a t l y h am pe r i t s a c c ep t an c e e v en , a s i s o f t e n t h e c a s e , t h e d a i l yLPG c o s t s h av e become l e s s t h a n c o s t s f o r i n f e r i o r b u t s c a r c e f u e l s s u chas charc oa l and wood.

I n a d d i t i o n , n o r m a l l y an y i n d i v i d u a l h ou se ho ld a c t s a s i f i t h as as u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r di s c ou n t r a t e t h a n s o c i e t y a s a w ho le . E v e n w i t hw e l l - f u n c t i o n i n g m ar k et s, t h e r e f o r e , t h e m i x o f ho us eh ol d f u e l s i na ct ua l u se i s l i k e l y t o b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n f e r i o r o n ave rag e t h an t h esoc i e t a l op t imum , a co nd i t i o n made wor se by env i r onm en ta l im pac t se x t e r n a l t o t h e h o u s e ho l d.I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r emember t h a t m ovement c a n o c c u r i n b o t h

d i r e c t i o n s a l o n g t h e E n er gy L ad d er an d t h e r e a r e t o o m any i n s t a n c e swhere communi t ies have been fo r ced downwards, e . g . , down t o c ro pr e si d ue s i n m uch o f C h i n a wh en l o c a l f o r e s t r e s o u rc e s we r e d e p l e t e d o rback f r om ke r osene t o wood i n S r i Lanka when r e l a t i ve p r i c es changedd r am a ti c a ll y a f t e r t h e sec on d o i l s h o ck [ Le ac h, 1 9 8 7] . L o c a l f u e l c o s t sand a v a i l a b i l i t i e s d o n o t n e c e s sa r i l y matc h l o c a l in co mes a t a l l t i m es .

I ndeed, t h e ve r y essence o f ene r gy as a developm en t wo r ldv iew can beframed i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e E ne rg y L a dd e r. A c c o r d i n g t o t h i sw or ld vi ew, b e f o r e t h e f i r s t o i l ' s h o c k c o u n t r i e s we re a b l e t o mo re f r e e l ymove a l o n g t h e E ne rg y L a d de r fr o m b i om as s t o f o s s i l f u e l s a s r u r a lde ve lop me nt o c c u r r e d . L i t t l e g ov er nm en t i n t e r v e n t i o n w as n ee de d, a s t h ec os t and a v a i l a b i l i t y ( a nd gr ow th i n r e l a t e d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ) o f t h ef i r s t n o n- bi om as s f u e l s , k e r o se n e a nd d i e s e l , w e r e co m pa t i bl e w i t h l o c a lIncomes. ( T h i s i s w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d i n K o re a' s r a p i d s h i f t away f ro mwood d u r i n g t h e 1 9 60 s, s ho wn i n F i g u r e 3 . ) C o n s e q u e n t l y , e n e r g y p o l i c yfocused on the one sec tor where government invo lvement was obv ious lyneeded, e l e c t r i c p o w e r [ S m i t h , 1 9 8 6 a ) .

A f t e r t h e f i r s t o i l s ho ck , h ow ev er, t h i n g s we re d i f f e r e n t . F o s s i lf u e l s became s u b s t a n t i a l l y more c o s t l y r e l a t i v e t o b i om as s f u e l s . T h u s ,t he y became t o o e x p en s i ve , n o t o n l y f o r m o st r u r a l h o u se h ol d s, b u t a l s of o r poo r u r ban d we l le r s , m any o f whom wer e r u r a l m ig r an t s who b r ough t


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6some o f t h e i r r u r a l c us to ms w i t h th em . I n a d d i t i o n , s u c h a s t e p al o n gt he l a d d e r t o f o s s i l f u e l s became u n a f f o r d a b l e f o r many n a t i o n s , b ec au s ep et ro le um became s u c h a l a r g e f a c t o r i n f o r e i g n t r a d e b a l a n ce s .

As a r e s u l t , t h e g ap b et we en t h e b i o f u e l a n d f o s s i l f u e l r u ng s o nt he l a d d e r h a s b e en en l a r g e d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t p e o p l e m u st c o n t i n u e t ouse b i o f u e l s l o n g e r t h a n t h e y w ou ld h av e i n t h e p a s t . E v e n t u a l l y , i tcan b e ho pe d, r i s i n g i nc omes w i l l c a t c h up w i t h t h e r i s i n g c o s ts o fb i o f u el and a s t ep u p t h e l a d de r w i l l o c c ur . I f i t d oe s, h ow ev er, i tw i l l b e a t much h i g he r b i o f u e l c o s t s , b o t h f i n a n c i a l a nd en v ir o nm en ta l ,t ha n b e f o r e [ S m i t h , 1 9 8 7 b ] .

As a r e s u l t , a f t e r t h e o i l s h oc k s, t h e r e w as b r o a de r ag re em en t a b ou tthe l e g i t i m a c y o f go ve rn me nt i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e n o n - e l e c t r i c e n e rg ys ec to rs o f r u r a l a r e a s . O t h e r w i s e , i t i s a r gu ed , u n d e s i ra b l e o utc ome s,such a s s e ve r e d e f o r e s t a t i o n , w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o r e s u l t .

The ene r gy p o l i c y d i l em ma r a i s ed by t h e Ene rgy Ladde r f r am ewor k i so f a t y p e o f t e n c o n f r o nt e d when d e a l i n g w i t h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s o f e n er gyand e co no mi c d ev el op me nt . I n t h e c as e o f b i o f u e l s i n r u r a l a r e a s , t h edilemma i s t h a t w e se em t o w a nt b o t h l e s s a n d m or e u s e o f b i o f u e l s . W ewan t l e ss , because o f t h e damage done t o t h e l o ca l env i r onm en t t h r oughs o i l d e g r a d a t i o n a nd d e f o r e s t a t i o n a n d t h e b u r d en t o h o u se h ol d sdependent on b iomass ha r v es t s f r om t hese a r eas . O n t h e o t he r hand , wewant m or e a nd l o n g e r u s e o f b i o f u e l s s o t h a t d ev el op me nt c a n o c c u rw i th o ut p u t t i n g a d d i t i o n a l s t r a i n o n c omm er ci al f u e l s u p p l i e s t h a tr e pr es e nt t h e n e x t s t e p s o n t h e l a d d e r .

I n t er m s o f t h e e n er g y l a d d e r , t h e r e f o r e , w e s eem c o mp e ll e d t ochoose b et we en p o l i c i e s d e s ig n ed e i t h e r , 1 ) t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e n a t u r a lt en de nc y o f h ou s eh o ld s t o move t o w a r d h i g h e r q u a l i t y f u e l s , t h u sr e l i e v i n g p r e s s u r e o n bi om as s r e so u r c e s s o o n er t h a n m i g h t o t h e r w i s eo cc ur ; o r 2 ) t o s u p pr e ss t h i s n a t u r a l te n de n cy b y e s t a b l i s h i n g a l o n g e rt er m r o l e f o r b i o f u e l s t h a n t h e y ot h e r wi s e m i g h t h av e i n o r d e r t op os tp on e t h e a d d i t i o n a l demand f o r c o mm er ci a l f u e l s . T h e s e t w o o p t i o n s ,u n f or t u na t e ly, w ou ld seem t o b e p a r t l y i n c o n f l i c t . C e r t a i n l y , t h e yimply somewhat d i f f er en t set s of pr io r i t i es and measures of success.

One obvious response t o th is d ilemma i s to say t ha t we w i l l focusour e f f o r t s on l y toward increas i ng t he e f f i c i ency w i t h w hi ch b i o f ue l i sused, bu t not encourage anyone to use more of i t . T h i s would seem tosa t i s f y bo t h goa l s and t o resonat e w i t h our genera l l y f avorab l eexper ience when increasing var ious types o f prod uct i v i ty i n the pas t .Unf or t una t el y, however, i t i s d i f f i c u l t i f no t i mposs ib le i n househol dst o do on l y one t h i ng . Chang i ng t he e f f i c i enc y o f s t oves w i l l change howthey can be used, how th ey a r e percei ved, a nd wh at and how much theyw i l l b e e xp ec te d t o d o . T h e s e Changes, i n t u r n , w i l l a f f e c t o v e r a l lf ue l use . 2

2 When t h i s occurs , as i n Ch i na, a l ong w i t h r ap i d l y chang ing rura lpatterns o f income, fa mi ly s t ru ctu re , p rope r ty r i gh ts , economic markets ,crops, t i m e u se , d i e t s , a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f a l t e r n a t e f u e l s , p r e d i c t i n g(Footnote continued)


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7T hi s i s s e p a r a t e , o f c o u r s e , f r o m t h e h o us eh ol d b e n e f i t a ch i e ve dw it h each u n i t o f b i o f u e l , a n im p or t an t b u t d i f f e r e n t i s s u e . A l l e l s e

be ing e q u a l , i n c r e a s i n g e f f i c i e n c y w i l l i n c r e a s e h ou se ho ld b e n e f i t s , b u tt h i s may o c c u r p a r t l y b y h o us eh o ld s co o k i n g m or e f o o d o r f o d d e r o r b yf i n d i n g o t h e r us es f o r t h e bi om as s, s u c h a s s e l l i n g t o p a p e r m i l l s . I nt h i s c a s e , o v e r a l l d e cr e as e i n b i o f u e l demand may b e much l e s s t h a n w h a tw ould b e e x pe c te d o n t h e b a s i s o f l a b o r a t o r y o r h ou s eh o ld e f f i c i e n c yt e s t s . 3

