This is a compilation of the 24-part series presented in the Good Newsmagazine over the past several years. This document is only available as an

electronic file. It is not available in print or hard-copy at this time.

The Bible andArchaeologySections 1–12

The Bible andArchaeologySections 1–12

Article Reprint Series on The Bible and ArchaeologyThe Good News (ISSN: 1086-9514) is published bimonthly by the UnitedChurch of God, an International Association, 5405 DuPont Circle, Suite A,Milford, OH 45150. © 2002 United Church of God, an International Asso-

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Can You Believe the Bible?

William Ramsay didn’t set out to prove the Bible’s accuracy. Infact, the young Oxford graduate and budding scholar set sail in1879 from England for Asia Minor convinced that, based on his

university studies, the New Testament—and the book of Acts in particular—was largely a hoax. After all, his professors had taught him that the Bible hadbeen written much later than it claimed to be, so its stories had been fabri-cated long after the fact and weren’t to be taken seriously.

The focus of his work was ancient Roman culture. But the more he duginto it, literally and figuratively, the more he came to see that the myriad oftiny details in the book of Acts—place names, topography, officials’ titles,administrative boundaries, customs and even specific structures—fit per-fectly with newly discovered historical and archaeological finds. He wasgradually convinced that, to use his own words, “in various details the narra-tive showed marvelous truth.”

Contrary to all his earlier education, he was forced to conclude that Luke,the author of Acts, was “a historian of the first rank” and that “not merely arehis statements of fact trustworthy; he is possessed of the true historic sense. . . This author should be placed along with the very greatest of historians.”

In an outstanding academic career Ramsay was honored with doctoratesfrom nine universities and eventually knighted for his contributions to mod-ern scholarship. He shocked the academic world when in one of his bookshe announced that, because of the incontrovertible evidence he had discov-ered for the truthfulness of the Bible, he had become a Christian. Several ofhis works on New Testament history are considered classics.

When confronted with the evidence of years of travel and study, SirWilliam Ramsay learned what many others before him and since have beenforced to acknowledge: When we objectively examine the evidence for theBible’s accuracy and veracity, the only conclusion we can reach is that theBible is true.

The evidence from archaeology is only one proof of Scripture’s accuracy,and that’s the focus of this series of articles. We offer you a sampling of theevidence that’s available—documentation showing that details of the people,places and events described in the Bible, many of them mentioned only inpassing, have been verified by archaeologists and historians. Many excellentbooks have been published in recent years that verify the dependability ofScripture, and no doubt more will follow as new discoveries come to light.

What are the implications of this for you? All the evidence in the worlddoes us no good if we are not willing to believe the Bible enough to put it to the ultimate test—that of doing what it tells us to do.

James, the half brother of Jesus, reminds us that mere belief is notenough, because even the demons believe. Instead he tells us we must putour beliefs into action if we are to please God (James 2:19-26).

In The Good News we regularly offer articles such as those in this issue to help build your faith. But be sure that you don’t neglect the articles thatshow you how to put your faith and belief into action. God is interested tosee how you respond to the truth He makes known to you. Ultimately that isthe far more important test.

—Scott Ashley

24 The Good News

tell you that if these shouldkeep silent, the stones wouldimmediately cry out,” saidJesus (Luke 19:40). He wasreferring to what would hap-

pen if His disciples did not bear testi-mony of Him.

The original disciples aren’t aroundto provide their eyewitness accounts of Jesus Christ, but we do have theinspired Word of God, which they,along with many others, wrote.

Significantly enough, we also havethe testimony of stones that really canbear witness to the veracity and inspi-ration of God’s Word. The physicalevidence unearthed by present-day scientists can and does speak to usthrough biblical archaeology.

Archae, which comes from theGreek, means “ancient,” and ology,which comes from the Greek logia,means “science.” Archaeology, then, isthe scientific study of ancient things.

Unearthing the origins of archaeology

Englishman Flinders Petrie is gen-erally considered the individual whoput archaeological methodology on ascientific footing. He is credited withtransforming archaeology from a trea-sure hunt into a disciplined search forinformation about the past. It was notuntil the 19th century that scientificmethods were rigorously applied toexcavations of historical sites.

A curious fact of history is that theperson who indirectly contributed tothis process was not a scientist but theFrench emperor and conquerorNapoleon Bonaparte. During his con-quests of Europe and the Middle East,Napoleon arrived in Egypt in the late1700s hoping to build the Suez Canaland drastically reduce the navigation

time for the trade route from France toIndia. In Egypt, before a battle in thevicinity of the famous pyramids ofGizeh, he told his soldiers, “Forty cen-turies are looking down upon youfrom these pyramids.”

His inquisitive mind led him tostudy the Egyptian culture and try todecipher strange drawings he saw inthe ancient monuments. For that pur-pose, he brought along 175 Frenchscholars and researchers, and togetherthey set up an institute in Egypt tostudy the writings and ancient relicsof the area.

The deciphering of the Egyptianhieroglyphics (a word meaningpriestly or sacred writings) can beattributed mostly to a young scientistof that time, Jean François Champol-lion. Accurate translations were madepossible largely by the discovery in1799 of a large black basalt rock byFrench soldiers at the town of Rosetta.Later to be known as the RosettaStone, it bore a trilingual inscription inOld Egyptian hieroglyphic, demotic (alater, simplified form of Egyptianhieroglyphics) and Greek. With thisstone as a key, Champollion in 1822could finally decipher the ancienthieroglyphics.

The deciphering of the Egyptianhieroglyphics brought the culture ofthe Pharaohs to light, and the educatedclasses of Europe gained insight intothis fascinating subject. Soon, manyamateur archaeologists were on theirway to fame and fortune, finding fabu-lous monuments and other treasures.Museums throughout Europe andAmerica vied with each other to housethese marvelous finds. The treasure-laden tomb of Tutankhamen, discov-ered in 1922, was one of the most

How Archaeology Confirms the Biblical Record

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

How Archaeology Confirms the Biblical Record

I“

Scholars have queued up to

ridicule the biblical accounts

as mere myth. A tug of war

continues between scoffers and believers

in the inspirationand accuracy of

the Bible.

May 1996 25

spectacular. Many early archaeologistswould be honored for their efforts andwould become a part of history in theirown right.

Deciphering ancient writingElsewhere in the region, strange

writings on monuments and otherobjects were waiting to be deciphered.

Curious scratches, resemblingbird footprints, were found onthousands of hardened claytablets. Initially, some scien-tists thought they were deco-rations rather than writing.Since the marks had appar-ently been made with awedgelike knife in soft clay,the experts called themcuneiform, or letterformsmade by cunei, Latin for“wedges.”

The credit for the deciphering ofcuneiform would go mostly to an agentof the British government, Henry C.Rawlinson, stationed in Persia. Hebegan a systematic study of cuneiformwriting found on the Behistun Rockinscription, sometimes known as the“Rosetta Stone of cuneiform.”

Thousands of years earlier, Darius the

Great, king of Persia, had on the face ofthis 1,700-foot cliff overlooking a valleyengraved an account of his exploits. Theinscription appeared in three scripts:Persian, Elamite and Babylonian in thecuneiform style of writing.

Over a period of two years, Rawlin-son traveled to the site and made theperilous climb, dangling from a ropewhile painstakingly transcribing theinscription. By 1847, he had deci-phered cuneiform writing, openingunderstanding of Babylonian cultureand history to theworld. Forhis

efforts, Rawlinson received a knight-hood from Queen Victoria in 1855.

Digging up forgotten citiesAnother young British subject,

Austen Henry Layard, drew inspirationfrom such discoveries and the fame it

had brought men like Champollion andRawlinson. Layard began digging inIraq, home of the Assyrian and Baby-lonian empires thousands of yearsbefore. He unearthed great cities mentioned in the Bible, including theancient Assyrian capital, Nineveh, andCalah. Many of his finds, includingenormous winged bulls and otherimportant Babylonian and Assyrianartifacts, made their way to the BritishMuseum. He, too, was knighted byQueen Victoria.

Not to be outdone by theFrench and British, Germanarchaeologists also began theirquest for riches and fame. Onesuch explorer, Heinrich Schlie-mann, began searching for thelegendary city of Troy,described by the ancient

Greek poet Homer.Believing Homer’s sagasto be pure imagination,

contemporariesridiculed Schlie-mann’s efforts, think-ing him to be on afanciful search. But,incredibly enough,heeding the descrip-tions in Homer’sIliad and those byother Greek writers,Schliemann beganto excavate. In1871, he found theremains of the

ancient city of Troy. Following in the

footsteps of these dash-ing adventurers came the

patient archaeologists whowould study and classify these

discoveries in a systematic way, giv-ing birth to the scientific methodologyof field archaeology.

The age of skepticismUnfortunately, the zeal for fame and

treasure of many of these early archae-ologists also led to unfounded claimsof the discoveries of biblical sites.Some of these claims, such as the sup-posed discovery of King Solomon’smines and David’s tomb, were later

Jean François Champolliondeciphered Egyptian hieroglyph-ics, which opened the door tounderstanding the culture ofancient Egypt.

The Rosetta Stone, with its trilingualinscription, was key to understandingEgyptian hieroglyphics.

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26 The Good News

proved false. Seeds of doubt began tobe planted regarding the accuracy ofthe biblical account.

The 20th century inherited the skep-ticism of the preceding hundred years.Charles Darwin and others, espousingtheories of evolution, had positedexplanations for the origin and devel-opment of living creatures apart from a divine Creator. Such notions encour-aged a questioning of the historicityof the Bible.

Also strong in Europe was thethinking inspired by Karl Marx,who in an economic, materialisticinterpretation of history, dis-counted God and miracles.Many scholars ridiculed the bib-lical accounts as myth. The Biblebecame fair game for higher crit-icism; a tugging match ensuedbetween believers in the inspira-tion and accuracy of the Bibleand scoffers.

Biblical and theologicalscholars of the day declared theBible was more recent in originthan it claimed; some arguedthe people of the OldTestament did not even knowhow to read and write. Somescholars concluded that most ofthe Old Testament was littlemore than myth.

Authors Norman Geisler andPaul Feinberg observe: “Perhapsthe best example of those whohold the ‘reason over revelation’view are known as ‘liberals’ or ‘highercritics.’ Roughly speaking, this refersto a theological movement that sprungfrom the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century European thought. It wasinfluenced by Spinoza, Kant, andHegel, who concluded by human rea-son that parts or all of the Bible arenot a revelation from God. Otherhigher critics have included men suchas Jean Astruc (1684-1766) and JuliusWellhausen (1844-1918).

“In contrast to the historic, orthodoxview that the Bible is the Word of God,liberals believe that the Bible merelycontains the Word of God. When theyapply the canons of human reason or

modern scholarship to the Bible theyfeel that some parts of it are ‘contradic-tory,’ and others are simply myths orfables. Some Old Testament stories arerejected by these critics because theevents seemed to be ‘immoral’”(Introduction to Philosophy, aChristian Perspective, 1980, p. 261).

Rejecting the divine inspiration ofthe Bible, archaeologists from liberal

biblical institutes allowed

themselves to be influenced by the ageof skepticism in theology. Consciouslyor unconsciously, they became biasedagainst the biblical account.

Skeptical of fall of JerichoAn example of such bias surfaced

recently in the matter of dating the fallof Jericho. According to the biblicalrecord, Jericho was destroyed by theIsraelites under Joshua when theybegan their conquest of the promisedland. However, excavations of the siteof Jericho led some—most notably,renowned British archaeologist

Kathleen Kenyon—to reject the bibli-cal version.

In Biblical Archaeology Review,archaeologist Bryant Wood explainsthe earlier antibiblical view: “Thearchaeological evidence conflicted with the Biblical account—indeed,disproved it. Based on [archaeologistKathleen] Kenyon’s conclusions,Jericho has become the parade exampleof the difficulties encountered inattempting to correlate the findings of

archaeology with the Biblicalaccount of a military conquestof Canaan. Scholars by andlarge have written off theBiblical record as so muchfolklore and religious rhetoric.And this is where the matterhas stood for the past 25 years”(Bryant Wood, BiblicalArchaeology Review, March-April, 1990, p. 49).

Evidence reexamined Yet a reevaluation of Ken-

yon’s work showed that herconclusions challenging biblicalchronology were suspect, whilethe biblical account gained thestrongest supporting evidence.Wood observes that Kenyon’s“thoroughgoing excavationmethods and detailed reportingof her findings, however, did notcarry over into her analyticalwork. When the evidence is criti-cally examined there is no basisfor her contention that City IV

[the level of the city that was thoughtto correspond to Joshua’s time] wasdestroyed . . . in the mid-16th centuryB.C.E. [before the Christian era]”(ibid., p. 57).

Time magazine added the following:“Over the past three decades, the con-sensus has gone against the biblicalversion [of the fall of Jericho]. The lateBritish archaeologist Kathleen Kenyonestablished in the 1950s that while theancient city was indeed destroyed, ithappened around 1550 B.C., some 150years before Joshua could have shownup. But archaeologist Bryant Wood . . .claims that Kenyon was wrong. Basedon a re-evaluation of her research,

Sir Henry C. Rawlinson decipheredcuneiform, the style of writing used inthe ancient Babylonian empire.

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Wood says that the city’s walls couldhave come tumbling down at just theright time to match the biblical account. . . Says Wood: ‘It looks to me asthough the biblical stories are correct’(Time, March 5, 1990, p. 43).

And so, the lively debate regardingthe Bible’s accuracy continues betweenconservative and liberal archaeologists.

Discoveries verify biblical accountsAs the 20th century has progressed,

several archaeological finds verifying

the biblical record have come to light.In the early 1900s, German excavatorsunder Robert Koldewey mapped theancient capital of Babylon and foundthat it closely corresponded to the bib-

Continued on page 41

What can we say about the relationship betweenthe Bible and archaeology? An illustration canhelp. Let us imagine two jigsaw puzzles. The

first is the Bible, put together under the inspiration ofGod Himself. The pieces fit together perfectly. As God’sWord says, “All Scripture is given by inspiration of God,and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correc-tion, for instruction in righteousness, that the man ofGod may be complete, thoroughly equipped for everygood work” (2 Timothy 3:16, 17, emphasis added).

This first puzzle’s primary purpose is to reveal notscience and history per se but the record of God’s deal-ings with humankind. Much of this revelation is knowl-edge that cannot be examined under a microscope orperceived through our senses. It is knowledge revealedby God.

Throughout the Bible, a common theme is God’s par-ticipation in human history. Whether it be the creationaccount, His dealings with Israel or the early NewTestament Church, God is central.

Much of this information is not the kind that archae-ology can discover through the study of ancient remains.Yet God’s inspired account of His interaction with living,breathing people is inserted into writings about thephysical surroundings of those people. Such informationis genuine and true, since God “cannot lie” (Titus 1:2).

Limits of archaeologyThe physical evidence can be likened to a second

jigsaw puzzle, one based on scientific evidence andthat is valuable to our faith by its ability to confirmthe veracity of the biblical accounts.

The second jigsaw puzzle concerns how archaeologyand related disciplines can reveal physical evidence con-cerning biblical history. The picture presented is partial;not all archaeological evidence has survived. Conclusionsderived from archaeological discoveries are necessarilyuncertain. Like a puzzle, pieces can be initially misplaced.As new discoveries are made or better interpretationsare offered, the position of some pieces can shift. Manypieces are faded and worn, making placement difficult.

