The Governance, Security and Development Nexus

KennethOmejeEditor

The Governance,Security

and DevelopmentNexusAfrica Rising

EditorKenneth OmejeManifold Crown Research and Training ConsultBradford, UK

Addis Ababa UniversityAddis Ababa, Ethiopia

ISBN 978-3-030-49347-9 ISBN 978-3-030-49348-6 (eBook)https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49348-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to SpringerNature Switzerland AG 2021This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by thePublisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rightsof translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction onmicrofilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage andretrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodologynow known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that suchnames are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free forgeneral use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neitherthe publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, withrespect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have beenmade. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published mapsand institutional affiliations.

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Preface

This book explores the nexus between governance, security and devel-opment in Africa as it relates to the narrative that contemporary Africahas made remarkable progress over the past one and half decades, aphenomenon captured in influential sections of international media andacademic and policy discourses as “Africa rising.” The book investigatesand interrogates the discursive assumptions and empirical indicators of theAfrica rising narratives. The Africa rising debate is a controversial discoursepostulating that contemporary Africa has made a substantial leap fromthe longstanding Valhalla of underdevelopment and its negative gover-nance and security correlates to the trajectory of sustainable progress. Iscontinental Africa finally witnessing what the famous American post-wareconomist W. W. Rostow called the “preconditions for take-off” or prob-ably his actual “take off of self-sustaining economic growth?” In whatspecific empirical forms and ways have Africa recorded the highly publi-cised rising progress or take-off? What are the local, regional and inter-national factors that have enabled Africa to rise and to what extent areAfrican states and institutions in command of these variables? Seriouslyspeaking, what specific countries are rising in Africa—arguably Ethiopia,Rwanda, Ghana, Tanzania, Mozambique, DRC, Zambia, Uganda, Nigerand Burkina Faso? How well and how fast are they rising? Can we byany stretch of the imagination justifiably brand any assemblage of therising countries the “African tigers”—a conceptual mimicry of the “Asian

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tigers,” the countries that engineered the competitive and rapid ascen-dancy of the South Asian economies on the global stage over the past 30years? What is the cumulative national and regional impact of the risingof any of the African countries said to be on the rise? To what extenthave the ordinary citizens, as well as vulnerable social groups, communi-ties and states empirically felt the impact of the Africa rising narratives?Where do we place countries like Somalia, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea,Cameroun, Central African Republic and Eswatini (to mention but a fewof the countries that seem stuck in a protracted limbo) in the Africarising debate? How can the continent build on any recorded performancesuccesses to leverage the governance, security and development nexusfor the overall benefit and well-being of the African people and states?These are some of the questions explored in this edited volume with inci-sive contributions from experts in African economics, politics, conflicts,security, peacebuilding, development and international relations.

This book comprises a total of 19 commissioned chapters, structuredinto five thematic parts. Part I explores the conceptual issues and inter-rogates the empirical indicators of the governance, security and devel-opment nexus in the context of Africa rising as reflected and debated inextant literature. Part II is a critical assessment of the global dimensions of“Africa rising,” examining the trends and dynamics of Africa—EU (Euro-pean Union) relations, Africa—US relations, Africa—China relations, aswell as the cumulative direction and impact of foreign direct investmentsin Africa. Part III analyses the regional imperatives of Africa rising, theempirical trends, challenges and opportunities of intra-African trade, aswell as the politics of regional development and economic integration.Part IV discusses specific national contests of Africa rising, taking a casestudy of a few states believed to be on the “rise” and conversely exam-ining a few other states that represent “the forgotten Africa”—countriesthat are seemingly trapped in the doldrums and therefore hardly discussedin the overall debate.

The book is concluded in Part V, which examines the empirical reali-ties and macroeconomic imperatives of how Africa can overcome presentobstacles to make more meaningful progress within the prevailing regionaland global economic framework. Overall, the narratives that Africa isrising on the neoliberal path of development discussed in the various

PREFACE vii

chapters of this book present mixed results of euphoria versus dysphoria,success versus failure and triumphalism verses cautious optimism. Thebook ends with a set of policy-relevant measures and strategies articulatedinto a coherent vision that can help Africa to arise or rise sustainably.

