Action and Case Research in Management and Organizational

Contexts.

1. Scientific social study Versus Interpretivism.2. Intervention Versus Non-intervention.

August Comte (1798 – 1857)Coined the term sociology or the “science of society”.

He wanted to study society as a scientist studies molecules or gases. He wanted to discover laws of societal behaviour.

Why did he do this and what else was going on?(Clue 1859 Darwin’s origin of species originated just after his death).

Sociology

One entry found for subjective. Main Entry: 1sub·jec·tive   Pronunciation: (")s&b-'jek-tivFunction: adjective1 : of, relating to, or constituting a subject : as a obsolete : of, relating to, or characteristic of one that is a subject especially in lack of freedom of action or in submissiveness b : being or relating to a grammatical subject; especially : NOMINATIVE2 : of or relating to the essential being of that which has substance, qualities, attributes, or relations3 a : characteristic of or belonging to reality as perceived rather than as independent of mind : PHENOMENAL -- compare OBJECTIVE 1b b : relating to or being experience or knowledge as conditioned by personal mental characteristics or states4 a (1) : peculiar to a particular individual : PERSONAL <subjective judgments> (2) : modified or affected by personal views, experience, or background <a subjective account of the incident> b : arising from conditions within the brain or sense organs and not directly caused by external stimuli <subjective sensations> c : arising out of or identified by means of one's perception of one's own states and processes <a subjective symptom of disease> -- compare OBJECTIVE 1c5 : lacking in reality or substance : ILLUSORY From Merriam Webster online dictionary

Subjective

Main Entry: 1ob·jec·tive   Pronunciation: &b-'jek-tiv, äb-Function: adjective1 a : relating to or existing as an object of thought without consideration of independent existence -- used chiefly in medieval philosophy b : of, relating to, or being an object , phenomenon, or condition in the realm of sensible experience independent of individual thought and perceptible by all observers : having reality independent of the mind <objective reality> <our reveries... are significantly and repeatedly shaped by our transactions with the objective world -- Marvin Reznikoff> -- compare SUBJECTIVE 3a c of a symptom of disease : perceptible to persons other than the affected individual -- compare SUBJECTIVE 4c d : involving or deriving from sense perception or experience with actual objects , conditions, or phenomena <objective awareness> <objective data>

2 : relating to, characteristic of, or constituting the case of words that follow prepositions or transitive verbs3 a : expressing or dealing with facts or conditions as perceived without distortion by personal feelings, prejudices, or interpretations <objective art> <an objective history of the war> <an objective judgment> b of a test : limited to choices of fixed alternatives and reducing subjective factors to a minimumsynonym see MATERIAL, FAIR

From Merriam Webster online dictionary

Subjective (continued)

Nominalism

The Subjectivist approachto Social Science

The Objectivist approachto Social Science

Anti-positivism

Voluntarism

Ideographic Nomothetic

Determinism

Positivism

RealismOntology

Epistemology

Human Nature

Methodology

Burrell and Morgan (1979)

THE SOCIOLOGY OF RADICAL CHANGE

THE SOCIOLOGY OF REGULATION

SUBJECTIVE OBJECTIVE

Radical Humanist

Functionalist Interpretive

Radical Structuralist

Four paradigms for the analysis of social theory - Burrell and Morgan 1979 Page 22

This suggests that paradigms have:1. An epistemological/ontological dimension;2. A political dimension – This immediately

undermines objectivity - Why

• Most approaches claim to be “scientific” and have claims to some form of truth;

• Only the post modernists might believe truth claims are unjustified – Why is this?

Scientific truth

Inquiry Paradigm

Description

Positivism Natural science approach, realist ontology, dualist, objectivist epistemology and experimental /manipulative methods.

Post positivism Critical realist ontology, Popperian, “falsifiability” based epistemology, still dualist/objectivist, but seeing this as an “ideal” impossible in practice.

Critical theory

Historical realist ontology, transactional/subjective epistemology, dialogical methodology.

Constructivism

Relativist ontology, transactional/subjective epistemology dialectical and hermeneutical methodology.

Paradigms (based on Guba and Lincoln, 1994).

• Reproducible, impartial and free from “bias”;

• Lends itself to quantitative study;• Experimental methods possible;• Statistical methods possible;• Dependent and independent variables can

be identified;• Law like statements can be made;• Predictions can be made;• Society can be controlled.

Objectivity is almost impossible to achieve• As soon as you pick a topic or set a question personal

preference has entered.• The restricted set of variables studied is also subjective.• By concentrating on just a few variables reality is seriously

distorted.• The explanation of quantitative results is open to various

interpretations.• Human beings are not like gasses or molecules, they have a

will of their own (or do they?).• Ignores most of what is interesting in human life. • Ignores meaning.• Is often associated with political regulation.

• Recognises the intimate relationship between the researcher and those studied;

• Deals with meaning;• Recognises that objectivity is impossible;• Provides rich narratives about human life;• Can still be honest and bias can be accounted for;• Provides deep understanding of human behaviour;• Emphasises the “How” rather than the “What”;• Accept multiple explanations and points of view.

• It can be consciously partial or “take sides”.• Can seek liberation from injustice.• Seeks to bring about change.• It does not want to just study society it wants to

change it.• It can still be conducted with integrity.• It can still apply ethical rules.• It can still have validity, evidence and claim to reveal

a form of “truth”.• In this sense it can still be “scientific”.

• Action research by definition is about intervention;

• Activity theory (which is outside the scope of this module) is interventionist;

• Process consultancy;• Some would argue all research is an

intervention.

• What are the dangers of an interventionist approach?

• What are the benefits?• Why would it appeal to a DBA

student?

References1. Burrell G., and Morgan G., (1979). Sociological Paradigms and

Organisational Analysis, London: Heinemann Educational Books,.

2. Guba, E.G. and Lincoln Y.S. (1994). Competing Paradigms in qualitative Research. In Denzin, N.K., and Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds.) (1994), The Handbook of Qualitative Research, Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi: Sage Publications Inc.

3. Merriam Webster Online Dictionary on http://www.m-w.com/dictionary.htm Accessed 07/09/2005.