Dating of biblical sites is based primarily on survivingpottery, with its distinctive styles associated with specifichistorical periods. What remains is an incomplete pic-ture of the past. As archaeologist Paul W. Lapp com-

mented, “Palestinian archaeology may be past infancybut has hardly gotten beyond childhood.” Archaeologyis a developing and imperfect science.

Some archaeologists estimate that only one thou-sandth of the original artifacts have survived. Some5,000 sites are known to scientists in Palestine, and onlyabout 350 have been excavated. Of these, fewer than 2 percent have been extensively excavated. All conclu-sions, then, are based on small amounts of evidence.

Significant portions of the Bible now corroboratedHow should the relative scarcity of evidence affect

our Christian beliefs? Our faith should not be based onpossession of all the material and historical evidence.Definitive analysis is not a prerequisite for determiningwhether or not the Bible is historically accurate and true.

In spite of the relatively small amount of materialthat has been excavated and analyzed, considerableevidence confirming the biblical account is available.More is being uncovered all the time. Significant por-tions of the Old Testament historical record have nowbeen corroborated by archaeology.

Bryant Wood notes the consensus of archaeologistson the following point: “The purpose of Biblical archae-ology is to enhance our comprehension of the Bible,and so its greatest achievement, in my view, has beenthe extraordinary illumination of the . . . time of theIsraelite monarchy” (Biblical Archaeology Review, May-June, 1995, p. 33).

From c. 1000 B.C. through the New Testamentperiod, the archaeological evidence is strong. Beforethat time, it is sparse. This is quite natural, consideringthe circumstances. As Wood explains: “Exploring thatpre-history [before 1000 B.C.] is challenging: It requirestracing the archaeological record of a pastoral commu-nity, rather than an agrarian-based political entity thatbuilt cities and made contacts with surroundingnations” (ibid., p. 35).

We will never possess all the physical evidence. Most has been destroyed by time and wear. We cannotreproduce miracles, nor can God’s presence be exam-ined and confirmed in a laboratory. Faith will always bebased primarily on spiritual discernment and trust inGod’s Word. GN

—Mario Seiglie

May 1996 27

TWO JIGSAW PUZZLES, TWO PURPOSES

28 The Good News

lical description. Egyptian history andculture generally matched the biblicalaccounts.

The archaeologist’s spade hasuncovered evidence of other ancientpeoples mentioned in Scripture. Onesuch example is the Hittite kingdom,mentioned only in the Bible, whichhad been dismissed by many critics as mythological. As Gleason Archermentions: “The references [in theBible] to the Hittites were treatedwith incredulity and condemned asmere fiction on the part of lateauthors of the Torah” (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, 1974, p.165). Yet, excavations in Syria andTurkey revealed many Hittite monu-ments and documents. These discov-eries proved the Hittites to have beena mighty nation, with an empireextending from Asia Minor to parts of Israel.

Also important was the discovery ofthe Dead Sea Scrolls, written in ancientHebrew script. The scrolls were foundin caves near the Dead Sea in 1947.Some of them are books of the OldTestament written more than 100 yearsbefore Christ’s time. Nevertheless,questions raised by earlier critics aboutthe Bible’s authenticity have shaken thefaith of many.

Added dimension in understandingThe International Standard Bible

Encyclopedia explains: “There werenineteenth-century scholars who wereconvinced that Abraham, Isaac, Jacob,and perhaps even Moses were simplyimaginary creations of later Israeliteauthors. But archaeology has put thesepersons in a real world. As a result, ascholar such as J[ohn] Bright, afterdevoting thirty-six pages to the subject,can write, ‘the Bible’s picture of thepatriarchs is deeply rooted in history’. . . Archaeology supplies means forunderstanding many of the biblical situations[;] it adds the dimension ofreality to pictures that otherwise wouldbe strange and somewhat unreal, andtherefore it provides an element ofcredibility. While the person of faithdoes not ask for proof, he does want to

feel that his faith is reasonable and notmere fantasy. Archaeology, by supply-ing him with material remains frombiblical times and places, and by inter-preting these data, provides a contextof reality for the biblical story and rea-sonability for biblical faith” (1979,Vol. 1, p. 244).

Archaeological discoveries in Egyptand Iraq have been valuable in con-firming the biblical account. However,much evidence still remains beneath

the surface. Much of the territory ofthe biblical kingdoms of Israel andJudah remains to be archaeologicallyexplored.

Not until the end of World War I,when some of this area came underBritish control, did prolonged scientificsurveys and excavations begin.

After the Balfour Declaration in1917, Jews began to arrive in Pales-tine; the British, Americans and otherswere joined in digs by Jews in theirancestral homelands. Today there aresome 300 sizable excavations under-way in Israel, an extraordinary numberfor a country only 200 miles long and60 miles wide.

Archaeology makes a believerThe abundance of archaeological

evidence in support of the Bible canstrengthen faith, and in some cases ithas greatly contributed to giving birthto belief where none existed before.

An example of physical evidencebuilding one’s faith is the life ofEnglishman William M. Ramsay(1851-1939). Born in the lap of lux-ury, Ramsay was dutifully raised as anonbeliever by his atheist parents. Hegraduated from Oxford Universitywith a doctorate in philosophy andbecame a professor at the Universityof Aberdeen.

Determined to undermine the histor-ical accuracy of the Bible, he studiedarchaeology with the aim of disprov-ing the biblical account. Once readywith the necessary scientific tools andlearning, he traveled to Palestine andfocused on the book of Acts, which hefully expected to refute as nothingmore than myth.

After a quarter-century of work,Ramsay was awestruck by the accu-racy of the book of Acts. In his questto refute the Bible, Ramsay discov-ered many facts which confirmed itsaccuracy.

He had to concede that Luke’saccount of the events and settingrecorded in the narrative were exacteven in the smallest detail. Far fromattacking the biblical account, Ramsayproduced a book, St. Paul, the Travel-ler and Roman Citizen, which sup-ported it.

Eventually, William Ramsay shookthe intellectual world by writing that hehad converted to Christianity. Ironi-cally, this man who set out to refute the Bible, found himself accepting theBible as God’s Word because of hisexplorations and discoveries. For hiscontribution to biblical knowledge withhis many books, he was knighted also.

The study of archaeology can helpfortify faith. It allows us to take a fasci-nating journey back in time to studythe stones and artifacts that bear mutebut compelling witness to the truth ofScripture.

What else has been found? Futurearticles in The Good News willdescribe discoveries that parallel andilluminate the biblical account. GN

ArchaeologyContinued from page 27

An atheist who set out to refutethe Bible found

himself acceptingthe Bible as God’sWord because ofhis archaeological

discoveries.

century ago Charles Darwinadvanced an alternative to the

biblical account of creation.About the same time, Karl Marx made use of thetheory of materialism, which stated that matterhas always existed and doesn’t need a Creator.This provided his followers with an alternative tobelief in God. Then literary criticism focused itssights on the Bible and slowly began to attempt totear it to pieces. Literary critics claimed that the

Bible is filled with myths and is of much morerecent origin than the Bible itself claims to be.

As one scholar explains, man began to think ofhimself, rather than God, as the center of the uni-verse. “The idea of evolution had captured thethinking of that day, and was thought to furnishthe best key to the understanding of history aswell as of nature. Religion was discussed fromthe standpoint ofits subjective bene-fits to man. Allpossibility of spe-cial revelationfrom a personalGod was dis-counted, and thereligious side ofman was to beexplained by a natural process . . .They concluded that Israel’s reli-gion must have developed along similar lines”(A. Noordtzy, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. 98-99, pp.388-390, 1940-41).

When the 20th century dawned, the tide of crit-icism eroded belief in the literal truth of the bibli-cal accounts. Then came a series of remarkable

archaeological discoveries. Archaeology began inthe 19th century but came to full force in the 20th.Critics of the historical accuracy of the Bible wereconfronted with physical evidence attesting to thetruthfulness of certain accounts.

As author John Elder comments, the study ofarchaeology had much to do with tipping thescales, in many people’s minds, back in the favorof biblical credibility. “Little by little, one cityafter another, one civilization after another, oneculture after another, whose memories wereenshrined only in the Bible, were restored to theirproper places in ancient history by the studies ofthe archaeologists . . . Nowhere has archaeologicaldiscovery refuted the Bible as history” (Prophets,Idols and Diggers, 1960, p. 16).

In this article we take a look at some of theastounding discoveries of the last two centuriesand show how physical evidence confirms aspectsof the biblical record.

When Luke wrote the Gospel that bears hisname, he carefully laid out the evidence in favorof the historicity of Jesus Christ and His miracles,including His resurrection. He wanted his account

to meet the scrutiny of doubters. Luke said heintended to write “an orderly account” (Luke 1:1-4) so his readers could “know the certainty ofthose things in which you were instructed”(emphasis added throughout).

Luke then proceeded to augment his account

Archaeology and Genesis:What Does the Record Show?b y M a r i o S e i g l i eA

18 The Good News

Archaeologists excavating the site of ancient Sumerhave unearthed fascinating artifacts that depict some

of the events described in the book of Genesis.

Archaeology and Genesis:What Does the Record Show?

This seal, with its impression at right, is known as the Temptation Seal. DIscov-ered at the site of ancient Sumer, it depicts a serpent, woman, tree and man—allimportant elements in the account from Genesis of the temptation.

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with historical references mentioning, forexample, the contemporaneous rulers ofJudah and the emperor of the RomanEmpire (Luke 1:5; 2:1).

Because of the number of discoveries,we cannot examine all of the evidencehere. We will discuss, however, some ofthe principal finds that corroborate partsof the biblical record of Genesis.The Temptation Seal

Seals made use of some ofthe most ancient forms of writ-ing. They were used to certifydocuments, to show authorityand, on occasion, as amulets.The earliest seals were madeof clay impressed withmarkings or writing, andsome of them becamehardened with time orwere baked when firesswept through a city.Since they are made ofclay, they have survivedmuch longer than recordswritten on papyrus or parch-ment.

Archaeologists’dating of someseals has found them to be more than5,000 years old. They are among the fewsurviving materials that provide firm evi-dence of people’s beliefs at the dawn ofcivilization. Seals have been uncoveredthat confirm several biblical accounts,including some in Genesis.

The first chapters of the book of Gene-sis cover the creation of humans and thetemptation that induced Adam to sin.God had given Adam certain laws tokeep and explained the consequences ofdisobedience. “And the LORD God com-manded the man, saying, ‘Of every treeof the garden you may freely eat, but ofthe tree of the knowledge of good andevil you shall not eat, for in the day thatyou eat of it you shall surely die’ ” (Gen-esis 2:16-17).

Genesis depicts the tempter, Satan,influencing Eve and in turn her husband,Adam, to disobey their Creator. God hadtold Adam and Eve they would die if theyate of the tree. But the serpent said to Eve,“You will not surely die.” So Eve partook,found the fruit pleasant, then offered it to

her husband, “and he ate” (Genesis 3:1-6).Is this account only a myth? Many crit-

ics thought so. Yet archaeology hasunearthed, not in biblical Israel, but in thesite of the most ancient civilizationknown, Sumer, a seal depicting this verysequence of events described in the bookof Genesis. This find, known as the Temp-tation Seal, is in the British Museum. It

dates to the third millennium beforeChrist, some 5,000 years ago. This artifactshows a man and a woman viewing a tree,and behind the woman is a serpent. Theman and woman are both reaching forfruit of the tree.

The Genesis account of the temptationwas believed to be a fabrication by Jewishwriters, yet this graphic portrayal of eventsdescribed in Genesis existed thousands ofyears before critics believe the book ofGenesis was written. This artifact, one ofthe earliest surviving records, demonstratesthat humans knew the essentials of the

temptation incident, and not only from thebiblical account written in Genesis.The Adam and Eve seal

Another Sumerian seal, dated ca. 3500B.C. and now housed in the museum of theUniversity of Pennsylvania, shows eventsthat took place after the man and womanate the forbidden fruit. This seal depicts thenaked figures of a male and a female,

bowed in humiliation, being drivenout, followed by a serpent. This sealalso describes the story of the expul-sion from the Garden of Eden: “. . .Therefore the LORD God sent him[Adam] out of the garden of Eden to tillthe ground from which he was taken”

(Genesis 3:23). It is difficult to explain what the three

figures, engraved on a seal dating fromthe beginnings of human antiquity, aredoing if the artifact is not another depic-tion of the Genesis account.The flood epics

“And the waters prevailed exceed-ingly on the earth, and all the high hillsunder the whole heaven were covered. . . And all flesh died that moved on theearth” (Genesis 7:19, 21).

One of the most questioned accountsof the Bible is the flood of Noah’s time.

A century ago liberal critics considered itone of the most fanciful biblical myths. Yetmore than a century of archaeological dig-ging has revealed accounts of the flood inthe earliest of civilizations.

One of the most astounding finds is theGilgamesh Epic, recorded on clay tabletsthat were translated in 1872 by GeorgeSmith of the British Museum. The tabletsnarrate the flood account from the per-spective of the ancient Babylonians. Asimilar account was found on Sumeriantablets, which are the earliest writings yetdiscovered.

Which one is the more authenticaccount of the flood? That is easilyanswered. Professor Gleason Archer notesthat the differences in the Gilgamesh andGenesis narratives are too great to allowone to have been borrowed from the other.“The stark contrast between the passion-driven, quarrelsome, greedy gods of theBabylonian pantheon and the majesticholiness of Jehovah is most striking and

This clay tablet,inscribed in cuneiform, was recoveredfrom the ancient city of Nineveh. Itdescribes a flood that devastated theentire world—an account remarkablysimilar to the flood of Noah’s timedescribed in the book of Genesis.

September/October 1996 19

significant,” he writes. “Likewise the utterimplausibility of a cube-shaped ark andan inundation of the entire world by amere fourteen-day downpour [of the Gil-gamesh Epic] stand in opposition to theseaworthy dimensions and the gradualsinking of the waters in the Biblicalrecord” (A Survey of Old Testament Intro-duction, 1974, p. 211).

Clearly, the Gilgamesh Epic shows evi-dence of corruption.

These ancient tablets are by no meansthe only external corroboration of the bib-lical flood narrative. An enterprising histo-rian,Aaron Smith, is said to have patientlytallied all the flood stories he could find.He came across 80,000 works in 72 lan-guages about the deluge (Werner Keller,

The Bible as History, 1980, p. 38).Certainly if Noah’s flood were just a

local event affecting people in a limitedgeographic region, its impact would nothave been etched indelibly into the mindsof so many far-flung peoples.

One historian notes: “The Sumerians,Babylonians and Assyrians of Mesopota-mia might well be expected to cherish asimilar tradition to that of the Hebrews,since they lived so close to the presumedseat of antediluvian civilization . . . Butwhat shall we say of the legend of Manupreserved among the Hindus . . . or ofFah-he among the Chinese . . . or of Nu-uamong the Hawaiians; or of Tezpi amongthe Mexican Indians; or of Manabozho

among the Algonquins? . . . All of theseagree that all mankind was destroyed bya great flood (usually represented asworldwide) as a result of divine displea-sure at human sin, and that a single manwith his family or a very few friends sur-vived the catastrophe by means of a shipor raft or large canoe of some sort”(Archer, p. 209).The Tower of Babel

“Then they said to one another,‘Come, let us make bricks and bake themthoroughly.’They had brick for stone, andthey had asphalt for mortar. And they said,

‘Come, let us build ourselves a city, and atower whose top is in the heavens . . .’”(Genesis 11:3-4).