I wish to observe that the last set of this book’s manuscripts werecompleted during the first quarter of 2020 while the world grappled withthe destabilising scourge of the COVID-19 popularly known as Coron-avirus (the name of the causative virus). Because the “pandemic” was stillunfolding at the time of completing the manuscripts, it is important tomention that its impact on the economies of the various African countriesand the overall discourse of “Africa rising” has not been captured in thisvolume. I imagine that this will be the subject of many future researcheson this subject whenever the scourge settles, hopefully, not too long fromnow.

I greatly commend the passionate commitment of all the chaptercontributors, especially those that were invited at the “eleventh hour”and had the unenviable challenge of navigating through the logisticalnightmares occasioned by the Coronavirus-instigated lockdown. To thePalgrave Macmillan Editor of Regional Politics and Development Studies,Ms. Alina Yurova, I render my unreserved appreciation for your profes-sional guidance and goodwill. I cannot end this preface without gratefullyacknowledging the unflinching support, prayers and understanding of myloving wife, Ngozi, and children, Rejoicing, Chibia and Ifediche. I amblessed to have a wonderful family in you four. To the entire members ofthe Crown of Christ Gospel Church in Bradford, my brethren and familyin Christ, I convey my profound gratitude for your spiritual support andsolidarity.

Bradford, UK Kenneth Omeje

Contents

Part I Conceptual and Contextual Background

1 Exploring the Governance, Security and DevelopmentNexus: Africa Rising? 3Kenneth Omeje

2 Interrogating the Political Economy of Africa Rising:Who Are the “African Tigers”? 31Temitope J. Laniran

Part II Interrogating the Global Dimensions of AfricaRising

3 Africa-EU Relations and the Politics of InternationalDevelopment 59Ibrahim Bangura

4 Africa–US Relations: The Politics of Trade,Investment and Security 77Taiwo Owoeye

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5 The Political Economy of Africa’s Relationswith China 97Asebe Regassa Debelo

6 Foreign Direct Investments and Africa Rising:A Critical Assessment 113Onyukwu E. Onyukwu and Uchenna A. Nnamani

Part III The Regional Imperatives of Africa Rising

7 Regional Trade and Security Cooperation: A CaseStudy of the Economic Community of West AfricanStates (ECOWAS) 133Ibrahim Bangura

8 Trade and Security Cooperation in the SADC Region:Optimising the Developmental Role of Paradiplomacy 151Nolubabalo Lulu Magam

9 Trade and Security Cooperation in the Arab MaghrebUnion Region 171Hamdy A. Hassan

10 The Boko Haram Insurgency and Regional Securityin the Lake Chad Basin: Understanding the Growthand Development Consequences 193Usman A. Tar and Samuel Baba Ayegba

11 The AU, RECs, and the Politics of SecurityRegionalism in Africa 213Sabastiano Rwengabo

CONTENTS xi

Part IV Specific National Contexts and “the ForgottenAfrica”

12 Ethiopia’s Economic Growth in the Contextof the Africa Rising Debate 237Yohannes Tekalign

13 The Price of Progress: Economic Growth,Authoritarianism, and Human Rights in Rwanda 253Aymar Nyenyezi Bisoka and Hilde Geens

14 State-Society Relations and State Capacity in Somalia 273Abdullahi Mohammed Odowa

15 Emerging from the Doldrums? Governanceand Politics in Eritrea 295Redie Bereketeab

16 The Giant of Africa? Explaining the NigerianGovernance, Security, and Development Paradox 315Bashir Bala and Usman A. Tar

17 The Conflicts in the DRC: Wider Ramificationsfor the African Great Lakes Region 341Joseph Lansana Kormoh

18 The “Africa Rising” Paradox, Human Trafficking,and Perilous Migration Across the Saharaand the Mediterranean to Europe 355Anne Kubai

Part V Conclusion and Policy Recommendations

19 From the Narrative of “Africa Rising” to “How AfricaCan Arise”: The Macro-Economic Imperatives 373Temitope J. Laniran and Kenneth Omeje

Notes onContributors

Samuel Baba Ayegba is a Lecturer in the Department of Defence andSecurity Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna, and a ResearchFellow at the Centre for Defence Studies and Documentation (CDSD),Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna. He completed his M.Sc. degreein Defence and Strategic Studies from the Nigerian Defence Academy,Kaduna. Samuel is currently a doctoral candidate in Defence and StrategicStudies at the Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna and has published inseveral peer-reviewed platforms. His area of scholarly interests includessecurity and strategic studies, gender, environmental politics, and peaceand conflict studies.