I n many w a ys , t h i s d i le mm a l i e s a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e i m pr ov ed s t o v e sq u e st i on f o r d o n o r a g en c i e s a n d g ov er nm en ts . S u m m a r i ze d i n F i g u r e 4 , i tcan b e r e s t a t e d a s f o l l o w s :Given th e h i s t o r i c a l movement a l on g the ene rgy ladder and th e apparentu n s u s t a i n a b i l i t y _ o f many l o ca l b i o f u e l s y s te m s i s h o u l d w e f o c u s o n1. E x t e n di n g t h e l i f e t i m e o f b i o f u e l us ag e? T h i s c a n b e d on e t h ro u ghac t ions focused on demand, suc h as

a. e n ha n ci n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y an d c l e a n l i n e s s w i t h w h ic h b i o f u e l i sused ( i . e . , d i s s e m i n a t i n g i mp ro ve d b io ma ss s t o v es t h a t e s s e n t i a l l y m im i ct ec hn ol o gi es f u r t h e r u p t h e l a d d e r ) ,or a c t i o n s r e l a t e d t o s u p p l y , s u c h as

b. i n c r e a s i n g s u s t a i n a b l e b i o ma s s y i e l d s t h r o u g h i m pr o ve d p r o d u c t i o nm a n a g e m e n t ( e . g . , e n e r g y p l a n t a t i o n s ) , t h e r e b y e f f e c t i v e l y d e c r e a s i n gt he t o t a l f i n a n c i a l an d e nv i ro nm en ta l c o s t s o f b i o f u e l s l o c a l l y .2. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , s h o u l d we r e l i e v e p r e ss u r e o n b i o f u e l r e so u rc e s b yw o rk i ng t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e movement o f h o us e ho l ds t o s t e p s f u r t h e r a l o n gth e e n er g y l a d d er ? E i t h e r , b y S h i f t i n g demand

a. t o t h e f o s s i l f u e l s t r a d i t i o n a l l y i n h a b i t i n g t h e n ex t upwards te ps i n t h e l a d d e r ,o r , wo r k ing on sup p ly t h r ough R&D t o

b. c r e a t e e n t i r e l y n ew e ne rg y l a d d e r s t ep s t h a t r e l y o nb iomass -based l i q u i d and gaseous f u e l s [ S m i t h , 198 7b ] . 4These o p t i o n s h av e some c r i t i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . M b s t i m p o r t a n t ,perhaps, i s t h a t n on e w i l l b e t h e u n i v e r s al an sw er t o t h e o v e r a l l

q u es t io n a n d , a c r o s s t h e w o r l d , o p p o r t u ne n i c h e s ab ou nd f o r e a c h. M o r et o t h e p o i n t , h o w e v er, t h r e e o f t h e s e o p t i o n s c a n b e e x p ec t ed t o b e m or e

2(aont inued)t he i m p ac t o n o v e r a l l f u e l demand i s n o l o n g e r c l e a r . S e e P r o j e c tCount ry Repor t 11.3 T h e s e i s s u e s a r e d i sc us se d m or e f u l l y i n P r o j e c t M ai n R e p or t #2 an dBackground Repo r t #1 .4 F r o m t h e ho us eh ol de rs ' s t a n d p o i n t , t h e r e may b e l i t t l e t o d i s t i n g u i s hOpt ions 2a and 2b.


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9T hi s i s n o t t o d en y t h a t t h e r e a r e many o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n sinvo lved and m any va r i a t i o ns among t h e ba lance -o f - paym en t s i t ua t i on s o fd i f f e r e n t n a t i o n s , b u t t o p o i n t o u t t h a t w i t h i n t h e Ba la nc e o f PaymentsWo rl dv ie w, r e l a t i v e l y m i n o r a d j u s t m en t s i n a s su m pt i on s c an g r e a t l yreduce t h e p ow er o f i t s c e n t r a l p re mi se , i . e . , t h a t s t o v e s ' p o t e n t i a ldemand f o r pe t r o leum f ue ls m us t be supp r essed because i t cou ld be

d e va s ta t in g t o LDC e co no mi es . I t i s c l e a r l y t o a g r e a t de g re e a l s o am at te r o f n a t i o n a l an d i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r i o r i t i e s [ L e ac h , 1 9 8 7 ] .I I I . S u b s id i e s an d Ta xe s f o r E q u i t y

E n te r in g t h e homes o f a l l , w h e t h e r r i c h o r p o o r, ho u se h ol d f u e l s a r et em pt in g v e h i c l e s f o r p o l i c i e s de s ig n ed t o p r o v i d e S o c i a l s a f e t y n e t s o rincome t r a n s f e r s . M a n y i f n o t m os t d e v el o p in g c o u n t r i e s , f o r e x am pl e,t a r g e t k e ro s en e f o r t h e s e p ur p os e s, w h e t h e r c r o s s -s u b s i d i z e d w i t hp e t r e l , c o -s u b si d i z ed w i t h d i e s e l , o r r e s t r i c t e d t o e ncoura ge u se o fgas. A l l t o o o f t e n , h ow ev er, t h e s e e f f o r t s r e s u l t i n d i s t o r t i o n s ,where, f o r e xa mp le , k e r o s e n e i s u s e d f o r u n s u i t a b l e p u r p o se s , s u c h a si r r i g a t i o n a nd p ow e ri n g v e h i c l e s a s happened i n S r i L an ka . T h e r e s u l tcan b e l a r g e c o s t s and l i t t l e b e n e f i t .

Such e f f o r t s c a n a l s o s u pp r es s i n c e n t i v e s t o d e v e l o p n ewt ec hn ol og ie s. I n G u j ar a t , I n d i a , f o r ex ampl e, i n o r d e r f o r t h e s o l a rbox c o o k e r t o c o mp et e i n t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s h o us eh o ld s t h a t a r e i t sn a t ur a l n i c h e , i t i s n e ce ss ar y t o s u b si d i ze t he m s o t h a t t h e y w i l l h av ea s u f f i c i e n t l y s h o r t pa y-b ac k p e r i o d t o a t t r a c t f a m i l i e s u s i n g( s u bs i d i ze d ) ke r o s en e . I m p r o v e d b i om as s st o v e s a l s o o f t e n f a c e s u c hsubs id i zed com pe t i t o r s .

Fo r I CP s, s u c h e x pe r ie n ce s a r e d i s h e a r te n i n g . A l a r g e p a r t o f t h ea t t r a c t i o n o f I C s i s t h a t t h e y seem t o h o l d pr om is e t o h e l p t h e p o o r es to f t h e p o o r , t h o s e a t t h e b ot t om o f t h e e ne r gy ( a n d d e ve l op me n t) l a d d e r .I f l e a d i n g t o s u c c e s s fu l d is s e m i n a t i o n a nd u s e, s u b s i d i e s f o r t h i s g ro u pwould b e j u s t i f i a b l e i n many c as es . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , s u c h su b si d y o f t e nt ak e s a f o r m t h a t l e a d s t o d i se ng ag em en t o f t h e I CP f r o m m a rk e tmechanisms, l o s i n g t h e i r i n h e r e n t b e n e f i t s o f d i s c i p l i n e a nd f e ed b ac k .More e f f o r t s a r e n ee de d t o e x p l o r e t h e u s e o f v o u c he r s o r o t h e r means t os u b s id i z e t h e u p g r a d in g o f s t o v e s a nd f u e l s a mong t h e p o o r e s th ou se ho ld s, w i t h o u t c r e a t i n g w i de sp r ea d ec on om ic d i s t o r t i o n s a n dd i s i n c e n t i v e s . 8

This c an o n l y b e j u s t i f i e d , h o we ve r, i f t h e o v e r a l l b e n e f i t o f I C sa re s i g n i f i c a n t l y p o s i t i v e , i . e . t h e e x t e rn a l su bs i dy i s matched b y t h et o t a l d i r e c t a nd i n d i r e c t b e n e f i t s t o t h e h ou se ho lds a nd b ro a de rco mmu ni ty. S u c h c a l c u l u s i s t r i c k y , h o w ev e r, b e ca us e i t i s b ec om in go bv io u s t h a t same o f t h e s e b e n e f i t s a c c r u e t o t h e w o r l d a s a w h ol et hr ough t he i m pac t o f househo ld b iom ass use on t h e g lo ba l ca r bon cyc le .

I V. G l oba l Ca r bon Cyc le

8 T h i s i s s u e i s d i s c u ss e d m or e i n P r o j e c t Ma i n R e p or t # 2 ,


10/26

10G loba l b iom ass combus t ion i s summ ar ized Tab l e 1 a lo ng w i t h es t im a t ed

t o t a l c a rb o n e m i ss i o ns . F o u r c a t e g o r i e s r e p re s e n t p ro ce ss es o fl a r g e- s c a l e o pe n c om bu st io n, i . e . o u t d o o r f i r e s a s s o c i at e d w i t h s w i dd ena g r i c u l t u r e , p e r m a n e n t d e f o r e s t a t i o n , s a v a n n a s , a n d c r o p r e s i d u e s . M u c hc ro p r e s i d u e i s a l s o b ur ne d i n s m a l l - s c a l e c l o s e d o r s e mi -e n cl o se dc o n di t i o ns i n s i d e c o o k i n g a nd h e a t i n g s t o v e s . A s s ho wn, c r o p r e s i d u e sused i n s t o v e s a r e e s t im a te d t o b e a p p r ox i m a t el y 3 50 m i l l i o n t o n s . I na d d i t i o n , m o s t f i r e w o o d i n t h e d e v e l o p in g w o r l d i s b u r ne d i ns em i- en cl os ed c o n d i t i o n s o r made i n t o c h a r c o a l f o r u s e i n s u c hc o n d i t i o n s . T h u s , t h e d e v el o p i n g- c o un t r y b io ma ss f u e l f l o w ( c r o pr es i du e s, f u el w o o d , a nd wood f o r C h a rc o a l) r e p r e s e n t a s i g n i f i c a n tf r a c t i o n o f t o t a l g l o b a l c a r b on em i ss i on s f ro m a l l b i om as s c om bu st io n,more t h a n o n e - f i f t h a n d p e r h ap s ap p ro a ch i ng o n e - h a l f ( b a se d o n d a t a i nTab le I ) .

I n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e w i de u n c e r t a i n t y a b o ut t h e e m is s io n s f r o m o pe nl a rg e -s c al e b ioma ss f i r e s , h a s l e d t o a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c re a s e i na t t e n t i o n g i v e n t o m ea su ri n g a nd u n d e r st a n d i n g t h e s e p r oc e ss e s [ L e v i n e ,1991]. S u b s t a n t i a l l y l e s s a t t e n t i o n , h o we ve r, h a s b ee n g i v e n t o t h el a t t e r t wo c a t eg o r i e s , f i r e w o od a nd c r o p r e s id u es i n s m a l l - s ca l ecombust ion devices.