Many of us have heard about the Towerof Babel, but few know of the solid evi-dence behind the Bible account.

Excavations in Iraq at the beginning ofthis century revealed that an enormoustower had existed in Babylon at one time.Werner Keller writes: “In 1899 the Ger-man Oriental Society equipped a largeexpedition under the direction of Profes-sor Robert Koldewey, the architect, toexamine the famous ruined mound of‘Babil’on the Euphrates. The excava-tions, as it turned out, took longer thananywhere else. In eighteen years the most

famous metropolis of the ancient world,the royal seat of Nebuchadnezzar, wasbrought to light, and at the same time, oneof the Seven Wonders of the World, the‘Hanging Gardens’ . . . and ‘E-temen-an-ki,’ the legendary Tower of Babel . . .

“The bricklaying technique describedin the Bible at the building of the Towerof Babel corresponds with the findings ofthe archaeologists. As the investigationsconfirmed, actually only asphalted brickswere used in the construction, especiallyin the foundation. That was clearly neces-sary for the security of the structure in

accordance withbuilding regulations. . . Foundations andstonework weretherefore madewaterproof anddamp-proof with‘slime,’ i.e., asphalt. . . Seven stages,‘seven squares,’rose one above theother. A little tabletbelonging to anarchitect which wasfound in the templeexpressly mentionsthat length, breadthand height were

equal . . . The length ofthe sides at the base is

given as being rather more than 290 feet.The archaeologists measured it as 295feet. According to that the tower musthave been almost 300 feet high” (TheBible As History, 1980 edition, pp. 302,317-318).

This means the tower rose to the heightof a 20-story building.

Further research has revealed that theoriginal tower was destroyed, and on thesame site a similar tower was later built atthe time of Nebuchadnezzar.

D.J. Wiseman, professor of Assyriol-ogy, explains: “The tower was severelydamaged in the war of 652-648 B.C. butrestored again by Nebuchadrezzar II(605-562 B.C.). It was this building, part

20 The Good News

Excavations in Iraq at the beginning of this century revealedthat an enormous tower had existed in Babylon at one time.

This enormous mound, the remnant of a ziggurat similar to the destroyed Tower of Babel, was erected at Urin 2300 B.C. Close to this court archaeologists excavated a complete record of the building of the tower.

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of which was recovered by Koldewey in1899, which was described byHerodotus on his visit c. 460 B.C. . . .The base stage [of the later tower] mea-sured 90 by 90 m[eters] and was 33m[eters] high . . . The ziggurat [a sacredtower] at Babylon was demolished byXerxes in 472 B.C., and though Alexan-der cleared the rubble prior to its restora-

tion this was thwarted by his death. Thebricks were subsequently removed bythe local inhabitants, and today the siteof Etemenanki is a pit as deep as theoriginal construction was high” (NewBible Dictionary, 1982, p. 111).

Sacred towers were common inMesopotamia. So far, the ruins of 35 suchstructures have been found. The first wasthe one at Babel.

From this brief survey, we can see thelight that archaeology has shed on ques-tions about the veracity of the biblicalrecord. Although doubters will alwaysquestion the truthfulness of God’s Word,

fewer and fewer now doubt its historicalstatements.

Many other exciting archaeologicalfinds have helped confirm and shed lighton the book of Genesis, and these will beexamined in a future article. GN

In 1899 the German Oriental Society equipped a large expedition to examine thefamous ruined mound of “Babil” on the Euphrates. They brought to light thelegendary Tower of Babel. This artist’s rendition is from a copper engraving.

n the September-October issue,The Good News examined several

archaeological finds that illumi-nate portions of the book of Genesis. In thisissue we continue our exploration of discoveriesthat verify the accuracy of other aspects of theGenesis account, beginning with the biblicalpatriarch Abraham.

Abraham and the city of Ur“And Terah took his son Abram and his

grandson Lot, . . . and they went out with themfrom Ur of the Chaldeans to go to the land ofCanaan” (Genesis 11:31).

A century ago, German liberal critic TheodorNöldeke questioned the historical existence of

Abraham and of “Ur of the Chaldeans.” He, alongwith others, regarded the Genesis account of Abra-ham and his descendants as fictional. Yet this cen-tury has brought to light an enormous amount ofevidence to back the biblical record of Abraham.

In 1922 Leonard Woolley thoroughly exca-vated the city of Ur in southern Iraq and found it had been a thriving metropolis around 2000B.C., precisely the time of Abraham. Based onhis findings, Woolley even drew a map of thecity that showed its orderly boulevards and madeup blueprints of spacious dwellings with indoorbaths. Classrooms were excavated that yieldedschoolchildren’s tablets with lessons on gram-mar and arithmetic still visible. In addition, vari-ations on the name Abraham were found that

Archaeology and Genesis:What Does the Record Show?

18 The Good News

Althoughdoubters will

always scoff atthe truth of

God’s Word,fewer and fewer

now doubt theBible’s historical

basis.

Archaeology and Genesis:What Does the Record Show?

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Demonstrating Egypt’s agricultural productivity, this carved relief from an Egyptian tomb depicts a rowof granaries in the center, with workers harvesting fruit, above, and baskets of grapes. When nearbyareas suffered drought and famine, abundant food supplies drew the ancient Israelites to settle in Egypt.

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dated to a century or two after his death.The International Standard Encyclope-

dia, rejecting Nöldeke’s theory that Abra-ham was a mythical figure, concludes:“From the archaeological evidence it isapparent that Abraham was the product of an advanced culture, and was typical ofthe upper-class patriarch of his day: Hisactions are set against a well-authenticatedbackground of non-biblical material, mak-ing him a true son of his age who bore thesame name and traversed the same generalterritory, as well as living in the sametowns, as his contemporaries. He is inevery sense a genuine Middle Bronze Ageperson, and not a retrojection of laterIsraelite historical thought, as used to beimagined . . .” (Vol. 1, 1979, p. 17).

“Now there was a famine in the land,and Abram went down to Egypt to dwellthere, for the famine was severe in theland” (Genesis 12:10). “So they took theirlivestock and their goods, which they hadacquired in the land of Canaan, and wentto Egypt, Jacob and all his descendantswith him” (Genesis 46:6).

What did the biblical patriarchs and theirfamilies look like? The Bible speaks of thewealth of Abraham in cattle and sheep(Genesis 12:16). Later it talks about thebrothers’envy over the multicolored coatthat Jacob gave to Joseph (Genesis 37:3).

It tells about the sheep and goats that Jacobcleverly bred to avoid their being confis-cated by his father-in-law (Genesis 30:33-43). Mentioned are musical instrumentssuch as the harp (Genesis 31:27) andweapons such as the bow and arrow usedfor protection (Genesis 27:3). Were all theseonly fabrications and the product of fables?

At the turn of our century, several royaltombs were excavated 150 miles south ofCairo. There on one of the walls is a beau-tiful painting, later dated ca. 1900 B.C., ofSemites entering Egypt to sell their wares.Men, women and children are pictured,some with multicolored clothing. Theyhave harps, bows and arrows and spears.Accompanying them are goats and don-keys for food and conveyance. This paint-ing shows people of the same lineage asAbraham, Isaac and Jacob wearing theclothing, caring for the same type of ani-mals and using implements as describedin the Bible record. It is an impressive findthat backs the biblical description of thattime, even in minute detail.

Laban’s teraphimSome have puzzled over the biblical

story of Rachel’s desperate attempt tohide her father’s household gods, evenrisking her life to carry them with her. Weread in Genesis 31:

“Then Jacob rose and set his sons andhis wives on camels . . . Now Laban hadgone to shear his sheep, and Rachel hadstolen the household idols that were herfather’s . . . And Laban was told on thethird day that Jacob had fled. Then hetook his brethren with him and pursuedhim for seven days’ journey, and he over-took him in the mountains of Gilead . . .

“And Laban said to Jacob: ‘What haveyou done, that you have stolen away un-known to me, and carried away my daugh-ters . . .? And now you have surely gonebecause you greatly long for your father’shouse, but why did you steal my gods?’

“Then Jacob answered and said toLaban, ‘Because I was afraid, for I said,“Perhaps you would take your daughtersfrom me by force.” With whomever youfind your gods, do not let him live. In thepresence of our brethren, identify what I have of yours and take it with you.’

“For Jacob did not know that Rachelhad stolen them . . . Now Rachel hadtaken the household idols, put them in the camel’s saddle, and sat on them. AndLaban searched all about the tent but didnot find them. And she said to her father,‘Let it not displease my lord that I cannotrise before you, for the manner of womenis with me’” (verses 17-35).

Why were these “household gods” so

November/December 1996 19

These panels from a wall painting discovered in an Egyptiantomb at Beni-Hasan depict foreigners entering Egypt. Many ofthe ancient Israelites’ animals, tools, utensils and weapons

described in the Bible are shown in the paintings, including don-keys, goats, harps, spears, bows and arrows. This painting, almost4,000 years old, depicts life in the time of the biblical patriarchs.

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important? Archaeological evidencereveals the answer. Many of thesedomestic idols, called teraphim, havebeen found in the Middle East. In the1920s more than 20,000 tablets, nowcalled the Nuzi tablets, were discoveredin northern Iraq. They include muchinformation on law, commercial transac-tions and religion that has shed light onthe customs of Abraham’s time.

The teraphim are mentioned as house-hold gods that were used to determine theinheritance and titles of the sons of a fam-ily. Although scholars dispute how muchthe patriarchs were influenced by suchpractices, the biblical account fits this pic-ture well. Clearly, Rachel was worriedabout leaving these idols behind. Labancertainly thought they were of greatimportance and traveled with his othersons for several days to recover them.These actions on their part make sense if the teraphim were used to help his othersons confirm their rights of inheritance.

These idols were also used to bringgood luck and even for calling upon othergods. After another encounter with thetrue God, when Jacob found that Rachelhad stolen the idols, he had her get rid ofthem. “And Jacob said to his householdand to all who were with him, ‘Put awaythe foreign gods that are among you . . .’”(Genesis 35:2).

Again, the biblical account fits witharchaeological evidence of the customsof the people of that time.

Joseph in Egypt“Now Joseph had been taken down

to Egypt” (Genesis 39:1).Perhaps one can acknowledge that

these findings fit Abraham and his descen-dants in Mesopotamia and Canaan, but dothey confirm the abundant archaeologicalevidence of Egyptian life and culture?

The Bible tells of a young Joseph whowas sold into slavery and taken to Egypt as a young man. If this account is nothingmore than myth, surely the biblical storycould easily be refuted, since much more isknown of Egyptian history and culturethan of any other civilization of the MiddleEast of that time. The Egyptians left monu-ment after monument, their tombs withwalls full of pictures and writings of theirdaily lives. They inscribed in stone much

of their history. If the biblical story is false,it should not be difficult to expose it as afraud, since details in the account wouldsurely be discovered to be out of place.

Yet the biblical account fits. In EgyptJoseph ended up as a slave in an impor-tant official’s home. Potiphar’s wife triedto seduce Joseph. When he fled from her,he was falsely accused by her and throwninto prison. These elements all reflectEgyptian customs as described in themonuments—the abundance of Semiticslaves and stories of frivolous Egyptianwives. Says one encyclopedia: “Egyptiansources indicate that both in literature andin daily life some other Egyptian womenwere no better than Potiphar’s wife” (TheInternational Standard Bible Encyclope-dia, Vol. 2, p. 1128).

When God intervened and Joseph inter-preted Pharaoh’s dream (literature of thattime indicates that interpreting dreams wasa common practice), he was placed as sec-ond in command under Pharaoh.

The Egyptian ruler complimentedhim: “Inasmuch as God has shown youall this, there is no one as discerning andwise as you. You shall be over my house,and all my people shall be ruled accord-ing to your word; only in regard to thethrone will I be greater than you.’AndPharaoh said to Joseph, ‘See, I have setyou over all the land of Egypt.’ThenPharaoh took his signet ring off his handand put it on Joseph’s hand; and heclothed him in garments of fine linen andput a gold chain around his neck. And hehad him ride in the second chariot whichhe had; and they cried out before him,‘Bow the knee!’So he set him over allthe land of Egypt” (Genesis 41:39-43).

In one of the walls in a royal Egyptiantomb is a beautiful engraving of theinvestiture ceremony for a new primeminister. The official is clothed in a whitelinen gown and wears a gold chainaround his neck. As Werner Keller main-tains: “Joseph’s elevation to be viceroy ofEgypt is reproduced in the Bible exactlyaccording to protocol. He is investedwith the insignia of his high office, hereceives the ring, Pharaoh’s seal, a costlylinen vestment, and a golden chain. Thisis exactly how Egyptian artists depict thissolemn ceremony on murals and reliefs.

As viceroy, Joseph rides in Pharaoh’s‘second chariot.’That could indicate the‘period of the Hyksos’at the earliest, forit is only during the period of the ‘rulersof the foreign lands’ . . . that the fast warchariot reached Egypt . . . Before their

day this had not been the practice on theNile. The ceremonial chariot harnessedto thoroughbred horses was in those daysthe Rolls-Royce of the governors. Thefirst chariot belonged to the ruler, the‘second chariot’was occupied by hischief minister” (The Bible as History,1980, p. 89).

From this brief survey we can see someof the light that archaeology has shed onthe biblical record. Although doubters willalways scoff at the truth of God’s Word—since God’s way of life and His laws arenot easy to keep—fewer and fewer nowdoubt the Bible’s historical basis.

Such discoveries continue to verify theinspiration of God’s Word. As Paul said:“All Scripture is given by inspiration ofGod, and is profitable for doctrine, forreproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness, that the man of God becomplete, thoroughly equipped for everygood work” (2 Timothy 3:16-17).

Future issues of The Good News willpresent more archaeological evidencethat confirms the Bible account. GN

20 The Good News

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This illustration, from an Egyptian tomb carving, shows a dignitary beinginstalled into government office. A goldchain is being placed around his neck, anexact parallel of Joseph’s inaugurationdescribed in Genesis 41:41-42.

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18 The Good News

Archaeology and the Book of Exodus: Exit From Egypt

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

Archaeologistshave made

many significant discoveries that

make the book ofExodus and the

Israelites’ time inEgypt come alive.

Egyptian brick-making is depicted in this wall painting fromthe tomb of Egyptian nobleman Rekhmire from the mid-second

millennium B.C. The painting shows workmen gathering materi-als, forming bricks and carrying the finished bricks after drying.

n earlier issues, The Good News examinedseveral archaeological finds that illuminate

portions of the book of Genesis. In thisissue we continue our exploration of discoveriesthat illuminate the biblical accounts, focusing onExodus, the second book of the Bible.

Exodus in English derives from the Latin andmeans simply “to exit.” The book of Exodusdescribes the departure of the Israelites fromEgypt, an event distinguished by a mighty strug-gle between two unequal opponents. On the onehand was an oppressed nation of slaves and onthe other the most powerful nation in the MiddleEast, if not the world. Viewed strictly physically,the odds in this struggle between Israel andEgypt were stacked against the Israelites.

What has archaeology found that pertains tothe Exodus and the Israelites’ time in Egypt? Sci-entists have made several significant discoveries

that make this part of the Bible come alive.

Egyptian brick-making

In the book of Exodus we see the Egyptiansforcing the Israelites to build great cities forPharaoh: “Therefore they set taskmasters overthem to afflict them with their burdens. And theybuilt for Pharaoh supply cities, Pithom andRaamses” (Exodus 1:11).