Bashir Bala is a Captain in the Nigerian Army. A graduate of the Nige-rian Defence Academy, Capt. Bala was commissioned at the Royal Mili-tary Academy Sandhurst, United Kingdom, and thereafter attended Shiji-azhuang Mechanised Infantry Academy for Basic and Advanced SpecialOperations Courses in China. He was formerly a tactical commander inseveral critical Counter-Insurgency Operations in the Northeast Region ofNigeria. His is co-author (with Prof. Usman Tar) of New Architecture forRegional Security in Africa: Counter-Terrorism and Counter-Insurgencyin the Lake Chad Basin (Lexington Books, Lanham MD, USA, 2020).Captain Bala is a doctoral candidate at the Security and Strategy Institute,University of Exeter, United Kingdom. His doctoral research is titled:The Role of the Armed Forces of Nigeria in Providing Security Support to

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Transnational Oil Companies, and Its Effects on Nigerian Defence andEconomic Security.

Ibrahim Bangura has worked extensively in the fields of Disarmament,Demobilisation and Reintegration of Ex-Combatants, Security SectorReform, Sustainable Livelihoods, Gender and Conflict Resolution inAfrica. He holds a Bachelor’s degree in Political Science and History anda Master’s degree in Gender Studies from University of Sierra Leone;another Master’s degree in International Development Studies from theUniversity of Amsterdam; and a Doctorate degree in Economics from theLeipzig Graduate School of Management in Germany. He currently worksas an independent consultant and also lectures at the Peace and ConflictStudies Programme, Fourah Bay College, University of Sierra Leone.

Redie Bereketeab, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor of Sociology andcurrently works as a Senior Researcher at the Nordic Africa Institute,Uppsala, Sweden, where he spearheads research projects on (i) conflictand state-building in the Horn of Africa (Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia,Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti); and (ii) the role of regional economiccommunities (RECs) in peacebuilding in Africa (AMU, ECCASS,ECOWAS, IGAD and SADC). His areas of research interest are politicalsociology, development, peace and conflict studies, state-building, nation-building, identity, democracy and governance in Africa. He has authoredseveral books, book chapters and articles in referred journals published byRoutledge, James Currey, Pluto Books, Palgrave Macmillan and The RedSea Press. Among the journals where his articles have been published ininclude Studies of Ethnicity and Nationalism, African Studies, Journal ofCivil Society, African Studies, African Studies Review, African and AsianStudies, and South African Journal of International Affairs.

Asebe Regassa Debelo is an Associate Professor at Dilla University,Ethiopia and was a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Zürich,Switzerland (2015–2016). Dr. Debelo has also served as DirectorResearch and Dissemination office, Dilla University. He extensivelypublished papers on various themes including the high-modernistdevelopmentalism, land grabbing, indigenous peoples’ right, conflictand peacebuilding and Africa–China relations in peace and security.Dr. Debelo’s research interest includes indigenous peoples’ right to

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xv

resources, large-scale development projects and impacts on indige-nous peoples, nature–culture relations and peacebuilding with specificgeographical areas on Eastern Africa.

Hilde Geens (Belgium) is a Programm and Policy Officer for a medicalNGO Artsen Zonder Vakantie. She is interested in development cooper-ation, capacity development, societal change and resistance in developingcountries.

Hamdy A. Hassan, Ph.D. is a Professor of Political Science at theCollege of Humanities and Social Sciences in Zayed University in Dubai.He is also a member of the advisory board of the Swedish Network ofPeace, Conflict and Development Research. In 1999, Professor Hassanwas granted the Egyptian State award in Political Science for his bookIssues in the African Political Systems published by the Center for AfricanFuture Studies, Cairo. From 2001 to 2005, Professor Hassan served asan elect Vice President of the African Association of Political Science(AAPS), based in Pretoria, South Africa. He is the founder and Directorof the Centre for African Future Studies, Cairo, since 1996. From 1999to 2000, he served as a Director of the UNESCO Human Rights Chairlocated in Jordan. His research focuses on democratisation and devel-opment in Africa and the Arab world, Islamic Discourse in Africa andConflict management. He has published many books and journal arti-cles in both Arabic and English, including Hassan, H. et al. (2018) TheRoad of Soft Power: UAE and Africa. Abu Dhabi: Abu Dhabi Tourismand Culture Department; and, Hassan, H. (2018) “The Security andMilitary Relations Between UAE and Egypt.” In Hassanein Ali (ed.) TheUAE—Egyptian Relationship. Sharjah: Gulf Centre for Studies.