I n b o t h c as es , t h e u n c e r t a i n t y a bo u t t o t a l e m i ss i on s i s p a r t l y d uet o u n c e r t a i n t y i n t h e s o u rc e te r m s , i . e . h ow much i s b u rn ed e a ch y e a r ,and p a r t l y t o u n c e r t a i n ty i n t h e e m i ss i on f a c t o r s , i . e . , h ow much o feach c o mb u st i on p r o d u c t i s e m i t t e d p e r k i l o g r a m b u r ne d . I n g e n e r a l ,e mi ss io ns f a c t o r e s t i m a t e s a r e b as ed o n a r a t h e r s m a l l s e t o fmeasurements made i n f i e l d a n d l a b o r a t o r y s i t u a t i o n s . M o s t o f t h e s ehave b e en d es i gn ed t o d u p l i c a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f o p en l a r g e - s c a l ecombustion [ e . g . , L o b e r t , e t a l . , 1 9 9 0 ] . A s a r e s u l t , i n g l o b a li n v e n t o r i e s , d a t a a b o ut fu e lw o cd e m i s si o n s a r e r a t e d b y t h e U . S.E nv ir on me nt al P r o t e c t i o n Ag en cy t o b e c a t e g o r y D i n c e r t a i n t y , w h e r e Ai s m o st c e r t a i n a nd E i s l e a s t c e r t a i n [ Wa ts on & P ro b e r t , 1 9 9 1 ] .

Thi s i s u n f or t un a t e, f o r i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e e mi ss io n f a c t o r s f o rb io mas s a r e q u i t e s e n s i t i v e t o c ha ng es i n c o m b u st i o n c o n d i t i o n s [ C o o p e r,1980; C o f e r , e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 ] . I t s h ou l d n o t b e assumed, t h e r e f o r e , t h a tt h e e m i s s i o n f a c t o r s d e r i v e d f o r o p e n l a r g e - s c a l e c o mb u st i on c a n b ea p p r o p r ia t e l y a p p l i e d t o s m a l l - s c a l e s e m i - o r c o m p l e t el y e nc l os e dc om bu st io n. A n d y e t , i t s ee ms t h a t p e r ha p s 90% o f t h e f i r e w o o d an d 50%o f t h e c r o p r e s i du e s i n t h e w o r l d a r e bu rn ed i n s u c h c o n d i t i o n s i nh ou se ho ld c o o k i n g an d h e a t i n g s t o v e s . A l t h o u g h h o u s eh o ld h e a t i n g s t o v e sa re a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t o t a l wood c om bu st io n i n d e v el op ed c o u n t r i e s ,on a g l o b a l b a s i s , t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y i s u s ed f o r c o o k i ng a nd s pa ceh e at i ng i n d e v el o p in g c o u n t r i e s .

A l though hum ans i n same way u t i l i z e pe r haps 40% o f wo r ld ne t b iomassp ro du ct io n [ V i t o u se k e t a l . , 1 9 8 6 ] , t h a t p r o p o r t i o n use d d i r e c t l y f o rf u e l , s om e 2 6 e x a j o u l e s ( M ey e rs & L e ac h , 1 9 8 9 ) o n l y a c c ou n t s f o r a b o u to ne -s ev en th o f d i r e c t human e n er g y u s e . E v e n s o , a s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e1, b i o f u e l i n t h e f o r m o f w oo d, c r o p r e s i d u e s , b r u s h , a n d a n im a l d un g,i s t o da y p ro b ab l y s t i l l t h e C h i e f fo rm o f e n er gy f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o fh um an it y, j u s t a s i t h as b ee n s i n c e t h e ma st er y o f f i r e [ H a l l &R o s i l l o -C a l l e , 1 9 9 1 ] .


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11Four d i s t i n c t , b u t i n t e r l o c k e d , g l o b a l w o rl dv ie ws a r e r e l e v a n t t o

p re se nt p a t t e r n s o f b i o f u e l s u s e f o r c o o k i n g a nd sp a c e- h e at i n g i ndeve lop ing coun t r i es :1. L o w En e r g y_ E f fi c i e n cy : Su ch b i o f u e l s , o f t e n u se d i n m i x t ur e s t h a tVary s e a s o n a l l y, a r e bu rn ed i n d e v i c es t h a t , b y s t r i c t e n g i n e er i n gc r i t e r i a , g e n e r a l l y ac hi ev e f a i r l y l ow u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e c hemica lenergy i n t h e f u e l . I n many c as es , c o n d i t i o n s v a r y l i t t l e f r o m opencombustion, a s i t u a t i o n t h a t pr ov id es f l e x i b i l i t y b u t lo w u t i l i z a t i o n o fh ea t. T h i s i s t y p i c a l o f d ev el op in g c o u n tr i e s i n g e ne ra l where a l lr es ou rc es , e . g . l a b o r , c a p i t a l , l a n d , a n d e n er g y, t e n d t o b e u se d w i t hl o w e f f i c i e n c y .2. P o o r H ea l t h: Be cau se o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e e m i ss i on f a c t o r s f o rh ea lt h- da ma gi ng a i r p o l l u t a n t s , r e l a t i v e l y h i g h human e xp os u re s o c c u r a sa r e s u l t o f b i o f u e l u s e i n h ou se ho ld s t o ve s . A l t h o u g h w o r s t i n p o o r l yv e n t i l a te d i n d o o r s i t u a t i o n s , b y i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a nd a rd s , e x c es s i vec o n c en t r a ti o n s c a n b e e x p e ri e n ce d i n a w i d e r an g e o f c o n d i t i o n s a nd t h u sa f f e c t L a rg e p o p u l a t i o n s . A s d i s c u ss e d i n P r o j e c t B ac kg ro un d R e p o r t # 4 ,a lt ho ug h t h e r e a r e r e m ai n in g u n c e r t a i n t i e s , a n umber o f s c i e n t i f i cs t u d i e s h a ve n ow a s so c i a t e d h e a l t h e f f e c t s w i t h s u c h e x p os u re s .3. G l o b a l Wa rm in g: I f w o od f ue l demand f o r s t o v e s w e r e t o a c c o u nt f o ro n e- ei g ht h o f n e t g l o b a l d e f o r e s t a t i o n , a s h a s b ee n e s t im a te d [ A h u j a ,1990] , abo ut 1 .5% o f n e t human CO2 ad d i t i on s t o th e a tmosphere (1 .1% o ft o t a l a n n ua l g l o b a l warmi ng p o t e n t i a l ) m i g h t b e l a i d a t t h e b i o f u e lh e ar th . B e c a u s e o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f o t h e r gre en hou se g as es f r o mbiomass st o v e s , t h e t o t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n m i g h t be so me th in g l i k e 2%.W hi le t h i s may n o t seem l a r g e , i t s h o u l d be se e n i n c o mp a ri s on t o o t h e rmajor c o n t r i b u t or s . A l l c o a l - f i r e d pow er p l a n t s i n t h e w o r l d , f o rexample, p r o b a b l y o n l y r e p r e se n t a bo u t 8%. ( O n e o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o ft he g reenhouse gas p r ob lem, i s t h a t , a l t hou gh ene r gy as who le dom ina t esth e e mi ss io ns p i c t u r e , n o o n e s e t o f s p e c i f i c e n er gy a c t i v i t i e s s t a nd so u t . )2. D e f o r e s t a t i o n : T h e u n di sp ut ed f a c t t h a t d e f o r e s t a t i o n i s o c c u r r i n gi n many o f t h e same d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s i n w h i c h b i o f u e l s a r e i n h e a vyuse h a s n a t u r a l l y l e d same o b se r ve r s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t b i o f u e ldem and acce le r a t es de f o r es t a t i on r a t es .The Carbon Flow o f an A r c h e t n a l B iomass-Stove

To e x pl o re t h e f i r s t t h r e e o f th es e i s su e s f u r t h e r , i t i s u s e f u l t od e t a i l t h e t r a d e - o f f s a n d co m pl e me n ta r in e ss among t h e e n e r g y, h e a l t h ,and g re en ho us e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f b i o m a s s- f i r e d c o ok s to v es . I n t h e1980s, a number o f s tu d i es we re under taken t o examine the energy andh e a l t h i m p l i c a t i o n s o f b io ma ss s t o v e s , b o t h i n d e ve lo p ed a n d d e v e l o p i n gc o un tr y s i t u a t i o n s [ S m i t h , 1 98 7 a , C h en , e t a l , 1 9 9 0 ; WBO, 1 9 9 2 a , b ]U n t i l r e c e n t l y , h o w e ve r, s u c h s t u d i e s ha d n o t b ee n u n de r ta k en t o e x p l o r et h e i r g l o b a l w a rm in g i m p l i c a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h , a s m e n ti o ne d a b ov e , mu cha t t e n t i o n h a d b e en p a i d t o s u c h l a r g e s c a l e o p e n b io ma ss b u r n i n g s u c h a ssavannah a nd f o r e s t f i r e s .


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12To f i l l t h i s g ap , a s m a l l s t u d y o f c oo ks to ve s i n M a n il a wasu nd er ta ke n b y t h e E a s t -W es t C e n t e r, t h e a n a l y s i s o f w h i c h w as p a r t l ys up po rt ed b y t h e ESMAP/UNDP p r o j e c t t h a t l e d t o t h i s p a p e r . 9 M o n i t o r e dwere em iss ions o f m ore t han 80 g r eenhouse - r e la t ed and hea l t h - r e la t e dgases f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l c o o ks t ov e s b u r n i n g w oo d, c h a r c o a l , k e r o s e ne , a n d

L i q u e f i e d P et r o le u m Gas ( L P G) , w h i c h t o g e t h e r a c c o u n t f o r a l a r g ef r a c t i o n o f a l l c o ok in g i n d e ve lo pi ng co u n t r i e s . I n v o l v i n g o n l y a fe wstoves i n e ach c a te g or y, i t i s n o t p o ss i b l e t o dr aw s t a t i s t i c a l l ym ea ni ng fu l c o n cl u s i on s f r om t h i s p i l o t s t u d y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e s u l t sa re q u i t e s u g ge s t i ve a nd s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e a number o f i m p o r t a n ti ss ue s r e l a t e d t o i m pr ov ed s t o v e s t r a t e g i e s .