Most of us know a little about the Egyptianpyramids, which were built of stone. But not allEgyptian pyramids were made of stone; brickwas the principal building material used in thecountry. The International Standard Bible Ency-clopedia notes that “throughout Egyptian historysun-dried brick was the chief building material.Stone was reserved for temples and other monu-mental constructions” (Vol. 1, p. 546).

Therefore the Egyptians needed millions of

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bricks, and the Israelites labored long andhard to supply the demand. The Egyp-tians “made their lives bitter with hardbondage—in mortar, in brick, and in allmanner of service in the field” (Exodus1:14, emphasis added throughout).

When Moses and Aaron told Pharaohthat God wanted His people, theIsraelites, to stop working and observe areligious festival in the wilderness,Pharaoh was incensed. Instead of yield-ing, he increased the work load: “So thesame day Pharaoh commanded thetaskmasters of the people and their offi-cers, saying, ‘You shall no longer give thepeople straw to make brick as before. Letthem go and gather straw forthemselves’” (Exodus 5:6-7).

This cruel measure added to theIsraelites’already arduous tasks. The Israelite slaves had to head for thefields to gather straw to mix with themud.

The biblical detail about using straw inbrick-making is puzzling to some. How,they ask, could the addition of straw as aningredient make bricks stronger?

In Egypt the mud-straw combinationwas commonly used to strengthen build-ing blocks. It also prevented the bricksfrom cracking or losing shape. Moderninvestigators have run tests that show thatwhen straw is mixed with mud the result-ing bricks are three times as strong asthose made without straw. Fluids in thestraw release humic acid and harden thebricks (Gerald Vardaman, Archaeologyand the Living Word, 1966, p. 37). To thisday, after thousands of years, mud-brickmonuments still stand in Egypt.

The 10 plagues

Egyptology has illuminated our under-standing of the Bible’s description of theplagues that struck Egypt and led to theIsraelites’departure from that land.

The Egyptians were religious people.They had gods for everything and scrupu-lously tried to please them. They had 39principal gods, many of them depicted inEgyptian art with animal bodies or heads.In Egyptian temples, priests cared formany types of sacred animals that repre-sented deities.

In one respect the Israelites’ exodusout of Egypt was a confrontationbetween the true God,Yahweh, and thefalse gods of that land. It would removeany doubt in the Israelites’ minds as towho was the true God and which was thetrue religion. God had in mind not onlyto take His people from Egypt, but todiscourage worship of the supposedlypowerful Egyptian gods. He made thisclear when He told Moses: “For I willpass through the land of Egypt on thatnight, and will strike all the firstborn inthe land of Egypt, both man and beast;and against all the gods of Egypt I willexecute judgment: I am the LORD” (Exo-dus 12:12).

Later, in Numbers 33:4, we read that“on their gods the LORD had executedjudgments.” God directed each of the 10

plagues against the Egyptian gods thatostensibly held sway over an aspect ofnature. The plagues represented, collec-tively, a dramatic demonstration toIsraelite and Egyptian alike that the godswere false; they were powerless to cometo the aid of anyone who implored them.

An ancient Egyptian calendar revealsnumerous holidays dedicated to thegods—so many that it appears that notmany working days remained in the year.When Moses told Pharaoh that Israelwould leave for several days to celebratea feast to God, Pharaoh was indignant:“Who is the LORD, that I should obey Hisvoice to let Israel go? I do not know theLORD, nor will I let Israel go . . . Mosesand Aaron, why do you take the peoplefrom their work? Get back to your labor”(Exodus 5:2, 4).

Pharaoh apparently thought that theIsraelites enjoyed plenty of free time, sohe refused the petition. ObservingPharaoh’s recalcitrance, God acted.

Plagues against the deities

The first plague was aimed at the mostvenerable and valuable resource ofEgyptian civilization, the powerful NileRiver, along with the gods the Egyptiansassociated with it. Egypt’s food supplydepended on the flooding of the Nile, aswell as its annual deposits of silt toreplenish the fertility of the soil. Some-times, as in Joseph’s day, failure of theNile to overflow its banks would result ina famine. So the Egyptians prayed regu-larly to their gods for abundant water. Thefirst plague made the water undrinkableand rancid. The fish, a valuable source offood, perished.

The Egyptians counted on the Nilegoddess Hapi and the powerful Osiris toprotect the Nile. Nothing resulted fromthe clamor and prayers of the Egyptiansthat their gods would purify the Nile.Only when Moses and Aaron prayed tothe true God were the waters refreshed.Yet Pharaoh remained proud. Hebelieved a host of powerful gods werewaiting to do his bidding; indeed Pha-raoh himself was considered a god bymost Egyptians.

The second plague targeted one of the

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This statue ofthe Egyptian Nile god Hapi dates to about900 B.C. God’s first plague intended tofree the Israelites struck the mighty NileRiver, and their gods proved powerless toprotect the Egyptians.

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creatures the Egyptians associated withthe Nile. Egyptians worshiped the frog inthe form of Heqt, whose statue bore thehead of a frog. This god was symbolic ofgood crops and blessings in the afterlife.Egyptians noticed that, when the Nilereached a certain level and overflowed,frogs abounded. Their presence was anomen of bountiful crops and control ofthe insect population. A low Nile withfew frogs meant a lack of silt, poor cropsand many insects.

Heqt, god of the frogs, supposedlycontrolled the frog population. Whenthe second plague produced too manyfrogs, it appeared to the Egyptians thatthe god who governed them had lostcontrol. No amount of prayers andincense altered the situation. Only whenthe true God intervened did the frogs dieand the crisis end.

The third and fourth plagues featuredanother favorite god of the Egyptians,Kheper, the scarab deity represented bybeetles and other insects. The image ofthe scarab god appeared frequently onamulets. “The cult to flies, and espe-cially of the beetles, was an importantpart of the ancient Egyptian religion”(Jamieson, Fausset and Brown,Exegetical Commentary of the Bible,Vol. 1, p. 67). “Various types of bee-tles were venerated in Egypt; amongthem the dung beetle [which] became theemblem of resurrection and continualexistence . . .” (The Interpreter’s Dictio-nary of the Bible, Vol. 4, p. 258).

When a swarm of lice or gnats (or pos-sibly mosquitoes) and horseflies stung thepopulace, the court magicians asked theinsect god to control them, but to no avail.Only when Pharaoh pleaded with Mosesto ask the God of Israel to remove thepests did the plague abate.

Sacred bull

The next plague affected cattle,which the Egyptians considered to beunder the control of Apis, the bull god,and Hathor, the cowlike mother god-dess. The bull was considered sacred.When the bull in a temple died, it wasmummified and buried with great pomp.The fifth plague struck at this mode ofworship. “So the LORD did this thing on

the next day, and all the livestock ofEgypt died; but of the livestock of thechildren of Israel, not one of them died”(Exodus 9:6). No amount of paganprayer could alter the outcome.

Next came a plague of boils, whichthe Egyptians thought they could cure byresorting to their god of medicine,Imhotep, a legendary Egyptian physicianwho came to be worshiped. They alsorevered Thoth, the god of magic andhealing. But again in this case the boilsdid not go away. Even worse, the courtmagicians who besought these entitieswere themselves covered with the pesti-lence: “And the magicians could notstand before Moses because of the boils,for the boils were on the magicians and on all the Egyptians” (verse 11).

Again, Pharaoh and other Egyptianspleaded with Moses that God would takeaway the problem. God’s power toremove this plague served as a witnessnot only to the Egyptians and theIsraelites, but to the rest of the world.God told Pharaoh: “But indeed for thispurpose I have raised you up, that I mayshow My power in you, and that Myname may be declared in all the earth”(verse 16). This witness remains with ustoday through the Bible account.

The seventh and eighth plagues struckEgypt’s crops. First, a horrible hailstormhit the harvest, then a horde of locustscompleted the destruction. The crops

were supposed to be guarded by Seth, theharvest god, and it was up to Nut, the skygoddess, to prevent weather disasters. Yetthe pleas of the Egyptians fell on deafears. Pharaoh was running out of gods toprotect his people.

God strikes the mightiest

The final two plagues were directed atthe two mightiest gods of the Egyptians,Ra the chief god, represented by the sun,and Pharaoh himself.

Egyptians believed Ra to be the sourceof life, bringing light and heat to the earth.The ninth plague brought three days of nosunlight. The darkness was so “thick,”says Scripture, that even lamps could notdispel the blackness. “So Moses stretchedout his hand toward heaven, and there wasthick darkness in all the land of Egyptthree days. They did not see one another;nor did anyone rise from his place forthree days. But all the children of Israelhad light in their dwellings” (Exodus10:22-23).

In spite of the prayers and supplica-tions the Egyptians must have offeredup to Ra, the sun god did nothing.

The final god in dire need of hum-bling was Pharaoh himself, who sup-

posedly descended from the god Ra.Pharaoh’s patron gods were Osiris, the

judge of the dead, and Horus, the god oflight. Egyptian worship of the Pharaohsfound expression in the construction fortheir leaders of great pyramids as tombs.The 10th plague struck even the offspringof the Egyptians’man-god.

Pharaoh himself was powerless tostop the death of his firstborn son, whowas next in line to sit worthy of Egyp-tians’worship. “And it came to pass atmidnight that the LORD struck all thefirstborn in the land of Egypt, from thefirstborn of Pharaoh who sat on histhrone to the firstborn of the captive whowas in the dungeon, and all the firstbornof the livestock” (Exodus 12:29). Withhis gods impotent and humiliated,mighty Pharaoh finally relented, and theExodus of the children of Israel began.

Future issues of The Good News willpresent more archaeological evidencethat illuminates the historical account ofthe book of Exodus. GN

20 The Good News

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20 The Good News

This enormous Egyptian stone scarab,some four feet long and three feet high,illustrates the Egyptian fascination withand worship of beetles and other insects.At the time of the Exodus, the third andfourth plagues were directed against theEgyptian deity thought to control insects.

Archaeology and the Book of Exodus: Exit From Egypt

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

n earlier issues, The Good News examinedarchaeological finds that illuminate portions

of the books of Genesis and Exodus. In thisissue we continue our exploration of discoveriesthat help us understand other aspects of the Exo-dus account, beginning with the incident of theIsraelites’worship of the golden calf.

The golden calf

After crossing the Red Sea (see “The Red Seaor the Reed Sea?,” p. 24), the Israelites madetheir way to Mount Sinai. The account of Israel’sappropriation of a golden calf to worship was

long questioned by secular scholars. They notedthat bull-worship was common in both Egyptand Canaan, but not calf-worship. However, in1991 a silver statue of a calf was found in anexcavation of ancient Ashkelon on Israel’s coast.Authorities dated this calf to more than 100years before the Exodus.

When Aaron shouted to the people, “This isyour god, O Israel, that brought you out of theland of Egypt!” (Exodus 32:4), he knew wellhow popular calf-worship was. Four centurieslater, almost the same words were uttered byKing Jeroboam when he made two golden

calves and told the people, “Here are your gods,O Israel, which brought you up from the land ofEgypt!” (1 Kings 12:28). In Biblical Archaeol-ogy Review, an extensive article on the discoveryof the silver calf notes: “The Golden Calf wor-shipped at the foot of Mt. Sinai by impatientIsraelites (Exodus 32) may have resembled thisstatuette” (March-April 1991, p. 1).

The eating of quail

During their wilderness years the Israelitescomplained to God that they had only manna to eat: “Now the mixed multitude who wereamong them yielded to intense craving; so thechildren of Israel also wept again and said:‘Who will give us meat to eat? We rememberthe fish which we ate freely in Egypt, thecucumbers, the melons, the leeks, the onions,and the garlic; but now our whole being is driedup; there is nothing at all except this mannabefore our eyes!’” (Numbers 11:4-6).

This list represents one of the 10 major mur-murings of the Israelites against God and Moses(Numbers 14:22). God decided to give the peoplewhat they asked for: “Therefore the LORD willgive you meat, and you shall eat. You shall eat, notone day, nor two days, nor five days, nor ten days,nor twenty days, but for a whole month, until itcomes out of your nostrils and becomes loath-some to you, because you have despised the LORD

who is among you, and have wept before Him,saying, ‘Why did we ever come up out ofEgypt?’” (Numbers 11:18-20).

The next day, quail descended on the Israelitecamp to a depth of 12 inches. These fowl werecommon in biblical times and remain so in theMiddle East. They are migratory birds that fly at the end of the European summer to the Sinaipeninsula, where they remain for six months.

“The old world quail . . . a small, mottled browngame bird about 18 cm. (7 in.) long, is the onlymember of the [pheasant] subfamily . . . that ismigratory. The routes of migration run from south-ern Europe, along the eastern Mediterranean coast,

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shThis silver statue of a calf,

excavated from the siteof ancient Ashkelon,

dates to more than a cen-tury before the Exodus.

This find proved that calf-worship was practiced at

the time of the Exodus,contrary to the opinions

of some critics.

18 The Good News

May/June 1997 19

through the Sinai Peninsula, to Arabia orWest Africa. The quails travel southward inthe late summer and northward in earlyspring (the time of the Israelite exodus fromEgypt) . . . As recently as the early decadesof the 20th cent[ury], migrating quails werekilled by Egyptians at the rate of two mil-lion annually; in 1920 a kill of three millionwas recorded” (The International StandardBible Encyclopedia, Eerdmans, GrandRapids, 1988,Vol. 4, pp. 4-5).

The miracle of God was to bringthese quail to the Israelite camp anddeposit them in huge numbers in thatprecise location.

Evidence of the prophet Balaam

When the Israelites began their finaljourney to the Promised Land, they passedthrough the land of the Ammonites close toMoabite territory. They needed passage

through this area to enter Canaan by wayof Jericho. But King Balak of the Moabitesrefused to let the Israelites enter peacefully.He resorted to a known pagan prophet ofthe times, Balaam, to prevent them fromentering his land.

“Then he sent messengers to Balaamthe son of Beor at Pethor, which is near theRiver [Euphrates] in the land of the sons ofhis people, to call him, saying: ‘Look, apeople has come from Egypt. See, theycover the face of the earth, and are settlingnext to me! Therefore please come at once,curse this people for me, for they are toomighty for me’” (Numbers 22:5).

Apparently, Balaam’s renown was suchthat a Moabite king would pay a consider-able sum for his services. In 1967 archae-ologists digging up the remains of DeirAlla, an ancient Ammonite city on the eastbank of the Jordan, found an inscription

that mentioned Balaam, the son of Beor.The 16 lines of an incomplete inscriptionon a wall turned out to be part of one ofBalaam’s prophecies, in language similarto that is recorded in Numbers.

The Bible describes God’s censure ofBalaam. One night God forbade him tocurse the Israelites. Disappointed, he toldMoabite messengers he could not helpthem. “So Balaam rose in the morning andsaid to the princes of Balak, ‘Go back toyour land, for the LORD has refused to giveme permission to go with you’” (verse 13).

Later God forced Balaam to prophesyof Israel’s blessings and victories. “Thenhe took up his oracle and said: ‘The utter-ance of Balaam the son of Beor . . . whohears the words of God, who sees thevision of the Almighty, who falls down,with eyes wide open: How lovely are yourtents, O Jacob! . . . God brings him out ofEgypt; he has strength like a wild ox; heshall consume the nations, his enemies; heshall break their bones and pierce themwith arrows’” (Numbers 24:3-8).