Joseph Lansana Kormoh is a Senior Lecturer in the Department ofHistory and African Studies at Fourah Bay College, University of SierraLeone and also a Commonwealth Scholar at the University of Bradford.He led the teaching of general African history and the history of theUnited States for more than a decade before he relocated to the UK forhis Ph.D. studies in Peace Studies at the University of Bradford. Josephholds a Postgraduate Diploma in Research Methods from the Universityof Bradford and presently works as a UK-based freelance researcher. Hecompleted his undergraduate studies at the Fourah Bay College, Univer-sity of Sierra Leone where he graduated with a B.A. (Hons.) degree inHistory and later obtained an M.A. degree in History from the same

xvi NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

University. Since his graduation, Joseph has been involved in universityteaching, research and consulting for the government of Sierra Leone andinternational organisations such as the UNDP. He has also been hugelyinvolved in the formation and training of Catholic priests at the St. Paul’smajor seminary in Sierra Leone. His book chapters have been publishedby Palgrave Macmillan and Routledge and he has also published a bookwith Arthur House UK, among other reputable publishing houses. In2008, Joseph was a visiting scholar at the New York University (NYU)during which he held a series of seminars in various universities in theUSA.

Anne Kubai is Associate Professor of World Christianity and Interreli-gious Studies. Currently, she is a researcher at the School for Historicaland Contemporary Studies at Södertörn University, Sweden. Kubai is alsoa research associate at the Research Institute for Theology and Religion(RITR) at the University of South Africa, Pretoria. Kubai is a visitingprofessor at the Institute for Women and Gender Studies at EgertonUniversity, Kenya. Her research interests include genocide, mass violence,religion in peace and conflict, gender-based violence, transitional justice,international migration, applied development and psychosocial studies.In addition, she has a keen interest in the humanitarian-development-peacebuilding nexus. Kubai worked with different universities and organ-isations in Kenya and Rwanda for many years. She worked as ResearchDirector for Life & Peace Institute, an International Ecumenical Centrefor Peace Research and Action in Uppsala, Sweden. Kubai also worked asSenior Social Scientist at the Division of Global Health (IHCAR), Depart-ment of Public Health Sciences at Karolinska Institute in Stockholm,Sweden. Until recently she was a researcher at the Centre for Multidisci-plinary Research on Racism (CEMFOR) at the Department of Theology,Uppsala University. Kubai has published numerous peer-reviewed journalarticles, contributions to anthologies, co-edited anthologies, researchreports, popular science articles and two documentaries.

Temitope J. Laniran earned a B.Sc. degree in Economics from BowenUniversity Iwo in Nigeria and M.Sc. and PhD in Economics and Devel-opment Studies from the Bradford Centre for International Development(BCID), University of Bradford. During his M.Sc. degree course, Temi-tope was awarded an Erasmus grant of the European Union Lifelong

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Learning programme to study Human Development and Food Secu-rity at the Roma Tre Universita Degli Studi Rome, Italy. He has previ-ously worked with the Centre for Petroleum, Energy Economics and Law,(CPEEL) at the University of Ibadan, as well as Equilibra Consulting—both in Nigeria. He currently teaches Economics at the University ofBradford and was previously a Research Associate at the University’s Johnand Elnora Fergusson Centre for African Studies. His research interestis focused on economic growth and development issues of resource-richcountries and fragile states.

Nolubabalo Lulu Magam, Ph.D. holds an undergraduate degree inPeace Studies, a Master’s in International Relations from the North-WestUniversity (South Africa) and a Ph.D. in International Relations fromthe University of KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa). Nolubabalo is a PoliticalScience and Conflict Transformation and Peace studies Lecturer at theUniversity of KwaZulu-Natal and has taught Political Science and Inter-national Relations at the University of Pretoria and North-West Universityin South Africa. She has published in the area of alternative energy andclimate change adaptation as a means to peace and security, as well asimmigration policies in South Africa. Her current research interest is inexploring the potential of paradiplomacy in Africa’s development, whichderives from his doctoral research.