As d i s cu s se d i n B o x 2 , t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y c a n b e pr e se n te dmost g r a p h i c a l l y a s t h e f l o w o f t h e c a rb on c on ta in ed o r i g i n a l l y i n t h ef u e l , b u t d i s t r i b u t e d i n t o v a r i o u s f o rm s b y t h e co mb us ti on pr o ce s s. T h er e s u l t i n g common f ra me wo rk i s s e e n i n F i g u r e s 5 - 7 , w h i c h a l l o we xa mi na ti on o f t h i s c a r b on f l o w i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e t h r e e mo sti m p o rt a n t a s p e c t s o f t h e e m i s s io n s : e n e r g y , h e a l t h , a n d g l o b a l w ar mi ng .The c o n ce r n f r o m e a ch a r e a p e r s p e c t i v e i s l a r g e l y b ec au se o f t h er e l a t i v e l y p o o r co mb us ti on t h a t o cc u rs i n s uc h s t o ve s , i . e . , b ec au se o fthe PIC.

V. E n e rg y e f f i c i e n c yTo p u t t h e P I C i n a n e n e rg y c o n t e x t , e a c h c o n s t i t u e n t ne ed s t o b ewei ghted b y i t s e n er gy co n t e nt , i . e . , t h e a d d i t i o n a l e n er gy t h a t c o u l dhave b ee n r e l e a s e d i f t h e P I C h a d b e en b u rn e d a l l t h e wa y t o C O2. A sshown i n F i g u r e 5 , t h e r e s u l t f o r t h e M a n i l a w oo ds to ve i s t h a t t h e P ICc on ta in a b ou t 12% o f t h e en er gy o r i g i n a l l y i n t h e wood, i . e . , t h ecombusti on e f f i c i e n c y i s a b o u t 88%. I n o t h e r w or ds , a l l e l s e b e i n ge qu al , i f t h e c om bu st io n e f f i c i e n c y w e re r a i s e d t o 100%, t h e s t o v e w o ul dr e q u i r e a b ou t 14% l e s s f u e l ( 1 / 0 . 8 8 ) .This i n e f f i c i e n c y i s p a r t o f t h e r ea so n t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l b i o f u e ls to ve s u s e m or e f u e l t h a n i t s eems t h e y s h o u l d . T h e o t h e r m a j or

t e c hn i c a l r e as o n, o f c o ur se , i s l o w h e at t r a n s f e r e f f i c i e n c y ( t h ef r a c t i o n o f h e a t re l ea s ed f r o m t h e f u e l t h a t i s t a k e n i n t o t h e c oo ki n gu t e n s i l ) . 1 0V I . H ea l t h I m pac t s /M a in tenance

As w e l l a s r e p r e s e n t i n g a n e n er g y l o s s , t h e P I C r e p r es e n t t h e m ai nh e al th -d am ag in g a i r p o l l u t a n t s f r o m wood c o m bu s t i on . O n e w ay t h e y c a nbe Aggrega ted and com pared i s by use o f t h e R e l a t i v e Haza rd I ndex ( RHI ) /as shown i n F i g u r e 6. T h i s i s s i m p l y t h e amount o f a i r i t w o ul d t a k e t os u f f i c i e n t l y d i l u t e e ac h p o l l u t a n t u n t i l i t reached t h e re l e va n th e al t h- b as e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ta n d a rd [ S m i t h , 1 9 8 7 a ] . W i t h s t a n d a r d s a sshown, t h e t o t a l R H I o f t h e P I C i s a b o u t 1 20 ,0 00 c u b i c m e t er s . C O 2 i s

9 F i e l d s u p p o r t came f r o m t h e US E n v ir o nm e nt a l P r o t e c t i o n A g en cy. M o r ed e t a i l s o f t h e s tu d y a nd i t s r e s u l t s c a n b e f ou nd i n S mi th , e t a l .[ 1992a,b ] .10 T h e s e t w o f a c t o r s i n t e r a c t i n w ays t h a t may n o t b e e n t i r e l y o bv i ou s[ Sm it h, 1 9 8 9 ] . S e e B o x 5 b e l o w .


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13n ot mac h o f a h e a l t h h a z a r d , a s s ho wn b y t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l RH I , 1 8 0 0m3. ( U s e o f s ta nd ar ds f r om d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , o b v i o u s l y , wo u ld r e s u l ti n d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i v e w ei g ht in gs f o r t h e p o l l u t a n t s . )

A p r a c t i c a l u s e o f t h e s e d i l u t i o n v ol um es w o u l d be t o e s t i m a t e wh a tf r a c t i o n o f t h e ne ed ed d i l u t i o n m i g h t a c t u a l l y b e a c h i e v e d i n a t y p i c a lc oo ki ng s i t u a t i o n . I f , t o b e g en e r ou s , a v i l l a g e k i t c h e n i s 4 0 m3 a ndi t s a i r e xc ha ng e r a t e i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a b o u t 2 5 p e r h o u r [ S m i t h , 1 9 8 7a ] ,t he k i t c h e n h as ac c e ss t o a b o ut 10 0 0 m3 o f d i l u t i o n a i r e ac h h o u r . At y p i c a l b u r n r a t e f o r a w oo ds to ve i s a b o u t 1 k g / h , p r o d u c i n g e a ch h o urth e amount o f P IC as shown i n F i g u r e 6 . E v e n i n t h i s f a i r l yw e l l - ve n t i l a t e d s i t u a t i o n , t h e a v a i l a b l e d i l u t i o n a i r w ou ld seem t o b ef a r b e l o w ( 4 0-7 0t i m e s )w h ati sn e ed e dtokeepn o n-m e th a neh yd ro ca rb on s

(NMHC) and r e sp i r ab le suspended p a r t i cu la t e ( RSP) conc en t r a t i on s f r ome xc ee di ng t h e s t a n da r d s , a p r e d i c t i o n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h many v i l l a g emeasurements i n d e v e l o p i ng c o u n t r i e s . I n f a c t , i t i s n o t uncommon f o ri n do o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t o r e a c h 5 0 t i m e s t h e s t a n d a rd f o r R S P. 11As ment ioned, tw o o f th e PIC c at eg or ie s shown (NMHC and RSP) ar ec o m p o s i t e s c o n t a i n i n g a v a s t a r r a y o f , m o s t l y , o r g a n i c c h e m i c a l s . M a n yo f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l l y a r e known t o b e h e a l t h - t h r e a t e n i n g e . g . , b en ze nein NMHC and po lya r om at i c hyd r oca r bons i n RSP). T h u s , i f RHI s wer ec a l c ul a t ed f o r e ac h i n t u r n , t h e t o t a l w o ul d b e much l a r g e r t h a n t h e

RHIs f o r t h e g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s .The i m pa c t o f s t o v e s o n h e a l t h an d t h e r e s u l t i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r

i n t e r v e n t i o n p o l i c i e s d e s ig ne d t o i m pr ov e o r p r o t e c t h e a l t h d ep en d o n arange o f f a c t o r s , h e r e o r g a ni z ed i n F i g u r e 8 . S m o k e e m is s io n s a r ep r i m a r i l y d ue t o f u e l s , s t o v e s , a n d u sa ge p a t t e r n s . A i r c o nc e nt r at i on s ,ho we ve r, a l s o d ep en d o n h o u s i ng a nd v e n t i l a t i o n , w h i l e a c t u a l h umane n o s u r e s a d d i t i o n a l l y de pe nd o n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p eo p le a ndt h e i r b e ha vi o r. A c t u a l h e a l t h im Ea ct , o f c o ur se , i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h ei n t e r p l a y o f a number o f o t h e r r i s k f a c t o r s a s w e l l , some o f w hi ch , l i k ei n s ec t p re v al e nc e , c a n a l s o be a f f e c t e d b y s to v e s. F i n a l l y , R o l i c y ,i . e . , w h a t ca n a nd o u g ht t o b e do ne , w i l l d epend as w e l l o n p o l i t i c a l ,c u l t u r a l , an d e co nomi c c o n d i t i o n s . G i v e n t h i s a r r a y o f f a c t o r s i t mayw e l l b e t h a t I C Ps a r e p r o v i d e a r a t h e r p o o r l e v e r f o r c ha nge i n somer e g i on s , e v e n t ho u gh , b y o n e wa y o f t h i n k i n g , s t o v e smoke i s r e s p o n s i b l ef o r c on si d er ab le i l l - h e a l t h . 1 2

V I I . G lo ba l Warm ing

11 S e e , f o r e xa mp le , B o l e i j , e t a l . [ 1 9 9 0 ] , wh o f o un d i n d o o r RSPc o n ce n t ra t io n s i n K e ny a d u r i n g t h e c o o k i n g p e r i o d t h a t o f t e n e xc ee de d5000 ug/ m3 du r i ng t h e cook ing pe r i od and ave raged 2000 ug/ m3 f o r 24h ou rs . T h e U . S . p u b l i c s t a n d a r d f o r RSP i s 5 0 u g/ m3 a s an a nn u a lave rage o r 150 ug /m 3 f o r any 24 hou r pe r io d .12 T h e Wo rl d H e a l t h Or g a n i z a ti o n i s a c t i v e l y p l a n n i n g t o m ou nt s ev e r a ls tu d ie s i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e w o rl d t o measure t h e p o t e n t i a l f o rr ed uc in g c h i l dh o o d p ne um on ia , t h e c h i e f k i l l e r o f c h i l d r e n i n d e ve l op i ngc o un t ri e s, b y m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s i n t h e f a c t o r s d i s p l ay e d i nF igu r e 8 , i nc lu d i ng im proved s t oves [WHO, 199 2a , b ] .