Shortly after these events Balaam,greedy for money (2 Peter 2:15), helpedthe Moabites induce Israel to sin. Not sur-prisingly, he perished after the defeat of theMoabites and Midianites (Numbers 31:8).

The restored text discovered in DeirAlla reads: “Inscription of Balaam, sonof Beor, the man who was a seer of thegods. Lo, the gods came to him at nightand spoke to him. According to thesewords, and they said to Balaam, son ofBeor thus: ‘There has appeared the lastflame, a fire of chastisement hasappeared!’And Balaam arose the nextday and he could not eat and he weptintensely. And his people came to himand said to Balaam, son of Beor: ‘Whydo you fast and why do you weep?’Andhe said to them: ‘Sit down! I shall showyou how great is the calamity! Andcome, see the deeds of the gods! . . .’”

These words are strikingly similar indetail to the biblical account. Apparentlythe memory of what happened to this seerremained in the memory of the Ammon-ites and was recorded in their version.

Archaeologist Andre Lemaire, whopieced together the incomplete script,wrote: “. . . The inscription from Deir Alla,

Scholars advocate various routes for the Exodus and offer different interpretationsof the biblical account of the parting of the Red Sea. Regardless of their views, theRed Sea miracle was so astounding that it left a permanent mark on Israel’s history.

May/June 1997 19

dated to about the middle of the eighthcentury B.C. and written on the wall ofwhat may have been some kind of reli-gious teaching center, is very likely theearliest extant example of a prophetictext. The principal personage in the DeirAlla text is the seer Balaam, son of Beor,well known to us from the stories inNumbers” (Biblical Archaeology Review,September-October 1985, p. 39).

Here we have another biblical figurewho cannot be dismissed as myth.

The route from Egypt

Another source of scholarly contro-versy concerns the route the Israelitestook to enter the Promised Land. “TheBible is very specific in its list of placesalong the final stage of the Exodus routetaken by the Israelites on their way to the

Promised Land. Yet it is this very speci-ficity that has made it vulnerable to criti-cism from some scholars. Many of theplaces in question, they say, did not existwhen the Exodus is said to haveoccurred” (Biblical Archaeology Review,September-October 1994, p. 5).

Yet three lists showing the very routethe Israelites took to enter Canaan havebeen found in Egyptian monuments.

Numbers 33:45-49 describes theIsraelites passing through Ijim, DibonGad,Almon Diblathaim, Nebo,Abel andfinally the Jordan. The route the Egyptianstook to supervise this area, which theyruled for many centuries, includes eightplaces, of which six appear in the same

sequence mentioned primarily in Num-bers 33: Melah, Ijim, Heres-Hareseth(mentioned only in Judges 8:13), Dibon,Abel and the Jordan.

Charles Krahmalkov, a professor ofancient Near Eastern languages, speaks of the accuracy of the biblical account:“In short, the Biblical story of the inva-sion of Transjordan that set the stage forthe conquest of all Palestine is toldagainst a background that is historicallyaccurate. The Israelite invasion routedescribed in Numbers 33:45b-50 was infact an official, heavily trafficked Egypt-ian road . . .” (Biblical ArchaeologyReview, September-October 1994, p. 58).

Thus, archaeology, notwithstandingscholarly criticism, confirms another partof biblical history. GN

20 The Good News20 The Good News

For many years scholars have dis-agreed over the identity of the seathe Israelites crossed and thus the

site of the drowning of Pharaoh’s army.Three routes for the Exodus have beenproposed and continue to be debated.

Some believe that the Israelites’ pathtook them north to the coast and thatthe “sea” they crossed was part of LakeSirbonis, an arm or bay of the Mediter-ranean, after the crossing of which theyturned south into the Sinai Peninsula.

Others have adopted the idea thatthe Israelites took a central route andcrossed a shallow lake north of the RedSea called the Reed Sea. The term inHebrew is yam suph. Yam means “sea,”and suph is generally thought to mean“reeds,” “rushes” or possibly “sea-weed.” That is why some versions ofthe Bible call it “the Sea of Reeds” or“Reed Sea” instead of the Red Sea. (SeeExodus 15:4 in the Revised StandardVersion, New American Bible andJerusalem Bible.)

Some scholars prefer the translation“Reed Sea,” noting that lakes north ofthe Red Sea are abundant with reeds.They usually designate one of theseshallow bodies of water as the site ofthe Israelite crossing but say that theEgyptians, with their heavy chariots, gotbogged down and somehow drowned.

Other scholars prefer a southernroute, pointing to evidence that theyfeel demonstrates that yam suph maymean “sea at the end of the world,” assome conceive it to have been. Says the-ology professor Bernard F. Batto: “Whatwe call the Red Sea . . . was regarded bythe ancients as the sea at the end of theworld. Interestingly enough, the Greeksapplied the name Red Sea not only toour Red Sea but also to the IndianOcean and, later when they discoveredit, even to the Persian Gulf . . . Yam supcame to refer to the Red Sea becauselike other ancient peoples, the Israelitesdid not distinguish the Red Sea from

oceans further to the south. To theirway of thinking, the Red Sea—the yamsup—was the sea at the end of theearth” (Biblical Archaeology Review,July-August 1984, p. 59).

In other biblical references, yam suphmeans Red Sea or its arms, the Gulf ofSuez and Gulf of Aqaba. In 1 Kings 9:26we read: “King Solomon also built afleet of ships at Ezion Geber, which isnear Elath on the shore of the Red Sea[yam suph], in the land of Edom.” If thiswere a marshy lake close to Egypt, thiswould certainly be a strange place forSolomon to build his great fleet. Butgeographers know Elath is a port at thenorthernmost end of the Gulf of Aqaba.

Notice also Numbers 33, which men-tions the stops the Israelites made inthe wilderness of the Sinai. After cross-ing “the sea,” they camped in Marah,then Elim. And “they moved from Elimand camped by the Red Sea [yamsuph]” (verse 10). How could they havecrossed a “sea of reeds” and, aftermany days of travel, still camped bythat same “sea of reeds”? No body ofwater in the region except the Red Seawould have been large enough for theIsraelites to have traveled so long andstill be close to its coast. Other refer-ences that support the Red Sea areNumbers 21:4 and Jeremiah 49:21.

Which route did the Israelites take,and at what point did they cross thesea? We cannot know for sure. How-ever, one author of several works onbiblical history offers this perspective:“The crossing of Israel . . . cannot beexplained as a wading through aswamp. It required a mighty act of God,an act so significant both in scope andmeaning that forever after in Israel’shistory it was the paradigm againstwhich all of his redemptive and savingwork was measured” (Eugene Merrill,Kingdom of Priests, Baker Book House,Grand Rapids, 1987, p. 66). GN

—Mario Seiglie

THE RED SEA OR THE REED SEA?

COMBINED EGYPTIAN BIBLICAL

ROUTE ROUTE

(Yamm) ha-Melach Melah (means “salt,”

or the Dead Sea)Iyyin Yyyim

Heres/Hareseth Heres/HaresethAqrabat

Dibon-Qarho DibonIktanuAbel Abel-shittim

Jordan Jordan(Source: Biblical Archaeology Review,September-October 1994, pp. 57-59).

Archaeology and the Book of Joshua: The Conquest

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

n earlier issues The Good News examinedarchaeological finds that illuminate portions

of the biblical books of Genesis, Exodus,Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. In

this issue we continue that series, focusing on thebook of Joshua, which chronicles Israel’sentrance into the Promised Land.

After wandering in the desert for 40 years, theIsraelites were finally permitted to cross the Jor-dan River and enter the Promised Land. Moseswas about to die, and God instructed him:“Behold, the days approach when you must die;call Joshua, and present yourselves in the taber-nacle of meeting, that I may inaugurate him”(Deuteronomy 31:14). Shortly afterwards,Joshua was named as the new leader, and Mosesdied on top of Mount Nebo (Deuteronomy 34:1,5). Thus begins the story of the Israelite conquestof Canaan.

Debated dates at Jericho

“Now Jericho was securely shut up because of the children of Israel; none went out, and nonecame in” (Joshua 6:1).

The first city the Israelites faced was Jericho.According to the archaeological evidence, it isone of the oldest settlements in the world. Howaccurate is the biblical description of Jericho’sdestruction?

The question spurred a lively debate through-out this century after several major excavations of the city took place.

The first extensive dig employing moderntechniques was conducted by British archaeolo-gist John Garstang in the 1930s. After six years of excavations he reported:

“In a word, in all material details and in datethe fall of Jericho took place as described in theBiblical narrative. Our demonstration is limited,however, to material observations: the walls fell,shaken apparently by earthquake, and the citywas destroyed by fire, about 1400 B.C.” (“Jerichoand the Biblical Story,” Wonders of the Past,Wise, New York, 1937, p. 1222).

In the 1950s Garstang’s conclusion wasrejected by another British archaeologist, Kath-leen Kenyon. She placed the destruction of thisstage of the city 150 years earlier than Joshua’stime and believed that no 15th-century city existedfor him to conquer. This argument lent support tomany scholars who dismissed the biblical story asa myth. Archaeologist and pottery expert BryantWood observed: “Scholars by and large [had]written off the Biblical record as so much folkloreand religious rhetoric. And this is where the matterhas stood for the past 25 years” (Biblical Archae-ology Review, March-April 1990, p. 49).

Evidence examined and evaluated

Unfortunately, Kathleen Kenyon died beforeher work could be published, making carefulevaluation of her reports difficult. Fifteen yearslater her findings were published, and the task fellto Bryant Wood to methodically review them.

After studying her work and taking intoaccount new discoveries, his startling conclusionwas that Kenyon had been completely wrong onher date of the fall of Jericho. He found a directcorrelation between the archaeological evidenceand the biblical account.

What led to such a turnabout?First was the use of a tool not available in

Kenyon’s days—radioactive dating. When apiece of charcoal from the burned city wasexamined by carbon-14 testing—generally reli-able for materials up to 4,000 years old—it yielded the date of 1410 B.C., almost preciselythe time of the conquest and burning of Jerichoas determined from biblical chronology.(According to 1 Kings 6:1, Solomon’s templewas inaugurated 480 years after the Exodus,which would place this event at approximately1443 B.C. After 40 years in the wilderness, theIsraelites would have entered the Promised Landaround 1403 B.C.)

Concerning the evidence that the city wasincinerated, Kenyon found a layer of ash andburnt debris a yard thick in this level of the city.

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18 The Good News

How accurateis the biblicaldescription of

Jericho’s destruc-tion? The question

spurred a livelydebate throughout

this century afterseveral major

excavations of thecity took place.

May/June 1997 19

“The destruction was complete,” shereported. “Walls and floors were black-ened or reddened by fire . . . In mostrooms the fallen debris was heavily burnt. . .” (“Excavations at Jericho,” PalestinianExploration Quarterly, 1955, p. 370).

This description of the devastation fitsthe biblical account of the fate of the city:Israel “burned the city and all that was init with fire” (Joshua 6:24).

Moreover, evidence included threeEgyptian scarabs—beetle-shapedamulets— discovered in a cemeteryinside the city. These bore the names ofthree pharaohs who ruled from 1500 tothe 1380s B.C. Such dates clearly contra-dict Kenyon’s belief that the city hadbeen abandoned around 1550 B.C.

Biblical details confirmed

A third type of evidence was theunusual amount of stored grain found inthe ruins of Jericho. “The most abundantitem found in the destruction apart frompottery,” says Wood, “was grain . . . In herlimited excavation area, Kenyon recov-ered six bushels of grain in one season!This is unique in the annals of Palestinianarchaeology. The presence of these grainstores in the destroyed city is entirely consistent with the Biblical account. Thecity did not fall as a result of a starvationsiege, as was so common in ancienttimes. Instead, the Bible tells us, Jerichowas destroyed after but seven days(Joshua 6:15, 20).

“Successful attackers normally plun-dered valuable grain once they captured acity. This of course would be inconsistentwith the grain found here. But in the caseof Jericho the Israelites were told that ‘thecity and all that is within it shall bedevoted to the Lord for destruction,’andwere commanded, ‘Keep yourselves fromthe things devoted to destruction’ (Joshua9:17-18). So the Israelites were forbiddento take any plunder from Jericho. Thiscould explain why so much grain was leftto burn when [the city] met its end” (Bib-lical Archaeology Review, March-April1990, p. 56).

Finally, the type of pottery found con-firmed the traditional date of the conquest,since some bore a style that appeared only

during the period of 1450-1400 B.C. Woodconcludes: “Despite my disagreementswith Kenyon’s major conclusion, I never-theless applaud her for her careful andpainstaking field work . . . Her thorough-going excavation methods and detailedreporting of her findings, however, did not carry over into her analytical work.

“When the evidence is critically exam-ined there is no basis for her contention thatCity IV [the level corresponding to a vio-lent destruction and burning of the city]was destroyed by the Hyksos or Egyptians

in the mid-16th century B.C.E. The pottery,stratigraphic considerations, scarab dataand a Carbon-14 date all point to a destruc-tion of the city around the end of LateBronze I, about 1400 B.C.E. Garstang’soriginal date for this event appears to be thecorrect one!” (ibid., p. 57).

When Time magazine published anarticle about these new conclusions onJericho, the evidence appeared so con-vincing that Time writers remarked,“Score one for the Bible” (Michael D.Lemonick, Time, March 5, 1990, p. 43).

Unusual remains discovered

“Now Joshua built an altar to theLORD God of Israel in Mount Ebal, asMoses the servant of the LORD had com-manded the children of Israel, as it iswritten in the Book of the Law of Moses:‘an altar of whole stones over which noman has wielded an iron tool.’And theyoffered on it burnt offerings to the LORD,

and sacrificed peace offerings” (Joshua8:30-31).

The barren region of Mount Ebal hadlain undisturbed for centuries. In 1982 ateam of archaeologists began to scratch itssurface. This was in the West Bank areaand had not been explored until 1967,when Israel occupied the territory.

Adam Zertal, an Israeli archaeologist,supervised the excavation of a strangemound found on top of Mount Ebal.Slowly, after months of work, the sitebegan to yield its secrets.

It was a rectangular structure made oflarge, uncut stones with a ramp leading tothe center. It was quite a massive forma-tion, 28 feet by 24 feet and 9 feet tall.Inside the construction was a fill of ashes,rocks, dirt, potsherds and animal bones.More than 4,000 animal bones were foundand sent to a laboratory for analysis.

At first Zertal thought the structure hadbeen a farmhouse, but it had no doors andno floor. All the houses in that period hadfloors, even if only of compressed earth.

From nearby Jerusalem came theanalysis of the animal bones. Almost all of them were from bulls, sheep andgoats, precisely the animals prescribedfor sacrifice in the book of Leviticus.None of the bones came from typicalfarm animals that the Bible defines asunclean—horses, donkeys, pigs, dogsand cats. After further examination,this did not look like the remains of a

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Continued on page 29

An artist’s rendering shows the stone structure discovered on Mount Ebal as itmight have appeared in the time of Joshua. Its excavators believe the central plat-form was Joshua’s altar, to which priests ascended via the ramp in the center.

20 The Good News

farmhouse at all. What could it be?Based on four more years of excava-

tions, Zertal finally completed the pictureof the structure. The resulting illustrationbore a striking resemblance to the biblicalspecifications of an altar.

As per God’s instruction, the stoneramp did not have steps: “And if youmake Me an altar of stone, you shall notbuild it of hewn stone; for if you use yourtool on it, you have profaned it. Nor shallyou go up by steps to My altar, that yournakedness may not be exposed on it”(Exodus 20:25-26). This was a precautionso the priest’s tunic would not expose hislegs as he ascended the altar.