Uchenna A. Nnamani is an early career development economist withstrong interest in development finance. He desires a career in developmentresearcher and practice. Nnamani is currently a Ph.D. degree candidateat the Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria (EnuguCampus). He holds a Master’s degree in Development Studies, and aBachelor of Science degree in Economics. Nnamani has been workingwith the Development Strategy Centre (a Nigerian-based research thinktank) since 2015. Working with the think tank while doing his Ph.D.research has helped him gain reasonable research experience in thearea of international finance, trade, policy analysis and impact assess-ment. His experience in international finance includes being part of anAERC-funded research project titled “Asymmetric Shocks, Real ExchangeRate Distortions and Options for the Second Monetary Zone in WestAfrica.” Nnamani has presented papers at International Conferences, andworkshops of African Economic Research Consortium.

xviii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Aymar Nyenyezi Bisoka is currently a lecturer and postdoctoralresearcher. He earned his Ph.D. degree from the School of Political andSocial Sciences of the Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium, with abackground in legal and political studies. His postdoctoral researchesfocus on issues of power and resistance in relation to access to naturalresources in the Great Lakes Region. Nyenyezi is involved in teaching andcoordinating research-action projects in Belgium (UCLouvain), Burundi(University of Burundi), DRC (Catholic University of Bukavu and theHigher Institute of Rural Development) and Rwanda.

Abdullahi Mohammed Odowa is the Ambassador of the FederalGovernment of Somalia to the State of Kuwait, and a doctoral candi-date at the Africa Programme of the United Nations-Mandated Univer-sity for Peace in Costa Rica. Previously, Ambassador Odowa worked asa Senior Political Advisor to the Office of the Prime Minister of theFederal Government of Somalia, General-Director of Somali Observa-tory of Conflict and Violence Prevention (OCVP), and the Directorof Institute for Peace and Conflict Studies (IPCS) at the University ofHargeisa in Somalia. Ambassador Odowa holds a Bachelor’s degree inHuman Anatomy from the University of Maiduguri in Nigeria, M.A.in Natural Resources and Peace from the United Nations MandatedUniversity for Peace in Costa Rica, and M.A. in Peacebuilding from theCentre of Trust, Peace and Social Relations at Coventry University inthe United Kingdom. Prior to his appointment to lead the Somali Diplo-matic Mission to the State of Kuwait, Ambassador Odowa developed andimplemented numerous field research projects on issues of security, peace-building, governance and development in the Somali regions with supportfrom major international development partners and academic institutions.His current areas of research interest include traditional peacebuilding,state-building and security governance in the Horn of Africa.

Kenneth Omeje is Director, Manifold Crown Consulting in Bradford,UK; Visiting Professor at the Institute for Peace and Security Studies(IPSS) in Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; and Visiting ProfessorialFellow at the Nigerian Defence Academy in Kaduna, Nigeria. He haspreviously held the positions of Professor of International Relations at theUnited States International University in Nairobi, Kenya; Senior ResearchFellow at the John and Elnora Ferguson Centre for African Studies,University of Bradford, UK and Senior Research Associate at the Univer-sity of Johannesburg, South Africa. Kenneth is the author of Peacebuilding

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xix

in Contemporary Africa: In Search of Alternative Strategies (edited,London: Routledge, 2019), The Crises of Postcoloniality in Africa (edited,Dakar: CODESRIA, 2015), Conflict and Peacebuilding in the AfricanGreat Lakes Region (co. ed. Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2013),High Stakes and Stakeholders: Oil Conflict & Security in Nigeria (Alder-shot: Ashgate, 2006); etc. He has more than 90 publications, includingbooks, book chapters, contributions to international encyclopedias andarticles in well-regarded journals. Kenneth has previously held visitingresearch fellowship positions at the Centre for African Studies, Univer-sity of Florida, Gainesville, USA (Spring, 1992); Law Department, KeeleUniversity, UK (Spring, 2000); Institute of Higher Education, Compre-hensive University of Kassel, Germany (Summer, 2000); Department ofInternational Politics, University of Wales, Aberystwyth (Spring, 2001);and Georg Eckert Institute (GEI) in Braunschweig, Germany (Autumn2014). He is a Fellow of the West Africa Institute (WAI) in Praia, CapeVerde and a member of the Advisory Board of the African PeacebuildingNetwork (APN) of the Social Science Research Council (SSRC) of NewYork.