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14F i gu r e 7 e v a l u a t e s t h e same P I C i n t e rm s o f t h e i r g r ee nh ou se ga s

p o t e n t i a l . T o d o t h i s , i t i s n ec es sa ry t o a p p l y some i n de x s o t h a t t h ed i f f e r e n t g as es c a n b e c om bi ne d [ S m i t h & Ah u j a, 1 9 9 0 ] . T h i s i s s obecause t h e g as es h av e d i f f e r e n t h e a t - t r a p p i ng a b i l i t i e s , l i f e t i m e s , a n di n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r ga se s i n t h e a tm os ph er e. H e r e , I h a ve u se d t h eGloba l Warming Potent ia ls (GWPs) deve loped by the In te rgovernmenta lPanel o n C l i m a t e Change [ I P CC , 1 9 9 0 ; S m i t h e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 ] . 1 3 T h e s e a r eg iv en as a r a t i o t o CO2 ( i . e . , p e r m o le c ul e o r c a r bo n a t om ), a n d t h u scan b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e d eg re e t o w h ic h t h e t o t a l w a rm in g o f e a chcompares t o CO2. S i n c e a l l t h e g as e s h a ve d i f f e r e n t a t m o s ph e r icl i f e t i m e s , t h e r e l a t i v e i m p a c t (GWP) d ep en ds o n t h e c h o se n t i m e h o r i z o n .Shown i n F i g u r e 9 a r e t h e wo od st ov e r e s u l t s f o r t i m e h o r i z o n s o f 2 0 ,100, a n d 5 0 0 y e a r s . I n g e n e r a l , s h o r t e r t i m e h o r i z o n s make t h e n on-0 O2gases l o o k m or e i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i v e t o CO2, s i n c e CO2 i s t h e l o n g e s tl i v ed o f t h i s g r ou p.

As shOwn i n F ig u r e 9 , depend ing on t h e t im e h o r i zo n chosen , t h enon-0O2 GGs ( i . e . , t h e P I C ) h av e a t o t a l g l o b a l w ar mi ng p o t e n t i a l20-110% a s much a s t h e CO2 i t s e l f . T h i s h a s i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a tI w i l l e x p l o r e f u r t h e r b e l ow : 1 ) l o o k i n g o n l y a t CO2 e mi ss io ns o fb i o f u e l c o ok s to ve s may n o t n e c e s s a r i l y g i v e a good p i c t u r e o f t h e i rg loba l war ming im p l i c a t i o ns ; and 2 ) im provem en t s i n com bus tione f f i c i e n c y c o u l d r e s u l t i n much l a r g e r r e d u c t i o n s i n GWP t h a n w o ul d b ei n d i ca t e d s i m p l y b y Changes i n f u e l e f f i c i e n c y .

V I I I . De f o r es t a t i on / B iom ass Fue l Cyc l e / Na t u r a l Resou r ces ManagementThe a b ov e d i s c u s s i o n h a s f o c us e d m a i n l y o n t h e w ay t h e s t o v e i t s e l fd i v e r t s c ar bo n i n t o d i f f e r e n t e mi s si o n s tr ea ms . B u t t h e s t ov e i s p a r t

o f a b r oa d e r s ys te m , t h e b io ma ss f u e l c y c l e i n F i g u r e 10 ( w h i c hi nc or po ra te s a s i m p l i f i e d v e r s i o n o f F i g u r e 8 . ) I n F i g ur e 1 0, t h e f o u rm aj or i m p ac t s b e i n g di s cu s se d a r e s ho wn : f u e l e f f i c i e n c y , h e a l t h , g l o b a lw armi ng , a n d l an d u s e C ha ng es , s u c h a s d e f o r e s t a t i o n . I m p l i e d , a s w e l l ,a re t h a t t h e r e a r e p o s s i b l e t r a d e - o f f s among t he m.

I n s p i t e o f t h e ob vi o us c o nn e ct i on , i t h as p ro ve d d i f f i c u l t i n manyareas t o demonst ra te a s t ro ng dependence o f adverse landuse Changes onh ou se ho ld b i om as s f u e l d ema nd , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h er e f u e l i s g a t h e re d b yt he househo lde r s t hem se lves [G oodman, 198 7 ] . T h e r e seem t o be t w op r i nc i p a l re as on s. W h e r e t h er e i s l i t t l e d e fo r es t a t i o n i n s p i t e o fl o c a l f u e l demand, b io ma ss i s o f t e n e x t e n s i v e l y h a r ve s te d f r o m t r e e s ,s hr ub s, a n d o t h e r v e g e t a t i o n ar ou nd t h e p e r i p h e r y o f f i e l d s ,s et t l e me nt s, a n d r oa d s ( " t h e i n v i s i b l e f o r e s t " ) . W h e r e d e f o r e s t a t i o n o ro t h e r a dv er se l a nd u se Changes ( e . g . , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ) a r e r am pa nt , t h ema gn it ud e o f b i o ma ss f u e l d emand i s o f t e n r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l com pa re d t ot h a t f o r r o a d s , l u m b e r, p a s tu r a g e , a n d a g r i c u l t u r e [ L ea c h, 1 9 8 8 ] .

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o remembe r, h o we v er, t h a t t h e f u e l / d e f o r e s t a t i o nc on ne ct io n i s s i t u a t i o n de pe nd en t. T h e r e a r e c e r t a i n l y p l a c es w he reh ou se ho ld f u e l demand p l a y s a n i d e n t i f i a b l e r o l e i n l a n d us e C ha ng es,

13 R e v i s i o n s o f GWPs a r e l i k e l y a s mo re i n f o r m a t i o n becomes a v a i l a b l e[IPCC, 1 9 9 2 ; L e l i e v e l d & C r u t z en , 1 9 9 2 ] .


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e . g. , i n t h e Sa he l [ A n to i n e, 1 98 91 . T h i s i s m os t e a s i l y seen i n t ho seareas t h a t s e r v e a s c om me rc ia l " f u e l s h e d s " f o r c o nc e n tr a te d , i . e . ,u rban , demands f o r w ood and / o r C harcoa l . B e ca us e o f l an d ow nersh ipp a t te r n s a n d / o r t h e s ometi me s h i g h d i s c o u n t r a t e s o f i n d i v i d u a le n t e r p r i s e s , s u c h a r e as a r e o f t e n h a r v e s t e d w i t h o u t r e p la c e me n t, l e a d i n gt o , u s u a l l y u n d e s i r a b l e , l a n d u s e c ha ng e s. A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e so meti me smore b a s i c p r o bl e ms t o b e s o l v e d i n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s , i m p ro v e d s t o v e scan r e d u ce p r e s s u r e o n n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s w h i l e t h e s e o t h e r p r ob le ms a r eaddressed.

15

I X. T h e C o s ts o f E n vi r on m en t al E x t e r n a l i t i e sEn erg y, h e a l t h , a n d g l o b a l w a rm in g a r e q u i t e d i s p a r a t e c o nc e rn s ,w i t h q u i t e d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f v i c t i m s a nd i mp ac ts . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i sp o s si b l e a nd p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l t o a t t e m p t a d i r e c t c om pa ri so n t h r ou g h acommon m e t r i c . T h e m os t o b v i o u s i s e c on om ic s [ D i x o n e t a l . , 1 9 8 8 ] .There i s n o u n i v e r s a l wa y t o c o n v e r t e n v i r o n me n t a l i m p a c t s i n t oeconomic c o s t s , b u t r a t h e r s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e a pp ro ac he s ( P r o j e c tBackground R e p o r t # 1 ) . H e r e w e o f f e r c r u d e e s t i m a t e s u s i n g t h eo p p o r t u n i t y c o s t a p p ro ac h f o r e n e rg y an d g l o b a l w ar mi ng , w h i c h i n v o l v e sexam ina t ion o f t h e money spen t i n o t h e r a renas t o accomp l i sh t he samer e s u l t s . F o r h e a l t h , w e c a l c u l a t e t h e va l u e o f t h e i nc re as ed l a b o r t h a tcomes abou t i f s i ckness i s avo i ded .

EntEgyThe 2 . 3 MJ l o s t t o P IC ( F i g u r e 5 ) r e p r e s e n t s a l o s s o f a p p ro x i ma t e ly12% o f t h e t o t a l 2 0 M j e n er gy c on t e n t o f 1 k g o f woo d. A n a l y s i s o fr e t a i l f u el wl oo d p r i c e s i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s sh ow a r an g e f r o m$ 10 -1 00 /t on [M ey er s & Le ac h, 1 9 8 9 ] . W i t h a n i n f l a t i o n - a d j u s t e d

i n t er m ed i a te wood p r i c e ( $ 5 0 / t o n ) , t h e P IC r e pr e s e nt s a l o s s o f a b ou t$ 10 /h ou se ho ld -y ea r ( 1 65 0 k g / y ) . 1 4 I n p r a c t i c e , o f c o ur s e , t h e l o s s esdue t o p o o r h e a t t r a n s f e r i n s t o v es a r e u s u a l l y much l a r g e r , a n d t h u st he t o t a l p o t e n t i a l s a v i n g s o f I C s de si gn ed t o i mp ro ve b o t h c om bu st io nas w e l l a s h e a t t r a n s f e r e f f i c i e n c y c o u l d b e much l a r g e r .Hea l th

The P IC f rom b iomass cookstoves i n Nepa l have been shown t o beassoc ia ted w i t h i nc reased r a t es o f ch ro n ic b r on ch i t i s (C B ) among women[Pan dey, 1 9 8 4 ] . A m o n g o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l , s o c i a l , a n d ec on om ic i mp a c t s ,CB r e s u l t s i n a p a r t i a l i m pa ir me nt o f w o rk in g a b i l i t y . T h u s , b as ed o nt h e l o s t p e r c a p i t a i nc om e a n d t h e l o n g t i m e t h a t m u st b e e x pe c te dbetween exposure reduc t ions f rom s tove improvements and ac tua l lessen ingo f CB p r e v al e n c e i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n ( 2 0 y e a r s ) , t h e p r e s e n t d i sc o u n te dv al ue o f a w e l l - f u n c t i o n i n g i m pr ov e d c o o ks t o ve h as be e n e s t i m at e d t o b eabout $ 10 0 w i t h r e g a rd t o f u t u r e i n cr e as e d l a b o r p r o d u c t i v i t y [ S m i t h &Ramakrishna, 1988].

14 A t t h e u pp e r e nd o f t h e c oo k in g e n er gy l a d d e r , t h e l o s s o f t h i s muchenergy i n t h e f o r m o f e l e c t r i c i t y w ou l d c o s t $ 5 3/ ho u se ho l d- ye a r ( a t$0.05/kWh).