Also, the Bible describes an altar withfour surrounding walls and completelyfilled with earth and rocks. On top of thisfill a fire could be lighted for the sacrifice.This is precisely what was found.

Around this altar Zertal discovered a small wall that apparently served todefine a perimeter of an area for manypeople to congregate. He concluded thatthis area was a prototype of an Israeliteworship center with an altar and an open-air meeting place. He thinks this could be the altar built by Joshua at Mount Ebal(Biblical Archaeological Review,January-February 1986).

On God’s instructions Moses had said:“Therefore it shall be, when you havecrossed over the Jordan, that on MountEbal you shall set up these stones, which Icommand you today, and you shall white-wash them with lime. And there you shallbuild an altar to the LORD your God, analtar of stones; you shall not use an irontool on them. You shall build with wholestones the altar of the LORD your God,and offer burnt offerings on it to the LORD

your God. You shall offer peace offerings,and shall eat there, and rejoice before theLORD your God” (Deuteronomy 27:4-7).

Therefore, there is strong evidence thatGod’s orders were solemnly carried outby Joshua. An altar at Mount Ebal wasbuilt with the unusual specifications ofuncut stones and a ramp instead of steps.At this site only remains of animals bibli-cally approved for sacrifice were found.

Future issues of The Good News willexamine other archaeological finds thatconfirm and illuminate biblical history. GN

July/August 1997 20

ArchaeologyContinued from page 23

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

revious issues of The Good News haveexamined archaeological finds that illuminate

sections of the five biblical books of Mosesand the book of Joshua. In this issue we focus on a tumultuous time in ancient Israel’s history, the eracovered by the book of Judges.

Judges begins by describing the settlement ofthe Israelite tribes in Canaan. The aged Joshua distributes the territory among the tribes. A shortwhile later he dies at the age of 110 (Judges 2:8).Then comes a period during which faithful elderswho had lived over from Joshua’s time governedIsrael. When they died, no leader immediately suc-ceeded them. A dangerous political void existed.

Many among the younger generation, born inthe land of Canaan, had largely forgotten the mira-cles accomplished during Moses’and Joshua’stime. “When all that generation had been gatheredto their fathers, another generation arose after themwho did not know the LORD nor the work whichHe had done for Israel” (Judges 2:10).

The new generation found itself surrounded bymany Canaanites who adhered to their own popu-lar religion. Instead of eliminating this foreigninfluence, as God had commanded, in manyinstances the Israelites simply coexisted with thoseholding false beliefs. God had warned them whatwould occur if this situation were allowed to con-tinue: “Then the Angel of the LORD came up fromGilgal to Bochim, and said: ‘I led you up fromEgypt and brought you to the land of which I swore to your fathers; and I said, “I will neverbreak My covenant with you. And you shall makeno covenant with the inhabitants of this land; youshall tear down their altars.” But you have notobeyed My voice. Why have you done this? There-fore I also said, “I will not drive them before you;but they shall be thorns in your side, and their godsshall be a snare to you”’” (Judges 2:1-3).

During this period of more than 300 years, Godperiodically raised up judges—we find at least 12of them described in the biblical account—to res-cue and rule over Israel as the Israelites struggledwith indigenous peoples over control of the land.Judges ruled simultaneously with each other invarious regions of Israel. The surviving Canaanitesfrequently attacked and reconquered territory takenby the Israelites.

What does the archaeological evidence revealabout this time?

A change in cultures

The extensive scientific evidence points to a gradual change from a Canaanite building-and-pottery culture to a less-advanced Israelite cul-tural style.

Charles Fensham, a professor of Semitic lan-guages, argues that “archaeology has shown that[around] 1200 B.C. certain cities in Palestine weredemolished. A flowering culture of Late Bronze[Canaanite] was obliterated. The new develop-ments . . . were of a lower culture than the preced-ing. The break is thus obvious and points toseminomadic groups in process of settling down.This evidence is clearly to be connected with the

18 The Good News

During this periodof more than 300

years, God period-ically raised up

judges to rescueand rule over

Israel as theIsraelites struggled

with indigenouspeoples over con-

trol of the land.

Archaeology and the Book of Judges

P

The religion of the Canaanites held great appeal for the early Israelites.Shown are a statuette of Baal, left, the weather god, and a fertility figurine.The Baal figure apparently originally held a lightning bolt in its hand. Ph

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May/June 1997 19

invading Israelite tribes” (The Interna-tional Standard Bible Encyclopedia,Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1982,Vol. II,p. 1158).

This is consistent with the biblicalrecord, which shows that the Israelites,initially slaves in Egypt and culturallyimpoverished, at first simply took over theexisting Canaanite cities as they conqueredthem. God had told them, “So it shall be,when the LORD your God brings you intothe land of which He swore to your fathers,to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, to give yoularge and beautiful cities which you did notbuild, houses full of all good things, whichyou did not fill, hewn-out wells which youdid not dig, vineyards and olive treeswhich you did not plant—when you haveeaten and are full—then beware, lest youforget the LORD who brought you out ofthe land of Egypt, from the house ofbondage” (Deuteronomy 6:10-12).

Gradual replacement

The book of Judges indicates that thiscultural change was gradual. “And it cameto pass, when Israel was strong, that theyput the Canaanites under tribute, but did notcompletely drive them out” (Judges 1:28).The Canaanite culture survived for manyyears until the Israelites finally replaced it.

“The Israelites had lived in Egypt asenslaved [people], and then spent 40 yearsas seminomads before entering Canaan;this makes it unlikely that they brought a distinctive material culture into Canaan. . . At the end of the Late Bronze Age and the start of the Iron Age, around 1200B.C., a major change occurred in settle-ment patterns [in Canaan] . . . While wedo not believe the new settlements markthe arrival of the Israelites, we are stillhappy to call them ‘Israelite’settlements.This is because, in our view, the Israeliteshad been in the land for some two cen-turies by 1200 B.C. and were thereforeinvolved in the changes that took place at that time” (John Bimson and DavidLivingston, “Redating the Exodus,” Bibli-cal Archaeological Review, September-October 1987, pp. 52-53).

Here, then, is additional evidencefrom archaeology that appears to con-firm the biblical account. It shows a

gradual supplanting of Canaanite cultureby Israelite settlers.

Worship of Baal and Asherah

After Joshua’s generation had died out,“the children of Israel did evil in the sightof the LORD, and served the Baals, andthey forsook the LORD God of theirfathers, who had brought them out of theland of Egypt; and they followed othergods from among the gods of the peoplewho were all around them, and theybowed down to them; and they provokedthe LORD to anger. They forsook the LORD

and served Baal and the Ashtoreths”(Judges 2:11-13).

Why the seemingly irresistible ten-dency for the Israelites to worship Baalover Yahweh? Again, archaeology sheds

much light on the Canaanite religion andhelps us understand the deadly allure theindigenous religious practices held forthe Israelites.

In 1929 excavations began in RasShamra (the ancient port town of Ugarit) in northern Lebanon. This work continues.The remains of a palace discovered in thefirst year of excavation yielded a librarycontaining hundreds of ancient documentsthat provided a wealth of informationabout the Canaanite religion. What didthese tablets reveal? “The texts show thedegrading results of the worship of thesedeities; with their emphasis on war, sacredprostitution, sensuous love and the conse-quent social degradation” (The New BibleDictionary, Tyndale House Publishers,1982, p. 1230).

September/October 1997 19

The First Mention of Israel During most of the last century, many liberal critics believed the history of Israel

as recorded in the Old Testament was little more than the fabrication of later Jewsfrom around the sixth century B.C. For instance, they believed there was no solidevidence of Israel being a nation at the time of the events described in the bibli-cal book of Judges.

Yet, in 1896, British archaeologist Sir Flinders Petrie found evidence of Israel’sexistence as far back as 1200 B.C., precisely the time of the events in Judges. In theruins of an Egyptian temple, he discovered a monument that narrated the militaryvictories of Merneptah, an Egyptian pharaoh. In this beautifully carved pillar, datedaround 1207 B.C., the monarch mentions the nation of Israel.

For this reason the monument, technically termed a stele, is called “the IsraelStele.” It can be seen in the Cairo Museum. On it Merneptah recorded his victoriesin Canaan and mentioned Israel as one of his vanquished enemies. This wouldplace the battle during the time of the judges of Israel, when Israel was continu-ally being attacked and invaded by nearby peoples and then liberated by thejudges God chose and used to deliver His people.

In the last two lines of the text, the stele mentions four of Merneptah’sdefeated foes in Canaan: “Ashkelon has been overcome. Gezer has been cap-tured. Yanoam was made non-existent. Israel is laid waste, [and] his seed is not.”

The reign of Merneptah is dated around 1212-1202 B.C. By recording his victoryover Israel, Merneptah shows that during this time the Israelites were already inpossession of the central portion of the land.

Of the other places mentioned on the monument, Ashkelon was one of thecoastal cities of the recently arrived Philistines. Gezer and Yanoam were in thelowlands, still under the possession of the Canaanites. As recorded in the Bible,Gezer was not conquered by the Israelites under Joshua. “Nor did Ephraim driveout the Canaanites who dwelt in Gezer among them” (Judges 1:29). ThusMerneptah’s statement corroborates that this city was not in Israelite territory.

The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia sums up the findings: “AmongMerneptah’s conquests in Syria-Palestine is Ysr’r (Egyptian for Y´sr’l), clearly rec-ognizable as ‘Israel’ . . . Thus the Israel Stele provides a terminus ad quem [limitfrom which to date] for the presence of the Israelites in Palestine . . .” (Eerdman’s,Grand Rapids, 1986, Vol. 3, p. 324).

—Mario Seiglie

20 The Good News

Forbidden worship

The pagan religion was enticing to theIsraelites for two primary reasons. First, itwas not as morally demanding as the bib-lical religion. Second, the Israelites fellvictim to a superstitious respect for thegods that supposedly controlled the landof the Canaanites.

“The Canaanite religion was com-pletely different from the Israelite. So far,no evidence has been found in Canaaniteculture of a series of rules of conduct simi-lar to the Ten Commandments . . . It was agreat temptation for the Israelite invadersto respect the existing gods of the landwhich were regarded as being responsiblefor the country’s fertility. In addition, theworship of these gods was much lessdemanding than the rigid Israelite lawsand rituals. Consequently, many of God’speople yielded to this temptation. Theresult was a gradual moral decline of thenation” (The Lion Encyclopedia of theBible, Lion Publishers, 1983, p. 153).

Recognizing the great danger to fledg-ling Israel, God insisted that His peopledestroy every aspect of the degeneratenative religion. “According to the doingsof the land of Egypt, where you dwelt,you shall not do; and according to thedoings of the land of Canaan, where I ambringing you, you shall not do; nor shallyou walk in their ordinances. You shallobserve my judgments and keep My ordi-nances, to walk in them: I am the LORD

your God” (Leviticus 18:3-4).“And you shall not let any of your

descendants pass through the fire [be sac-rificed] to Molech . . . You shall not liewith a male as with a woman. It is anabomination . . . Do not defile yourselveswith any of these things; for by all thesethe nations are defiled, which I am castingout before you. For the land is defiled;therefore I visit the punishment of its iniq-uity upon it, and the land vomits out itsinhabitants” (verses 21-25).

Sexual perversion as religion

The corruption found expression ingrotesque cultic sexual practices. “Thepagan world of the ancient Near Eastworshipped and deified sex.” So inter-twined were sex and religion that “theterm ‘holy ones’[was used] for its cult

prostitutes” (Interpreter’s One-VolumeCommentary on the Bible, AbingdonPress, 1971, p. 79).

Although the details are crude, theyreveal why biblical proscriptions againstthe Canaanite perversions are so perva-sive. “[A] ritual involved a dramatizationof the myth . . . [and] centered in sexualactivity since the rainfall attributed to Baalwas thought to . . . fertilize and impregnatethe earth with life just as he impregnatedAsherah, the goddess of fertility, in themyth. Canaanite religion, then, wasgrossly sensual and even perverse becauseit required the services of both male andfemale cultic prostitutes as the principalactors in the drama.

“Unlike the requirement in Israel, therewas no one central sanctuary. Baal couldbe worshipped wherever there was a placeespecially visited by the numinous pres-ence of the gods. These places were origi-nally on hills (hence, ‘high place’) butlater could be found in valleys or evenwithin the cities and towns” (Eugene Merrill, Kingdom of Priests, Baker BookHouse, 1987, pp. 160-161).

Infants sacrificed to Molech

Included in these Canaanite practiceswas child sacrifice, described in the Bibleas having children to “pass through the fireto Molech” (Jeremiah 32:35). The RasShamra tablets also mention the god Molech. Some unrighteous kings in Israelinstituted the practice of sacrificing infantsto Molech. God, through the prophet Jere-miah, denounced this ghastly ritual. “Forthe children of Judah have done evil in Mysight,” and “they have built the high placesof Tophet [related to Molech worship] . . .to burn their sons and their daughters in thefire, which I did not command, nor did itcome into My heart” (Jeremiah 7:30-31).

In the ancient Phoenician city ofCarthage—part of the Canaanite cul-ture—some 20,000 urns containing theremains of sacrificed children were found.The archaeologists at the site apprise usthat “the Carthaginian Tophet is the largestof these Phoenician sites and indeed is thelargest cemetery of sacrificed humans everdiscovered. Child sacrifice took placethere almost continuously for a period ofnearly 600 years” (Lawrence Stager and

Samuel Wolff, Biblical ArchaeologicalReview, January-February 1984, p. 32).

Kleitarchos, a Greek from the thirdcentury B.C., described this sacrifice asthe heating up of a bronze statue with out-stretched arms. Infants placed into thesered-hot arms quickly perished.

Struggle for a nation’s heartObviously, God did not want the Israel-

ites to destroy their own offspring. Whenrighteous kings such as Josiah ascendedthe throne, they obeyed God and abolishedthe practice. “And he defiled Topheth,which is in the Valley of the Son of Hin-nom [in Jerusalem], that no man mightmake his son or his daughter pass throughthe fire to Molech” (2 Kings 23:10).

Some might think the prophets wereoverly harsh in condemning the Canaanitereligion. Yet now, with detailed evidenceof Canaanite practices found by archaeol-ogists in this century, it is clear why theprophets were uncompromising.

“The prophets and chroniclers tendedto be thought of as men who, in their zealfor Yahweh and their anger against foreignreligions, had probably gone too far,”writes one author. “This objection wasleveled at the Bible right up to the presentday . . . With us it is accepted as a matterof course that every half civilized commu-nity controls the morality of its citizens.But in Canaan in those days the cult ofsensuality was regarded as the worship of the gods, men and women prostitutesranked as ‘sacred’to the followers of thereligion, the rewards for their ‘services’went into the temple treasuries as ‘offer-ings for the god.’