Onyukwu E. Onyukwu is a Development Economist and thorough-bred academic with over twenty-five years of professional experience. Hewas formerly the Head of the Department of Economics, University ofNigeria, Nsukka. He is an alumnus of the Cambridge University AdvancedProgramme on Rethinking Development Economics (CAPORDE). Hehas taught Development Economics at both undergraduate and post-graduate levels among other undergraduate courses for several years.He is a Senior Fellow at the Institute for Development Studies (IDS)of the same University where he teaches graduate courses in theoriesof development and development policy, as well as supervises Master’sand Doctoral students’ theses. He is a development policy expert andprofessional trainer. His professional experiences cut across organisationalcapacity development, policy research and advocacy capacity building,strategy development, performance monitoring and evaluation, organisa-tional assessment, governance research designs and implementation. Hehas done extensive evaluation work in the area of public expendituresand public policy development. For many years, he has been engaged ingrassroots community advocacy and sensitisation activities for various civilsociety network organisations. He has held several short-term consultancypositions funded by different international organisations such as DFID,

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UNDP, USAID-DAI and the World Bank, and also different governmentinstitutions in Nigeria, including the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN).

Taiwo Owoeye, Ph.D. is a 2018 grantee of the African PeacebuildingNetwork (APN) of the New York-based Social Science Research Council(SSRC). He is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Economics, EkitiState University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. He is an Alumnus of the AmericanPolitical Science Association (APSA) African Methodological Workshop2013. He was also a co-recipient of 2014 American Political Science Asso-ciation Methodological Workshop Alumni Networking Grant. Taiwo’sresearch interest is in how politics, institutions and history drive economicdecisions in Africa. His publications have appeared in diverse reputablejournals.

Sabastiano Rwengabo is a Ugandan Political Scientist and IndependentConsultant in the areas of Fragility and Resilience Assessments, Polit-ical Economy Analyses and Institutional Assessments. He is a CountryExpert with the Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project of the Depart-ment of Political Science, University of Gothenburg. He was formerlya Research Fellow with the Advocates Coalition for Development andEnvironment (ACODE), a Kampala-based regional policy research andadvocacy think tank. He completed the History Makers Training (HMT)and Oakseed Executive Leadership Course (OELC) with the Institute forNational Transformation (INT). Dr. Rwengabo holds a Ph.D. degreefrom the National University of Singapore (NUS), where he was aResearch Scholar, President’s Graduate Fellow and Graduate Teacher,2010–2014. His scholarly interest focuses on areas of International Poli-tics and Security, Regionalism, Civil—Military Relations (CMR), Post-Conflict Transformation and Democratisation. One of Dr. Rwengabo’slatest research products is a book on Security Cooperation in the EastAfrican Community (Trenton, New Jersey: African World Press, 2018).

Usman A. Tar (Ph.D.) is Endowed Professor of Defence and SecurityStudies at the Nigerian Defence Academy, and Director of the Academy’sflagship Centre for Defence Studies and Documentation (CDSD). ProfTar has held professional academic positions in Africa, United Kingdomand the Republic of Iraq. He is a Member of the Board of Social ScienceResearch Council’s African Peacebuilding Network (SSRC/APN), NewYork, USA. He has previously held the positions of Associate ResearchFellow at the John and Elnora Ferguson Centre for Africa Studies

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(JEFCAS) at the University of Bradford, and Assistant Professor at theDepartment of Politics and International Relations and Director of Post-graduate Studies at the University of Kurdistan-Hewler, Northern Iraq.Prof. Tar is the author of The Politics of Neoliberal Democracy in Africa(London/New York: I.B. Tauris, 2009); Globalization in Africa: Perspec-tives on Development, Security, and the Environment (Lexington Books,Lanham MD, USA, 2016); Defence Transformation and the Consoli-dation of Democracy in Nigeria (Kaduna: Academy Publishers, 2018);New Architecture for Regional Security in Africa: Counter-Terrorism andCounter-Insurgency in the Lake Chad Basin (Lexington Books, LanhamMD, USA, 2020), and the Routledge Handbook of Counter-Terrorism andCounter-Insurgency in Africa (Routledge, forthcoming, Autumn 2020).Prof. Tar was a member of Presidential Committee to Review Nigeria’sNational Defence Policy (2014–2015) and currently sits on the High-Powered Ministerial Think Tank established by Nigeria’s Federal Ministryof Defence to monitor and review threats to national security in Nigeria.Prof. Tar has consulted for the Westminster Foundation for Democ-racy (WFD, Nigeria), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP,Nigeria), United States Institute for Peace (Nigeria Office) and KonradAdaneur Stiftung (German Development Fund, Nigeria). He also servesas visiting professor and external examiner to several institutions of higherlearning in Nigeria.