16/26

16T r e a ti n g e mi s s i o ns i n t h e f u t u r e i n t h e same w ay a s i n co me , u n d e rt y p i c a l l y a p p l i e d d i s c ou n t r a t e s , t h e n e t p r es e n t v a l u e i s a b o u t 1 0t im es t h e a n n u al a mo un t. T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t t h e h e a l t h damage p ro du ce dby o n e y e a r ' s P I C i s a b o u t $ 10 . O f c o u r s e t h e r e a r e many a s su mp t io n sand u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s , a s w e l l a s a numbe r o f o t h e rh e a l th e f f e c t s , m o s t l y n e g a t i v e , b u t i n some r e g i o n s , p er h ap s p o s i t i v e( mo sq ui to r e p e l l e n c e , s e e F i g u r e 8 ) . 1 5An ot her way t o l o o k a t t h i s i s t o ex am in e o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s wh er emoney i s s p e n t t o r e d uc e a i r p o l l u t a n t e x p os u re . Ro u m a s s e t a nd S m i t h[ 19 90 ], f o r e xa mp le , c a l c u l a t e t h a t t h e m a r g i n a l c o s t o f r e d u ci n gp a r t i c u l a t e ex po su re fr o m c e n t r a l s t a t i o n c o a l po we r p l a n t s i n I n d i a i sabout $0 . 09 pe r exposure u n i t (E U - - one pe rson b rea t h in g one m icrogramp er c u b i c me t e r f o r o n e y e a r ) . A c o ok s to v e b u r n i n g 1 65 0 k g / y i n ap o or l y v e n t i l a t e d s i t u a t i o n i n I n d i a e xp os es t h e c oo k t o a t l e a s t 2 ,0 0 0ug/m3 d u r i n g t h e c o o k i n g p e r i o d , w h i c h i s c ommon ly a b o u t 3 h o u r s / d[R ama kri sh na , e t a l . , 1 9 8 9 ] . E v e n w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g e x po s ur es t oo t he r f a m i l y members o r t h e r e s t o f t h e d a y, t h i s t r a n s l a t e s i n t o a b ou t

250 E U / y, o r a b o u t $ 2 0 p e r y e a r t h a t w o u l d h a ve b e s p e n t a t c o a l p l a n t st o avo id t h i s much exposu re . 16The t w o me thods o f ca l c u l a t i n g econom ic c os t o f smoke exposures ,r ec ov er y o f l o s t i nc om e a nd t y p i c a l c o s t o f a l t e r n a t i v e s , g i v e n t h eu n c e r ta i n t i e s, p ro d uc e s i m i l a r r e s u l t s . S i n c e o n l y o ne d is ea se e f f e c ti n o ne p o p u l a t i o n g ro u p (C B i n women) a n d o n e p o l l u t a n t ( p a r t i c u l a t e s )o f t h e many i n b iomass smoke , a r e cons i de red , t he r e m igh t be good reasont o s u s pe c t t h a t t h e s e e s t i ma t e s a r e l o w . O n t h e o t h e r ha nd , c o n d i t i o n si n N ep al an d n o r t h e r n I n d i a , w h e re t h e o r i g i n a l s t u d i e s w e r e c on du ct ed ,a re p r o b a b l y w o rs e t h a n t h e w o r l d a v er a g e , b i a s i n g t h e r e s u l t s u pw ar ds .Thus, I t a k e t h e av er ag e o f t h e t wo e s t i m a t es , i . e . $ 1 5 / y .

Global WarmingS t ud ies [ e . g . , USNAS, 1991 ; H ayes & S m i t h , 1 992 ] have es t ima t edm a rg i na l c o s t c u r v e s f o r r e mo v in g c ar b o n d i o x i d e f r o m t h e a t mo sp he re o rp re ve nt in g i t s e m i ss i on . A f t e r t ho s e p r o j e c t s a r e u nd er ta ke n t h a ta c t u a l l y s a ve mon ey, t h e r e w o u ld seem t o b e a s e t o f r e l a t i v e l y l o w c o s to p t i o n s c o s t l y u p t o a b o u t $ 3 0 p e r t o n c a r b o n -a s - 0 O2 - e qu i v a l en t ( w h i c h I

S ha ll c a l l GGU, g re en ho u se ga s u n i t ) . B a s e d o n F i g u r e 7 , t h e P ICr e le a se d i n o n e y e a r f r o m a b io ma ss c o o ks t o ve i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a b o u t770kg 20-year-GGU or 280 100-year-GGU. Assuming that global pr ior i t iesbecome such that law-cost carbon-reduction programs are widelyundertaken, prevent io n o f one stove-year o f P IC has a value of about $15($8-23) . A number of a l te rn at iv e carbon-reduct ion sdhemes th a t havebeen proposed c os t many ti me s more.

15 St ud ie s i n The Gambia, however, in di ca te th at th e smoke's repel lenc ydoes not reduce malar ia t ransmission ra te s [Snow et a l . , 19871 .16 B y comparison, t h e new U.S . C lean A i r Act s pec i f ie s cont rol measuresthat w i l l cost about $ 200 0/ t o f MMHC aver ted [Krupnick & Portney, 1 991 ] .In t he woodstove o f F igures 5-7 , t h i sw o u l db ee q u i v a l e

$58/Y.


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To t a l Va l u e o f I C s

Fuel

17

Given t h e many u n c e r t a i n t i e s , a l l t h a t c a n b e s a i d i s t h a t e ac h o fth e b e n e f i t s - - e n e r g y, h e a l t h , g l o b a l wa rm in g - - s eems t o b e o f s i m i l a rmagnitude a nd t h e t o t a l e n v i r on m en t al b e n e f i t o f e l i m i n a t i n g o n e y e a r ' sPIC f r o m t h e e m i s s i o n s o f o n e b io ma ss co o k st o v e i s a b o u t $ 4 0 . P u tanother average P IC carb on causes env i ronme nta l damage approx im ate lye qu al t o $ 0 . 4 0 /k g - PI C , s i n c e a b o u t 1 0 0 k g P IC a r e e m i t t e d e a c h y e a r ( 6 0g-PIC/kg-wood x 1650 kg-wood) f rom ou r ar che typ a l woodstove, o r about$0. 025/ kg o f wood bu rned (h a l f o f t he ave rage f u e l p r i c e assumed above ) .

Assuming p e o p le w i l l s t i l l n ee d t o c o o k a t home a n d a r e w e l l v e rs e di n o p e r a t i n g t h e i r s t o v e , t h e r e a r e b a s i c a l l y t w o wa ys t o r e du c e P ICemiss ions f r om b iomass - f i r ed cooks t oves : change t he f ue l o r change t hes tove.

As d i s p l a y e d i n F i g u r e 4 , o n e o b j e c t i v e o f h o us e ho l d e n er g y p o l i c ycan be t o encourage peop le t o move up t he ene rgy ladd e r sooner t ha n t heyo th er wi se mi g h t . T h i s c a n b e d on e t h ro u g h f u e l a nd s t o v e p r i c i n g o ro t h e r wa ys t o m ake n ew s t o v e / f u e l c o m b i na t i o ns r e l a t i v e l y m or ea t t r a c t i v e . I n mos t p a r t s o f t h e de ve lo pi ng w o rl d , t h e f i r s t s t epbeyond unprocessed b iomass i s Cha rcoa l o r kerosene, fo l l ow ed by LPG. I nsome a r e a s , K en y a a nd T h a i l a n d , f o r e x a mp le , l i t t l e k e ro s en e i s p r o v i d e dand t h e f i r s t s t e p a f t e r Ch ar co al i s LPG. I n C hi na , i t i s o f t e n c o a l ,f o l l ow e d b y LPG. I n g e n e r a l , mo ve me nt u p t h e l a d d e r r e s u l t s i ns u b s t a n t i a l l y f e w e r P I C e m i ss i o ns p e r m e al [ S m i t h , 1 9 9 0 ] .Such s t e ps w ou ld seem ve ry l i k e l y t o r educe p ressu re on biomassr es o ur ce s a nd , d e pe n d i n g o n t h e f u e l , m i g h t a l s o r e du c e he a lt h -d a ma g in g

PIC e m is s io n s, p a r t i c u l a r l y RSP. W i t h a s w i t c h f r o m b io ma ss t o f o s s i lf u e l s, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , a g l o b a l wa rmi ng p e n a l ty m i gh t f i r s t s eemi n e v i t a b l e be ca us e f o s s i l r a t h e r t h a n co nt em po ra ry c a r b o n w ou ld b eem i t ted . B ec au se b iomass combus t ion leads t o a h ig h amount o f P I C w i t ha l a r g e GWP ( F i g u r e 7 ) , h ow e ve r, t h e t o t a l p i c t u r e i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y mo recompl ica ted.

Consider the PIC-redu ct ion b en ef i ts o f switch ing from wood t oCharcoal, kerosene, o r LPG as summarized i n Table 2a f o r th e s i t ua t i onwhere t h e wood i s h a r v e s te d o n a c o m p l e t e l y n on -r en e wa bl e b a s i s , i . e . ,d e f o r e s t at i o n . F r o m a wood s t a n d p o i n t , a s w i t c h t o C ha rc oa l l e a d s t osub sta nti al l y a dd it io na l wood use f o r th e same cooking demand because o flosses a t the k i ln 17 Of course the re ar e a lso advantages to charcoalsuch as lower household smoke emissions. Sw i t ch es to the fo ss i l fu e l s ,on th e o the r hand, would seem t o re l i ev e a l l cookfuel pressure on woodresources. ( I n pra ct ic e , households ra re ly swi tch suddenly andcompletely f rom one fue l t o another , bu t o f t en spend years i n t ra ns i t i on

17 F o r i l l u s t r a t i o n , i n t h e t a b l e t h e r e a r e tw o c o nt r as t in g c on ve rs io nef f ic i encie s running from good, 3 . 2 kg wood (wi t h 1 .6 kg carbon) t o make1k g charcoa l , t o m edi ocre , 6 kg / kg [Bormann, e t a l . , 1991 ; Fe i ns t e i n &van der Plas , 1991] .