“The last thing the prophets andchroniclers did was to exaggerate. Howwell founded their harsh words were hasonly become fully understood since thegreat discoveries of Ras Shamra . . .What temptation for a simple shepherdfolk, what perilous enticement! . . . With-out its stern moral law, without its faith in one God, without the commandingfigures of its prophets, Israel would neverhave been able to survive this strugglewith the Baals, with the religions of thefertility goddesses, with the Asherim andthe high places” (Werner Keller, TheBible as History, Bantam Books, New

Continued on page 29

York, 1980, pp. 286, 289).Thus the periodic backsliding of Israel

into Baal worship described in the book ofJudges is a realistic depiction. The descrip-tion draws support from the archaeologicalfinds that document the struggle for thesoul of Israel. God persevered in sendingHis messengers to warn His people of thedangers of Baalism. An apt description ofthis struggle was penned by Nehemiah:

“And they took strong cities and a richland, and possessed houses full of allgoods, cisterns already dug, vineyards,olive groves, and fruit trees in abundance.So they ate and were filled and grew fat,and delighted themselves in Your greatgoodness. Nevertheless they were disobe-dient and rebelled against You, cast Yourlaw behind their backs and killed Yourprophets, who testified against them toturn them to Yourself; and they workedgreat provocations.

“Therefore You delivered them into thehand of their enemies, who oppressedthem; and in the time of their trouble,when they cried to You,You heard fromheaven; and according to Your abundantmercies You gave them deliverers [judges]who saved them from the hand of theirenemies. But after they had rest, they againdid evil before You. Therefore You leftthem in the hand of their enemies . . . Yetwhen they returned and cried out to You,You heard from heaven; and many timesYou delivered them according to Your mercies” (Nehemiah 9:25-28).

A nation’s early years

The book of Judges is not just documen-tation of ancient victories and heroic acts. Itrepresents a realistic description of a fledg-ling nation that began to assimilate the per-verse culture of its defeated foes. The bookcandidly reveals Israel’s struggle—notalways successful—against the barbaricCanaanite religion. It explains Israel’s fre-quent relapses and resultant humiliatingdefeats at the hands of its enemies. Throughit all one constant factor shows through:God, who is concerned about the moral andspiritual life of His people.

Future issues of The Good News willexamine additional archaeological findsthat confirm and help us understand thebiblical record. GN

ArchaeologyContinued from page 26

September/October 1997 21

King David’s Reign: A Nation United

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

n earlier issues The Good News has exam-ined archaeological discoveries that confirm

and help us better understand the biblicalaccounts in the five books of Moses and Israel’shistory as recorded in Joshua and Judges. In thisissue we focus on the beginning of the Israelitemonarchy, the time of King David. The Bible dis-cusses this period in the books of 1 and 2 Samueland 1 Chronicles.

When the period described in the book ofJudges ended, a new age arrived with the kings ofIsrael, an era lasting more than 400 years. (It cameto a tragic close with the kingdoms of Israel andJudah both being taken into captivity and exile.)

The monarchy lacked an auspicious beginning.God eventually rejected Saul, the first king,because of his continual disobedience. David, theson of Jesse, replaced Saul.

David’s reign began the golden age of Israel.This powerful king wisely governed the tribes of Israel, forging them into a unified nation. God blessed this obedient and multitalentedman. David was not only a valiant soldier, but a great military strategist, able administrator,

diplomat, composer and musician.Under David’s inspired leadership, Israel soon

became powerful, extending its northern frontiersto the River Euphrates and its southern borders tothe Red Sea. “And David defeated Hadadezerking of Zobah as far as Hamath, as he went toestablish his power by the River Euphrates . . . So David reigned over all Israel, and administeredjudgment and justice to all his people” (1 Chroni-cles 18:3, 14).

After centuries of Israelite struggle against the Canaanites and Philistines, it was David whofinally triumphed decisively over Israel’s ene-mies. The ensuing peace freed the Israelites tomake full use of the formidable natural resourcesof the area. This liberty produced great prosperity.From their humble beginning as a slave people,then as pastoral tribes, they ascended to greatheights. David transformed Israel into a highlyorganized state that would later leave a lastingmark on Western civilization.

“The reign of David,” comments one authority,“marks—politically speaking—Israel’s goldenage. A power vacuum in both Egypt and Meso-potamia made it possible for the tribes that hadentered Canaan under Joshua a few centuries earlier to become a mighty nation . . . David wasking of an area extending from the Red Sea to theEuphrates” (The International Standard BibleEncyclopedia, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1982,Vol. II, p. 915).

With the flourishing of the material culture ofIsrael comes enough physical evidence of Israelit-ish presence to be confirmed by archaeology.

“The purpose of Biblical archaeology,”explains archaeologist Bryant Wood, “is toenhance our comprehension of the Bible, and soits greatest achievement, in my view, has been theextraordinary illumination of . . . the time of theIsraelite monarchy, c. 1000-586 B.C.E. . . .[whereas] exploring that prehistory [the pre-monarchic age] is challenging: It requires tracingthe archaeological record of a pastoral commu-nity, rather than an agrarian-based political entity

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18 The Good News

Secular historiansonce questionedthe historicity of

King David.However, recent

archaeological discoveries confirm

the evidence for his existence

and reign.

Fragments of an inscription recovered at the siteof biblical Dan prove that David was a historicalfigure. The inscription refers to the “house ofDavid,” the dynasty founded by King David.

[as in David’s time] that built cities andmade contacts with surrounding nations”(Biblical Archaeology Review, May-June1995, pp. 33, 35).

Jerusalem as Israel’s new capital

David was originally headquartered inHebron, in southern Judah, but now, withall 13 tribes accepting his rulership, heneeded a central base from which to gov-ern. An ideal place was on the northernborder of Judah, the city of Jebus, alsocalled Jerusalem, but it was in the handsof the Jebusites, a remnant Canaanitetribe that had heavily fortified the city.“And David and all Israel went toJerusalem, which is Jebus, where theJebusites were, the inhabitants of theland” (1 Chronicles 11:4).

A few centuries earlier, Joshua hadattempted to conquer the city of Jebus buthad failed. “As for the Jebusites, the inhab-itants of Jerusalem, the children of Judahcould not drive them out; but the Jebusitesdwell with the children of Judah atJerusalem to this day” (Joshua 15:63).

After Joshua’s death the Israelitesbriefly conquered Jerusalem. “Now the children of Judah fought againstJerusalem and took it; they struck it withthe edge of the sword and set the city onfire” (Judges 1:8). Yet the surviving inhab-itants soon rebuilt the city. From thatmoment they successfully resistedIsraelite attacks until the time of David.“But the children of Benjamin did notdrive out the Jebusites who inhabitedJerusalem; so the Jebusites dwell with thechildren of Benjamin in Jerusalem to thisday” (Judges 1:21).

The city was built on a mount in themidst of a large valley in the Judeanmountains. It seemed impenetrable.When the Jebusites noticed David andhis men were ready to attack them, theymocked their feeble efforts. “And theking and his men went to Jerusalemagainst the Jebusites, the inhabitants ofthe land, who spoke to David, saying,‘You shall not come in here; but the blind and the lame will repel you,’ . . .”(2 Samuel 5:6).

Yet David did not attempt a frontalattack on the fortress. Instead, he found

the Achilles’heel of the Jebusite defenses,a hidden water shaft that wound its wayup into the city. Such a shaft for transport-ing water was a common feature of manyfortified cities of that time. “As was char-acteristic of all the great walled cities of Canaan,” notes Eugene Merrill,“Jerusalem had a vertical water shaft con-necting with a tunnel leading to an under-ground water supply outside the walls. Asnecessary as these systems were for the

survival of a city under siege, they alsoconstituted a major weakness in that theyprovided access into the city for anyonewho could find the entrance” (Kingdom of Priests, Baker Book House Co., GrandRapids, 1987, p. 236).

When David discovered the entrance,he realized it was a way to secretly enter thecity and open its gates. “Whoever climbsup by way of the water shaft and defeats theJebusites,” he told his men, “shall be chiefPh

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An artist’s rendering shows Jerusalem as it may have appeared when David made it hiscapital. The city is connected by a narrow ridge to Mount Moriah, future site of the tem-ple, in the background. Eventually the ridge was expanded and the entire area wascalled Mount Zion. At lower right, a procession bearing the ark enters the city.

January/February 1998 19

and captain” (2 Samuel 5:8).In 1 Chronicles 11:6-7 we find who

gained the honor: “And Joab the son ofZeruiah went up first, and became chief.Then David dwelt in the stronghold;therefore they called it the City of David.”

More than a century ago Charles War-ren, a British officer, found a water shaftin Jerusalem with features similar to thosedescribed in the Bible account. CharlesPfeiffer, a professor of ancient literature,explains the significance of the discovery.“The capture of Jerusalem by David is ofinterest to archaeologists,” he wrote,“since he used a strategy which involvedthe Gihon Spring, on the eastern slope ofMount Zion . . . Joab went up first andwas rewarded by becoming commanderof David’s army . . .

“This tunnel has been identified withWarren’s Shaft. The shaft was dugthrough the limestone above the GihonSpring all the way up to the surface, a dis-tance of 24 meters . . . The discovery of a

Jebusite wall farther down the slopetoward the Gihon Spring increases thepossibility that Joab could have secretlyentered the city . . . through Warren’sShaft” (The Biblical World: A Dictionaryof Biblical Archaeology, 1966, BakerBook House, Grand Rapids, p. 373).

King David’s Jerusalem

After David conquered the Jebusitefortress, it became known as the City ofDavid. As his reign prospered he soonbegan building to extend the city. “ThenDavid dwelt in the stronghold, and calledit the City of David. And David built allaround from the Millo and inward. SoDavid went on and became great, and theLORD God of hosts was with him”(2 Samuel 5:9-10).

The mount on which the Jebusitefortress stood was called Mount Zion.“Nevertheless David took the strongholdof Zion (that is, the City of David)” (verse7). Close by, to the north, was a hill called

Mount Moriah, which David bought fromOrnan the Jebusite.

“Therefore, the angel of the LORD

commanded Gad to say to David thatDavid should go and erect an altar to theLORD on the threshing floor of Ornan theJebusite . . . So David gave Ornan sixhundred shekels of gold by weight for theplace. And David built there an altar tothe LORD, and offered burnt offerings andpeace offerings, and called on the LORD;and He answered him from heaven by fireon the altar of burnt offering” (1 Chroni-cles 21:18, 25-26).

Eventually David moved the taberna-cle and the ark of the covenant to thisarea, and later King Solomon built hismagnificent temple on Mount Moriah.“Now Solomon began to build the houseof the LORD at Jerusalem on MountMoriah, where the LORD had appeared tohis father David, at the place that Davidhad prepared on the threshing floor of

20 The Good News

Continued on page 29

n 1956 another remarkable discovery was made that pro-vides additional evidence of the authenticity of the biblicalaccounts of David’s days.Before David had secured leadership over all the tribes of

Israel, Abner, who had been Saul’s general, served one of

Saul’s sons. Abner brought his army to fight David’s army, ledby Joab. Abner’s and Joab’s troops met beside a famous watersupply of that day called the pool of Gibeon.

“And Joab the son of Zeruiah, and the servants of David,went out and met them by the pool of Gibeon. So they satdown, one on one side of the pool and the other on the other

side of the pool. Then Abner said to Joab, ‘Let the young mennow arise and compete before us.’ And Joab said, ‘Let themarise.’ So they arose and went over by number, twelve fromBenjamin, followers of Ishbosheth the son of Saul, and twelvefrom the servants of David. And each one grasped his oppo-nent by the head and thrust his sword in his opponent’s side;so they fell down together. Therefore that place was calledthe Field of Sharp Swords, which is in Gibeon. So there was avery fierce battle that day, and Abner and the men of Israelwere beaten before the servants of David” (2 Samuel 2:13-17).

James Pritchard conducted an exploration of this site from1956 to 1962. He discovered 31 jar handles bearing theHebrew name Gibeon, which confirmed the site. Early in hissearch archaeologist Pritchard located a round water shaft, 37feet in diameter, that led to a pool used by the city. This shaft,comments Biblical Archaeology Review, “was cut into thelimestone bedrock to a depth of over 82 feet. Also cut into thelimestone are a staircase and railing, which wind down to alevel floor about halfway to the bottom of the shaft. Fromthere, the stairs drop straight down another 45 feet—to thelevel of the water table” (May-June 1995, p. 43).

In the same issue archaeologist Bryant Wood concludes: “Alarge pool at Gibeon is no doubt the pool where the forces ofIsrael’s second king, David, fought under Joab against theforces of Saul’s son Ishbosheth under Abner” (p. 33).

This find was listed by Biblical Archaeology Review as oneof the top 10 discoveries in biblical archaeology. It reveals yetanother example of the accuracy of even the incidental detailsof the biblical account.

—Mario Seiglie

The Battle at the Pool of Gibeon

The Pool of Gibeon was a massive 37-foot diameter shaft cutinto solid rock to reach the water table 82 feet below.

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20 The Good News

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Ornan the Jebusite” (2 Chronicles 3:1).In Solomon’s time the Israelites finally

completed an earthwork that filled the areabetween the two mounts, making themone. The whole area was then calledMount Zion and was no more known asMoriah. “With the establishment of theark first in the Jebusite fortress and then inthe newly built temple,” according to onesource, “Zion became known as thesacred dwelling place of Israel’s Lord, theOne ‘who dwells in Zion’(Ps. 9:11)” (TheInternational Standard Bible Encyclope-dia, 1982, Vol. 4, p. 1198).

Eventually Zion would be used notonly to denote the temple area, but as asymbol for Jerusalem, its inhabitants and,finally, the people of God.

Confirmation of David’s existence

Some historians and critics have ques-tioned the existence of King David andhave relegated Old Testament accountsabout him to the status of mythology. “I am not the only scholar,” remarks PhilipDavies, “who suspects that the figure ofKing David is about as historical as KingArthur” (Biblical Archaeology Review,July-August 1994, p. 55). Such professorscast doubt on the reliability of the biblicalrecord and undermine the faith of others.They also rarely acknowledge the manydiscoveries that have corroborated the biblical account.

For instance, in 1993 archaeologistsdiscovered the names of David and Israelin an inscription carved in stone only 100years after David’s death. Reports Bibli-cal Archaeology Review: “It’s not oftenthat an archaeological find makes thefront page of the New York Times (to saynothing of Time magazine). But that iswhat happened last summer to a discov-ery at Tel Dan, a beautiful mound innorthern Galilee, at the foot of MountHermon beside one of the headwaters of the Jordan River.

“There Avraham Biran and his team of archaeologists found a remarkableinscription from the ninth century B.C.E.that refers both to the ‘House of David’and to the ‘King of Israel.’This is the firsttime that the name David has been foundin any ancient inscription outside theBible” (Biblical Archaeological Review,

March-April 1994, p. 26). More and moreextrabiblical evidence involving Biblenames and places is being discovered asthe years go by. The skeptics are gradu-ally having to retreat.

Later another scholar found the name“House of David” in the inscriptions ofthe famous Moabite Stone, also called theMesha stela, dated to the ninth centuryB.C., about 100 years after David’s reign.It is hard to understand how David’s namecould appear in historical records if hewere nothing but a later literary creation.

Anson Rainey, professor of ancientNear Eastern cultures, cautions theunwary about believing that the accountsof David and other biblical characters arebut legends. “As someone who studiesancient inscriptions in the original, I havea responsibility to warn the lay audiencethat the new fad, the ‘deconstructionistschool,’ . . . is merely a circle of dilet-tantes. Their view that nothing in Biblicaltradition is earlier than the Persian period[540-330 B.C.], especially their denial ofthe existence of a United Monarchy, is a figment of their vain imagination. Thename ‘House of David’ in the Tel Dan andMesha inscriptions sounds the death knellto their specious conceit. Biblical scholar-ship and instruction should completelyignore the ‘deconstructionist school.’They have nothing to teach us” (BiblicalArchaeology Review, November-December 1994, p. 47).