Yohannes Tekalign earned a B.A. degree in Political Science and Inter-national Relations, and Master’s and Ph.D. degrees in Peace and SecurityStudies from Addis Ababa University. He has over ten years’ experiencein teaching and research in Ethiopia’s higher education institutions. Hisresearch focus is on regional peace, conflict and security. Presently, Dr.Yohannes is an Assistant Professor of Peace and Conflict Studies at theFederal Meles Zenawi Leadership Academy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Abbreviations

ACAs Anti-Corruption AgenciesACP African, Caribbean and PacificAfCFTA African Continental Free Trade AreaAfDB African Development BankAFRICOM Africa CommandAGOA African Growth Opportunity ActAMU Arab Maghreb UnionAPF African Peace FacilityAPSA African Peace and Security ArchitectureAQAP Al-Qaeda in the Arabian PeninsulaAQIM Al-Qaeda in the Islamic MaghrebARII Africa Regional Integration IndexASF African Standby ForceATA Agricultural Transformation AgendaAU African UnionAUPSC Africa Union Peace and Security CouncilBHTs Boko Haram TerroristsBOA Bank of AgricultureBOI Bank of IndustryCAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development ProgrammeCADSP Common African Defence and Security PolicyCEN-SAD Community of Sahel-Saharan StatesCET Common External TariffCFA Communauté Financière AfricaineCOMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern AfricaCPI Corruption Perception Index

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xxiv ABBREVIATIONS

CPIA Country Policy and Institutional AssessmentCT-COIN Counter-Terrorism and Counter-InsurgencyDRC Democratic Republic of CongoEAC East African CommunityEALA East African Legislative AssemblyEASF East African Standby ForceECCAS Economic Community of Central African StatesECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the CaribbeanECOMOG ECOWAS Ceasefire Monitoring GroupECOWAS Economic Community of West African StatesECSC European Coal and Steel CommunityEDF European Development FundEEBC Eritrea Ethiopia Border CommissionEEC European Economic CommunityEPLF Eritrean People’s Liberation FrontEPRDF Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic FrontEPRP Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary PartyESF ECOWAS Standby ForceETLS ECOWAS Trade Liberalisation SchemeEU European UnionFDI Foreign Direct InvestmentFFP Fund for PeaceFGDP Federal Gross Domestic ProductFOCAC Forum on China-Africa CooperationFOMAC Force Multinationale de l’Afrique CentraleFSI Fragile State IndexG7 Group of 7GDP Gross Domestic ProductsGLR Great Lakes RegionGNI Gross National IncomeHDI Human Development IndexHIPC Heavily Indebted Poor CountriesHRW Human Rights WatchICGLR International Conference on the Great Lakes RegionICT Information and Communications TechnologyIDA International Development AssociationIDPs Internally Displaced PersonsIEDs Improvised Explosive DevicesIGAD Intergovernmental Authority on DevelopmentIMF International Monetary FundISIS Islamic State in Iraq and SyriaISWA Islamic State in West AfricaJAES Joint Africa EU Strategy