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18d u r i n g w h i ch t h e y ma y h a ve s e v e r a l t y p e s o f s t o v e s , e a c h f o r ap a r t i c u l a r u se , o r t o b e s e c ur e fr om f u e l s h o r t ag e s . )

From a h e a l t h s t a n d p o i n t , a s h i f t f r o m wood t o LPG r e du c es t h eo v e r a l l h e a l t h im p ac t b y a f a c t o r o f 5 0 . K e r o s e n e , o n t h e o t h e r ha nd ,r e s ul t s i n a r e d uc t i o n b y a f a c t o r o f f o u r. 1 8 U s e o f a c ha rc oa l s t o ver e s u l t s i n a n i mp rov emen t b y l i t t l e m ore t h a n a f a c t o r o f t w o. D u r i n gc h ar c oa l m a ki n g , h o w ev e r, t h e k i l n a p p a r e n t l y e m i t s r a t h e r l a r g e am ou nt so f PI C ( see B ox 5 ) .Here, f o r h e a l t h i m p ac t , I h a ve r ed uc ed k i l n e m i s si o n s b y a f a c t o r o f20 i n r e c o gn i t i o n t h a t k i l n s a r e t y p i c a l l y r em ot el y s i t e d an d a f f e c tr e l a t i v e l y fe w p eo pl e, i . e . , l i t t l e o f t h e smoke i s a c t u a l l y i nh a l ed .The t o t a l h e a l t h i m p ac t o f t h e c h a r co a l f u e l c y c l e , u n d e r t h es eassumptions, i s t h u s a b ou t h a l f t h a t o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l wood s t o v e .

From a g l o b a l w ar mi ng s t a n d p o i n t , h o w e v e r, t h e l o c a t i o n o f e m i s s i o nsi s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t i n m os t c as es . A s shown i n T ab l e 2a , b ec au se o f t h el a rg e ( b u t p o o r l y kn ow n) e m i s si o n f a c t o r s f o r c h a r c o a l k i l n s , t h ec ha rc oa l f u e l c y c l e l o o k s t o b e 2 - 7 t i m e s w or se f o r g l o b a l wa rm in gthan t h e t r a d i t i o n a l wood s t o v e ( 2 0 - ye a r t i m e h o r i z o n ) . I n a s i m i l a rway, t h e g l ob a l w a rm ing e f f e c t s o f ke rosene and LPG s t ove s a r e ,r e s p e c t i v e l y, 5 a nd 1 0 t i m e s l e s s t h a n t h o s e f o r w ood.19

The he a l t h and g l ob a l w a rming impac t s have a l so been conve r t ed i n t oeconomic c o s t s f o r ea ch f u e l i n T ab l e 2 a . N o t e t h a t t h e t o t a l i n c l u d e st he c o s t o f t h e CO2 e m i t t e d a s w e l l a s t h e P I C. Co m p a r e d t o t h e $ 4 8 . 0 0a nn ua l e n v i r on m e n ta l c o s t s e s t i m a t e d f o r t r a d i t i o n a l wood s t o v e s , L PGuse i n t h e househo ld causes env i r onmen t a l damage o f l e ss t ha n $4 andke ro se ne a b ou t $ 1 0 . C h a r c o a l , o n t h e o t h e r h an d, h a s a t o t a l o f $ 78 -2 39(de pe ndi ng o n k i l n t y p e ) , Wh i ch i s f r o m 1 . 6 t o n e a r l y f i v e t i m e s w or seth an w oo d. M u c h o f t h i s , h o w ev e r, i s d u e t o o n e p r ob l e m, g l o b a l w a rm in gi m p l i c a t i o n s o f m ethane e m is s io n s a t t h e k i l n , w h i c h a r e n o t k no wna c c u r a t e l y .

Fuel p r i c e s , o f c ou r se , v a r y i n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s d ep en di ng onl o c a l p o l i c i e s w i t h r e g ar d t o s u b s i d i e s a nd t a x a t i o n . F o r t h e sameamount o f c o o k i n g , a s sh own i n t h e n o t e s o f T a b l e 3 f o r 1 98 9 I n d i a ndomes ti c p r i c es , ke rosene and LPG cos t ab ou t t h e same (LP G s t oves a r esome 40% m or e e f f i c i e n t ) . 2 0 T h e s e f u e l c o s t s a r e b o t h b el o w t h o s e f o r

18 T h e r e , h ow e v er, m ay b e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among d i f f e r e n t t y p e so f k e r o s e n e s t o v e s [ F l o o r & va n d e r P l a s , 1 9 9 1 ] . T h e M a ni l a s t u d y, f o rexamp le , f ou nd d i f f e re nc es , 2 : 7 : 1 4 , i n met hane em iss ions among,r e s p e c t i v e l y , p r e s s u re s t o v e s , g r a v i t y s t o v e s , a n d wi c k s t o v e s [ S m i t h ,e t a l . , 1 9 92 a ].19 N e i t h e r t h e h e a l t h n o r g l o b a l wa rm in g t o t a l s i n c l u d e c o n t r i b u t i o n sfrom e ls ew he re i n t h e f u e l c y c l e s f o r t h e s e f u e l s , i . e . , a t p r o d u c ti o n ,t ra n sp o rt , s t o r ag e , a n d r e f i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e s t o f t h e pe tr ol eu mc y cl e , h o we v er, i s u n l i k e l y t o a dd m or e t h a n a f e w p e r ce n t [ S mi t h , e ta l . , 1 9 7 5 ] , d e p e n di n g , p e r h a ps , o n h ow s u c h e v e n t s as t h e 1 991 G u l f Wa rand a t t e nd a n t o i l f i e l d f i r e s a r e a cc ou nt ed .20 T h e c o s t s o f s t o v e a n d s t o r a g e c o n t a i n e r a r e much h i g h e r f o r LPG,(Footnote cont inued)


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19wood, a t $501 t , and f o r c ha rco a l , w h i ch i s assumed t o have access t owood a t h a l f t h e p r i c e a v a i l a b l e t o h ou se ho ld s, $ 2 5 / t .

The t o t a l c o s t ( f u e l p l u s e n v i ro n m en t a l) o f o p e r a t i ng co ok st ov esu si ng t h e v a r i o u s f u e l s a r e shown i n t h e l a s t c ol um n o f T a b l e 3 A. N o t et h a t t h e t o t a l c o s t s f o r LPG a nd ke ro se ne a r e s i m i l a r a nd a r e o n l y 7%and 16% du e t o h e a l t h a nd g l o b a l w ar mi ng c o s t s . T h e t r a d i t i o n a lwo od sto ve, o n t h e o t h e r h a nd , h a s a n o v e r a l l c o s t mo re t h a n t w i c e t h a to f t h e se f o s s i l f u e l s , o f w h ic h a b ou t o n e - t h i r d i s d u e t o e n vi ro nm en ta le f f e ct s . C h a r c o a l , i n c o n t ra s t ha s a n o v e r a l l c o s t 3 - 7 t i m es t h a t o ft he f o s s i l f u e l s , o f w h ic h 45-60% i s e n v i r on m e nt a l .

I t i s p er ha ps n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t w ood-b ased f u e l c y c l e s h av e h i g h e renv i ronmenta l co s t s th an kerosene and LPG when th e wood i s be i ng mined,i . e . , h a r v e s t e d o n a n on re ne wa bl e b a s i s . W h a t a b o u t t h e o t h e r e x tr e m e,i . e . , w hen wood ha rve s t i ng i s managed t o be comp le t e l y r enew ab le?I n t u i t i v e l y , i t seems o b vi o us t h a t t h e f o s s i l f u e l s wo ul d b e wo rs e f o rg l o b a l wa rm in g b ec au se t h e y a d d f o s s i l c a r b on t o t h e a tm os ph er e, w h i l ethe woodstove does not .

T hi s i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e , h o w e v e r, a s sho wn i n Ta b l e s 2 B & 3 B .These show th a t because o f th e t remendous amount o f ca rbon d i ve r te d t oPIC i n t h e wood a n d c h a r c oa l f u e l c y c l e s , t h e s e a r e s t i l l w or se t h a n t h ef o s s i l f u e l s , a l t h o u g h n o t b y a s much a s i n t h e n o n- re ne wa bl e c a s e .Wi th t h e p a r t i c u l a r s t ov e s m o ni t or e d i n t h e M a n i la s t u d y, i t w ou ld b e an et r e d u c t i o n i n g re en ho us e g as es t o s w i t c h f r o m wood t o f o s s i l f u e l s .I n a d d i t i o n , c o mp ar ed t o w oo d, t h e e n v ir o n me n t al i m p a c t o f C h a r co a l i s3-11 t i m e s w o r s e, co mp ar ed t o o n l y 1 . 6 - 5 t i m e s w o r se i n t h enon-renewabl e c as e. A l t h o u g h i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d ra w g e ne r alc on cl us io ns f r o m j u s t a f e w da t a , i t w ou ld seem t h a t i n t u i t i o n may n o tbe a go od g u i d e i n t h i s c a s e .Stoves

The f i r s t - l e v e l a p p r oa c h t o i m p ro ve d b i om as s c o ok s to v es ( I C s ) i sshown i n Ta b l e s 2 & 3 . T h e w o o d - f i r e d I C u se s 25% l e s s f u e l a n dr el ea se s j u s t o n e - t h i r d o f i t s P IC i n t o t h e k i t c he n , t h e r e s t g oi ngou t s ide w here i t causes on ly 10% as much hea l t h impac t p e r g ram.21 N o t et h a t , i n t h i s f i r s t c u t , n o Change i s c on si d er ed f o r t h e h e a l t h a ndg l o b a l wa rm in g i m p a c t s o t h e r t h a n t h a t d u e t o 25% l e s s f u e l b e i n g u s ed ,i . e . , t h e same f r a c t i o n o f t h e c a rb o n i s assumed t o b e r el e a s e d as PI Co f t h e same c o m p o s i t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e t o o f e w d a t a t o make b r oa dg e ne r al i z at i on s , i t i s known, h ow ev er, t h a t t h i s i s u n l i k e l y t o b e t h ecase.