ABBREVIATIONS xxv

LCB Lake Chad BasinLCBC Lake Chad Basin CommissionLDCs Least Developed CountriesLIC Low Income CountryMDAs Ministries, Departments and AgenciesMDGs Millennium Development GoalsMIC Middle Income CountryMJTF Multinational Joint Task ForceMNCs Multinational CorporationsNAOs National Authorisation OfficesNARC North African Regional CapabilityNATO North Atlantic Treaty OrganisationNEDC North East Development CommissionNEEDS Economic Empowerment and Development StrategyNIRP Nigeria Industrial Revolution PlanNLM National Liberation MovementNNPC Nigerian National Petroleum CorporationNPIRD National Policy on Integrated Rural DevelopmentNPLF National Patriotic Front of LiberiaNSIA Nigerian Sovereign Investment AuthorityOAU Organisation of African UnityOCTs Overseas Countries and TerritoriesODA Overseas Development AidOECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentPEDI Presidential Economic Diversification InitiativePFI Presidential Fertiliser InitiativePSC Peace and Security CouncilPWD People with DisabilityREC Regional Economic CommunityROM Result Oriented MonitoringROO Rules of OriginRPF Rwandan Patriotic FrontRUF Revolutionary United FrontSADC Southern African Development CommunitySALW Small Arms and Light WeaponsSAP Structural Adjustment ProgrammeSDGs Sustainable Development GoalsSEZ Special Economic ZonesSMEs Small and Medium Size EnterprisesSSA Sub-Saharan AfricaSSF SADC Standby ForceTCC Troop Contributing CountryTFs Trust Funds

xxvi ABBREVIATIONS

TI Transparency InternationalTSA Treasury Single AccountTSCTP Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism PartnershipUAE United Arab EmirateUN United NationsUNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and CrimeUNSC United Nations Security CouncilUSA United States of AmericaUSSR Union of Soviet Socialist RepublicsWAEMU West African Economic and Monetary UnionWTTC World Travel and Tourism Council

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 GDP growth in Sub-Saharan Africa (1961–2017) (annual%) (Source World Bank, World Development Indicators2018) 33

Fig. 2.2 Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (%of population) (Source World Bank, World DevelopmentIndicators 2018) 37

Fig. 2.3 An international perspective on productivity (USA =100): manufacturing (Source De Vries et al. 2015) 44

Fig. 2.4 Industrial output as percentage of GDP (Source WorldBank, World Development Indicators 2018) 44

Fig. 2.5 Share of average annual GDP (US$) 2000–2014 (SourceWorld Bank, World Development Indicators 2018) 47

Fig. 2.6 Average annual GDP growth (%) 2000–2014 >5% (SourceWorld Bank, World Development Indicators 2018) 48

Fig. 2.7 Average annual GDP growth (%) 2015–2017 >5% (SourceWorld Bank, World Development Indicators 2018) 48

Fig. 6.1 FDI inflow to developing economies (Source Authors’computation from UNCTAD [2018] dataset) 117

Fig. 6.2 FDI inflow to major destination in SSA 1990–1999;2010–2018 (Source Authors’ computation from WDI[2018] dataset) 119

Fig. 6.3 Growth rate of SSA’s six lion (Source Authors’computation from WDI [2018] dataset) 121

Fig. 6.4 FDI flow to SSA by country group (Source Authors’computation from WDI (2018) dataset) 122

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Fig. 6.5 FDI Inflow to SSA’s six lions (Source Authors’computation from WDI [2018] dataset) 124

Fig. 6.6 Announced greenfield FDI for Africa and otherdeveloping regions (Source Authors’ computation fromUNCTAD [2019] dataset) 125

Fig. 6.7 Top 20 destinations of FDI and Africa 2015–2018(Source Authors’ computation from UNCTAD (2018)and WDI (2018) dataset) 126

Fig. 10.1 Lake Chad Basin security architecture (Source Tar andMustapha [2017, p. 108]) 200

Fig. 16.1 Nigeria’s diminishing oil revenues (Source Bloomberg[2019]) 323

Fig. 16.2 Oil production in Nigeria, 2013–2019 (Source Bloomberg[2020]) 324

Fig. 19.1 Regional spread of global commodity dependence (SourceUNCTAD [2019] State of Commodity Dependence) 378

List of Tables

Table 2.1 How widespread is the “Africa rising” narrative? 50Table 6.1 Top ten destination of FDI to Sub-Sahara Africa 123Table 9.1 Exports of goods to Maghreb countries (average value

in US Dollars) 2013–2016 177Table 9.2 Imports of goods from Maghreb Countries (average

value in US Dollars) 178Table 18.1 Top eight countries with the highest numbers of IDPs

by October 2019 361Table 18.2 Top ten countries hosting large numbers of refugees by

October 2019 361Table 19.1 African regional integration index, 2016 386

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