2 0( co nt in ue d)

however. T h e c o s t s o f t h e s t o ve , s t o ra g e , t r a n s p o r t , a n d k i l n a r e n o tinc luded he re .21 T h e s e ch an ge s a r e ba se d o n t y p i c a l r e s u l t s measured i n f i e l dmeasurements [ R e i d , e t a l . , 1 9 8 6 ; Pa n de y, e t a l . , 1 9 9 0 1 . I m p r o v e m e n t smeasured i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y a r e u s u a l l y much g r e a t e r [ A h u j a e t a l . , 1 9 8 6 ;J os hi e t a l . , 1 9 8 9 ] .


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22i de a t h a t t h e h e a r th i s s o s ac ro s an ct t h a t p e o pl e w i l l n o t cha nge t h e i rb eh av io r, e . g . , t h a t I C s h av e t o b e d es i gn e d u n de r t h e c o n s t r a i n t t h a tpeople w i l l n o t l e a r n t o o r w is h t o c oo k d i f f e r e n t f o o ds i n d i f f e r e n tways, a t l e a s t w i t h i n t i me p e r i o ds o f i n t e r e s t . A l i t t l e r es ea rc h,ho we ve r, r e v e a l s t h i s t o b e c o m p l e t e l y u n t r u e . P e o p l e h a v e c ha ng ed a ndc o nt i nu e t o c h an ge t h e i r c o o k i n g b e h a v i o r an d f o o d p r e f e r e n c e s ,sometimes a t r e ma r k ab l e r a t e s . I n d e e d , e v e r y s t e p t a k e n a l o n g t h eenergy la dd er (u p o r down) accommodates such Changes.

This i s n o t t o i m p l y t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l an d c u l t u r a l p r a c t i ce ssometimes a r e n o t s l o w t o c ha ng e o r t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e i g n o r e d b y I C P s.I t i s t o em ph as iz e, h o we v er, t h a t , t o p a ra ph ra se A n t o i n e [ 1 9 8 9 ] , i t i speople who s av e f u e l , n o t s to v es . I t i s a l s o t o c l a i m t h a t t h e f a c tt h a t s t o v e s t o u c h s o many p a r t s o f h o u s eh o ld l i f e i n some a r e a s , d o e sn ot mean t h a t t h e i m p o r t a n t n ee ds o f l i f e r e p re s e nt e d b y t h e s e f u n c t i o n sw i l l w i t h e r and d i e i f s t ov e s, f u e l s , f o o d s , an d h ou se s c ha ng e. I n d e e d ,i t i s r em ar ka bl e how l i t t l e t h e i m po r ta n t f a c e t s o f d a i l y human l i f e a t" t he l e v e l l i f e i s l i v e d " , [ H e i l b r o n e r , 1 9 5 9 ] ch an ge e ve n w i t h v a s tChanges i n t e c h n ol o g y. T o b e e x t re m e l y w a ry o f a b i t o f t e c h n o l o g i c a li n n o va t i o n t h a t h as p o s i t i v e e n v ir o n me n t al , e co no mi c, a n d h e a l t hb e n e f i ts be ca us e o f a c o nc e rn t h a t i t w i l l somehow p r o f o u n dl y d i s t u r bt he b a s i c f a b r i c o f h ou se ho ld l i f e i s e nd ow in g s uc h t e c hn o l o gy w i t h f a rmore power and in f l ue nc e and t he peop le w i t h f a r l e ss common sense ands t re n gt h o f c h a r a c t e r t h a n i s w a r ra n t ed .X I . The K i t ch en a s Workp lace

F or 1 0 , 0 00 y e a r s , t h e t w o l a r g e s t p r o f e s s i o n s h a ve be e n f a r m e r a ndcook, e a c h s t i l l e m pl oy in g o v e r a b i l l i o n p e o pl e e ve ry da y. A s p a r t o ft h e de ve lo pm en t w o rl d v i e w , ho w e v e r, t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r kp l a c e h a s be e ni n t h e l i m e l i g h t s u b s t a n t i a l l y more t h a n th e k i t c h e n. M u c h e f f o r t h a sbeen a nd co n t i n u e s t o b e s p e n t t o en han ce a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y , a n dr i g h t l y s o. B u t w hy s o c om pa ra t i v el y l i t t l e o n t h e k i tc h en ?

A p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l , b u t l i t t l e t e s t ed , w o r l d v i e w, t h e r e f o r e , w ou l dbe t o t r e a t t h e h e a r t h / k i t c h e n as a wo rk pl ac e. T o exami ne i t i n t e r mso f such occupa t i ona l pa r am et er s as t i m e and m o t ion , e r gonom ics ,i n d u s t r i a l hy gi en e, c o m f or t , a n d t r a i n i n g . T o s t ud y how i t s m a t e r i a li n p u t s c a n b e r e du c ed a n d i t s o u t p u t s i n c r e a s e d u n d e r a p p r o p r i a t eq u a l i t y c o n t r o l . T o d et er mi n e w hi ch su b ta s ks , s u ch a s s t o ve b u i l d i n g ,mi gh t b e b e t t e r " s u bc o nt ra c te d " t o o t h e r s , i . e . p ur ch as ed o f f s i t e .S ur el y a g oo d p a r t o f t h e e x p la n a t i on f o r t h e r e l a t i v e n e g l e ct o ft he k i t c h e n i s t h e r e l a t i v e l y l o w s t a t u s o c cu pi e d b y women, w ho m o s tl y

cook a n d m o s t l y a r e t h e c o o k s. T h e r e a r e u n d o u bt e d ly o t h e r i m p o r t a n tr ea so ns a s w e l l [ N y s tr o m , 1 9 9 2 ] .Th is s t a t e o f a f f a i r s h a s l e d t o s ome o dd , e v en , c o n t r a d i c t o r y

p o s i t i o n s i n d ev el op me nt d i s c u s s i o n s. T h i s i s s e en i n a rg um en ts t h a tk i t c h e n t i m e - s a v i n g i n n o v a t i o n s , s u c h a s some I C s , s h o u l d b e j u d g ed o nt he b a s i s o f w ha t i s d on e w i t h t h e t i m e sa ve d, 2 2 f o r e xa mp le , a sg re a te r o u t p u t o f h a n d i c r a f t s . I n m os t w or kp la ce s, t h e v a l u e o fi n c re a s in g p r o d u c t i v i t y i s n o t s o qu e s ti o n ed . W h y s h o ul d o n e o f t w omost common w o r kp l a ce s b e t r e a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y ? W h y i s t h e u s e o f f r e e d


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24women, c o u l d b e ex p e ct e d t o r e s u l t i n a 5 - y e a r i n c r e a s e [ P r e s t o n , 1 9 8 5 ] .T hi s h u n d r e d - f o l d i n c r e a s e i n m a r g i n a l r e t u r n i n d i c a t e s ho w t r em e nd o u sl yp ow er fu l t h i s l e v e r ( w o r l d t o o l ) p o t e n t i a l l y may b e .

I t m ay t h u s b e q u i t e p o s si b l e t h a t I CP s c an be j u s t i f i e d i n somearea s e n t i r e l y a s T r o j a n H or se s, e ve n i f t h e y c a n n o t b e sh ow n t os i g n i f i c a n t l y r ed uc e a n y f u e l g a t h e r i n g , a i r p o l l u t i o n e xp os ur e, o rho use ho ld e x p e n d i t u r e . C l e a r l y , h o w e ve r, n e w s e t s o f m o n i t o r i n g a ndeva lua t i on c r i t e r i a wou ld be needed t o accompany t hem .

X I I I . P o l i t i c s a nd P at ro na geBy i t s n a t u r e , t h e co ok st ov e i s d e mo c ra t ic , o r a t l e a s t p o p u l i s t . A

government p r ogr am t o sub s id i ze o r o t he r w i se encou rage I C d i s sem ina t ioni s a t e m p t i n g w ay t o d e m o ns t ra b l y t o u c h t h e l i v e s o f many p e o p l e a t af a i r l y mo de st c o s t , b y c om pa ri so n t o m any a l t e r n a t i v e f o rm s o fp at ro na ge . W h e n many o f t h e s e p eo p l e a r e p o t e n t i a l r u r a l v o t e r s , w howould m i g h t o t h e r w i s e n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e y h a ve h ad much r e c e n tben e f i t f r o m t he gover nm ent , a qu i e t r em inde r abou t t h e gove rnment I CParound e l e c t i o n t i m e may b e m os t s a l u b r i o u s f o r t h e p a r t y i n p ow er.

I t h as b ee n p oi n te d o u t b y c r i t i c s w i t h i n I n d i a t h a t t h i sc h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f I C Ps go es a g oo d d i s t a n c e t o w ar d e x p l a i n i n g w h a t i spe rha ps t h e m os t s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e b e t we e n t h e C hi ne se an d I n d i a nn a ti on a l s t o ve p ro gr ams :2 4 t h e i r t a r g e t i n g . I n C hi na , n o t y e t ad emocracy, " i m p r o v e d s t o v e c o u n t i e s " a r e t a r g e t e d p r i m a r i l y b yl i k e l i h o o d o f s u c ce ss , a s d e t er mi n ed b y f u e l s h o r t a g e a nd t h ea v a i l a b i l i t y o f a p pr o pr i at e m a t e r ia l and l a b o r ( an d good p o l i t i c a lc on ne ct io ns ). I n d i a , o n t h e o t h e r hand, h a s i n t h e p a s t t r i e d t o s e r vethe w ho le c ou n t r y a t o nc e. E v e r y l o c a l d i s t r i c t t h u s Sh ares i n t h eprogram, b u t e f f o r t s c an b e q u i t e d i f f u s e a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l an d t h e I C Pi s so me ti me s p us he d f r o m t h e t o p l a y e r s o f g ov er nm en t i n t o r e g i o n s t h a thave n o r e a l ne ed f o r o r i n t e r e s t i n I C s . O v e r t i m e , h ow ev er, a s t h eChinese o f n e c e s s i t y t u r n a t t e n t i o n t o wa r d t h e i r l e s s an d l e s s p r om i s i nga r eas , t h e d i f f e r enc es be t ween t he t wo p rog ram s may dec r ease .

A c l ea r measur e o f success f o r an I CP i s ach ievem en t o fs e l f - s up p o r t i ng s a l e s . A

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