Although some critics will not admit asmuch, the accumulating physical evidenceconfirms rather than denies what is writtenin God’s Word. But, for those who havefaith in what God has said in the Bible, itis not necessary to find material remains to corroborate these accounts. The apostlePaul boldly affirms that God “cannot lie”(Titus 1:2).

However, in some cases physical evi-dence of the events and people describedin the Scriptures has survived the ravagesof time and serves as a witness to Hisfaithfulness. This comforts and consolesus in our faith, as Paul wrote, “for what-ever things were written before were writ-ten for our learning, that we through thepatience and comfort of the Scripturesmight have hope” (Romans 15:4).

The Good News will continue to exam-ine archaeological finds that verify theaccuracy of the Bible and help us betterunderstand the biblical record. GN

ArchaeologyContinued from page 24

January/February 1998 21

King Solomon’s Reign: Israel’s Golden Years

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

n earlier issues The Good News has discussedvarious archaeological finds that illuminate and

verify the biblical record. In this issue, wefocus on the reign of Solomon, successor of Davidas king of Israel.

Once David had consolidated the Israeliteempire, under the guidance of God he chose his sonSolomon to be his successor. The reign of this youngman became truly legendary. Under Solomon’s ruleIsrael reached the pinnacle of wealth and power.Tragically, the glory of Solomon’s kingdom barelyoutlasted his own lifetime.

What has archaeology revealed about KingSolomon’s reign in the 10th century B.C.? Remark-ably, there is much evidence to corroborate the bibli-cal account.

Unusual period of peace

What does the Bible say about the wider interna-tional condition during Solomon’s time? God hadtold David: “Behold, a son shall be born to you, whoshall be a man of rest; and I will give him rest fromall his enemies all around. His name shall beSolomon [meaning ‘peaceful’], for I will give peace

and quietness to Israel in his days” (1 Chronicles22:9, emphasis added throughout).

Was this a time of peace in Israel? What do thearchaeological records show? From contemporaryEgyptian,Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions, wefind these once-powerful kingdoms afflicted by mili-tary weakness.

Assyria was occupied with constant battles againstthe Arameans. Internal strife over dynastic disputesfurther weakened the kingdom. “These Assyrian pre-occupations,” states Donald Wiseman, professor ofAssyriology, “left David and Solomon free to extendtheir own territory into south Syria. The intrudersfrom the Syrian desert impoverished Assyria underthe aged Ashurnasirpal I . . .” (The International Stan-dard Bible Encyclopedia, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids,1979,Vol. 1, p. 334). Meanwhile, the Assyrians heldthe Babylonians in check, blocking any Chaldeanintrusion into Israelite territory.

On Israel’s southern flank, the Egyptians werealso experiencing a general decline. Commentingon the beginning of this long period of weakness,one authority observes: “After the empire [of theprevious centuries], Egypt never regained her for-mer dominance in the eastern Mediterranean world. . . In large part this foreign weakness arose fromdomestic weakness. Egypt kept breaking up intosmaller states . . . From the time of Samuel to thefall of the kingdom of Israel, Egypt was normallyin a state of divided weakness” (The Interpreter’sDictionary of the Bible, Abingdon, Nashville,1962,Vol. 2, p. 52).

This international backdrop is faithfullyreflected in the biblical account. In fact, the weakpriestly dynasty ruling Egypt made great conces-sions to Solomon because of his increasing powerand influence.

Opinion among scholars is divided over whichpharaoh was Solomon’s contemporary. EugeneMerrill believes it was Siamun. “. . . Siamun soonrealized that Solomon was to be ruler of a kingdomwhich would rival or even exceed his own in powerand influence. He therefore decided it was to his bestadvantage to cultivate amicable relations with the

I

18 The Good News

What has archaeol-ogy revealed about

King Solomon’sreign in the 10th

century B.C.?Remarkably, there is much evidence to corroborate thebiblical account.

This aerial view of excavations at Hazor showsconstruction from Solomon’s time. The same construction methods for the city gate were dis-covered at Hazor as at Megiddo and Gezer, con-firming the account that Solomon constructedfortifications at these three cities (1 Kings 9:15).

young monarch, even to the extent of recog-nizing him as an equal. That this is the caseis clear from his willingness to provide hisown daughter as a wife for Solomon, a con-cession almost without parallel in Egyptianhistory since it was a candid admission tothe world of Egypt’s weakness and concilia-tion. Normally Egyptian kings took foreignprincesses but did not give up their owndaughters to foreign kings” (Kingdom ofPriests, Baker, Grand Rapids, 1987, p. 292.Compare to David Rohl, A Test of Time:The Bible—From Myth to History,ArrowBooks, London, 1996, pp. 173-185).

It is clear from the history of the neighboring countries that an unusual era of peace enveloped Israel, enablingSolomon to greatly develop and enrich hisnation through many profitable commer-cial alliances.

Prosperous alliance with Phoenicia

Not only did Solomon lack foreign enemies, he found a powerful ally in KingHiram, a faithful friend of his father, David.

“Now Hiram king of Tyre sent his ser-vants to Solomon, because he heard thatthey had anointed him king in place of hisfather, for Hiram had always loved David. . . So the LORD gave Solomon wisdom, asHe had promised him; and there was peacebetween Hiram and Solomon, and the twoof them made a treaty together” (1 Kings5:1, 12).

Regarding this treaty, a thousand yearslater the Jewish historian Josephus notedthat copies of this alliance could be read inthe public archives in Tyre. “The copies ofthese epistles,” writes Josephus, “remain atthis day, and are preserved not only in ourbooks, but among the Tyrians also; inso-much that if any one would know the certainty about them, he may desire of thekeepers of the public records of Tyre toshew him them, and he will find what isthere set down to agree with what we havesaid” (Antiquities of the Jews, Book VIII,Chapter II, Section 7).

In Solomon’s day, the Israelites were just beginning to clearly define their ownculture. To initiate such vast projects as thetemple (see G. Ernest Wright, “TheStevens’Reconstruction of the SolomonicTemple,” Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 18,

1955, pp. 41-44), fortified towns and mar-itime trade, Solomon could have found nomore enterprising a people to help than the Phoenicians.

One author explains, “Solomon was athoroughly progressive ruler. He had a flairfor exploiting foreign brains and foreignskill and turning them to his own advantage.That was the secret, otherwise scarcelyunderstandable, of how the [nation] . . .developed by leaps and bounds into a firstclass economic organism. Here also was tobe found the secret of his wealth which theBible emphasises. Solomon imported smelt-ing technicians from Phoenicia. Huram . . . ,

a craftsman from Tyre, was entrusted withthe casting of the Temple furnishings (1 Kings 7:13, 14). In Ezion-GeberSolomon founded an important enterprisefor overseas trade . . . The Phoenicians hadbehind them practical experience accumu-lated over many centuries. Solomon there-fore sent to Tyre for specialists for hisdockyards and sailors for his ships: ‘AndHiram sent in the navy his servants, ship-men that had knowledge of the sea . . .’(1 Kings 9:27)” (Werner Keller, The BibleAs History, Bantam, New York, 1980, pp.211-212. On Ezion-Geber, see Gary D.Pratico, “Where Is Ezion-Geber?”, BiblicalPh

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20 The Good News

Archaeology Review, September/October1986, pp. 24-35; Alexander Flinder, “Is ThisSolomon’s Seaport?”, Biblical ArchaeologyReview, July/August 1989, pp. 31-42).

Archaeologists who have studied theremains of Solomon’s time clearly see thePhoenician influence which the Bible,instead of hiding the facts, candidly admits.“Where the Israelites replaced Canaanitetowns, the quality of housing was notice-ably poorer,” says The New Bible Dictio-nary, “though standards improved rapidly in the days of David and Solomon, partlythrough Phoenician influence . . . The

commonest-type house . . . has becomeknown generally as the four-room house,which appears to be an original Israeliteconcept” (Inter-Varsity Press, DownersGrove, Illinois, 1982, p. 490).

Great construction projects

Throughout Israel, Solomon fortified thegreat cities: “And this is the reason for thelabor force which King Solomon raised: tobuild the house of the LORD, his own house,the Millo, the wall of Jerusalem, Hazor,Megiddo, and Gezer” (1 Kings 9:15).

Regarding Jerusalem, as long as the

Temple Mount is disputed between Arabsand Jews, no excavations are permitted inthe immediate area where Solomon’s tem-ple existed. But the Bible mentions threeother cities that Solomon expanded and fortified. Does any archaeological evidencesupport the biblical record?

The first city mentioned is Hazor, anorthern Israelite habitation that was lost intime until a century ago. The first extensiveexcavations were done under the directionof archaeologist Yigael Yadin in the 1950s.He writes about Hazor, “What I’m about tosay may sound like something out of a

detective story, but it’s true. Our great guidewas the Bible. As an archaeologist, I can’timagine anything more exciting than towork with the Bible in one hand and a spadein the other. This was the real secret of ourdiscovery of the Solomonic period” (Hazor,Random House, New York, 1975, p. 187).

Yadin found the elaborate and sturdymain gate and part of the wall, whicharchaeologists now call the Solomonic styleof architecture. Eventually, he found thesame Solomonic-type gate in all three of the cities mentioned in the Bible.

In the most recent excavation of

Megiddo in 1993, archaeologists IsraelFinkelstein and David Ussishkin report,“The grandeur of Solomon’s Megiddo isclearly evident in the archaeological finds at Megiddo—in large palaces, with fine,smooth-faced ashlar masonry and in elabo-rate decorative stonework” (“Back toMegiddo,” Biblical Archaeology Review,January/February 1994, p. 36).

Archaeologist Bryant Wood sums up thediscoveries: “Probably the most famous ofthe architectural finds related to the king-dom period are the early tenth-century‘Solomonic gates’at Megiddo, Hazor andGezer, built by David’s son Solomon . . .”(“Scholars Speak Out,” Biblical Archaeol-ogy Review, May/June 1995, p. 34). So thebiblical account accords nicely with thearchaeological evidence.

Enter the queen of Sheba

One of the most colorful accounts aboutSolomon is relegated to myth by somescholars. It concerns the visit of the queenof Sheba.

“Now when the queen of Sheba heard ofthe fame of Solomon concerning the nameof the LORD, she came to test him with hardquestions. She came to Jerusalem with avery great retinue, with camels that borespices, very much gold, and precious stones;and when she came to Solomon, she spokewith him about all that was in her heart. SoSolomon answered all her questions; therewas nothing so difficult for the king that hecould not explain it to her . . .

“Then she said to the king: ‘It was a truereport which I heard in my own land aboutyour words and your wisdom. However Idid not believe the words until I came andsaw with my own eyes; and indeed the halfwas not told me. Your wisdom and prosper-ity exceed the fame of which I heard. Happyare your men and happy are these your ser-vants, who stand continually before you andhear your wisdom! Blessed be the LORD

your God . . .’Then she gave the king onehundred and twenty talents of gold, spicesin great quantity, and precious stones. Therenever again came such abundance of spicesas the queen of Sheba gave to KingSolomon” (1 Kings 10:1-10).

This story has been the inspiration formany paintings and movies, but does it have

An artist’s rendering depicts Solomon’s mag-nificent temple, constructed on a hill aboveJerusalem (inset) as a permanent home forthe ark of the covenant. The ark rested in theHoly of Holies, a room at the rear of the tem-ple. Before the temple were an altar and ahuge bronze basin used for cleansing rituals.

March/April 1998 21

historical backing? Where was the kingdomof Sheba? Until this century, the sands oftime very probably covered up much of thisgreat kingdom of the past.

Yet it was well known by some of theclassical Greek and Roman writers. “Inhappy Arabia,” wrote Dionysius the Greekin A.D. 90, “you can always smell the sweetperfume of marvelous spices, whether it beincense or wonderful myrrh. Its inhabitantshave great flocks of sheep in the meadows,and birds fly in from distant isles bringingleaves of pure cinnamon.”

Another Greek historian, Diodorus (100 B.C.), writes: “These people surpass in riches and luxuries not only their Arabneighbors, but also the rest of the world.They drink out of cups made of gold and silver . . . The Sabeans enjoy this luxurybecause they are convinced that richeswhich come from the earth are the favor ofthe gods and should be shown to others.”

The Roman Emperor Augustus actuallysent an army of 10,000 men to southernArabia to plunder this wealth. But the with-ering desert and frequent plagues decimatedthe army before they could arrive in the capital. They never fulfilled their mission.

Scholars generally agree that the king-dom of Sheba is located in the southernend of the Arabian Peninsula, now calledYemen. The area is quite isolated and deso-late now, but this has not always been thecase. “The most prominent of the Arabstates . . . during the first half of the 1st millennium B.C.,” comments The NewBible Dictionary, “Sheba was ruled bymukarribs, priest-kings, who supervisedboth the political affairs and the polytheis-tic worship of the sun, moon and star gods.Explorations [in 1950-1953] . . . foundsome outstanding examples of Sabean artand architecture, especially the temple ofthe moon-god at Marib, the capital, whichdates from the 7th century B.C. . . .”(p. 1087).

Until this century, this area of Yemen waslargely off-limits to archaeologists. Now,up to 4,000 inscriptions of this ancient king-dom have come to light, confirming that oneof the four nations in the area was calledSheba and that the population of at least oneof its cities totaled a million.

This part of the world was not always

dry and barren. Itonce had abundantwater which irri-gated the preciousspice crops. Thetwo most popularspices grown werefrankincense (aresin of incense)and myrrh. The fra-grant perfume offrankincense wasused in temples andhomes of the rich toask favors from thegods. Myrrh was an indispensable oilused as a beauty aidto keep the skinsmooth and soft,and was also used to embalm the dead.The Magi gavethese two valuablespices to the infantJesus as gifts fit fora newborn king(Matthew 2:11).

The evidence ofabundant water inSheba comes fromthe remains of a hugedam found in thearea, and explainshow it could becalled “Happy Arabia” by the ancients.

“A gigantic dam blocked the riverAdhanat in Sheba,” writes Dr. Keller,“collecting the rainfall from a wide area.The water was then led off in canals forirrigation purposes, which was what gavethe land its fertility. Remains of this techni-cal marvel in the shape of walls over 60feet high still defy the sand-dunes of thedesert. Just as Holland is in modern timesthe Land of Tulips, so Sheba was then theLand of Spices, one vast fairy-like scentedgarden of the costliest spices in the world.In the midst of it lay the capital, which wascalled Marib. That was until 542 B.C.—then the dam burst. The importunate desertcrept over the fertile lands and destroyedthem” (The Bible As History, p. 225). Thisis the present state of most of the country.

It has lost much of its fertility due to lackof water.

There is much to explore in this area ofancient Sheba, and it is still a dangerousplace to go, but much scientific progress hasbeen made. Investigations continue up to thepresent time. What the famed archaeologistW.F. Albright remarked about these excava-tions in 1953 still holds true: “They are inprocess of revolutionizing our knowledge of Southern Arabia’s cultural history andchronology. Up to now the results to handdemonstrate the political and cultural pri-macy of Sheba in the first centuries after1000 B.C.” (Keller, p. 227).

As time goes by, more archaeologicalevidence continues to indicate thatSolomon’s reign was actually as magnifi-cent as the Bible faithfully records. GN

Solomon’s territories stretched from the Red Sea in the south tothe Euphrates River in the north. It encompassed most of modernIsrael and parts of present-day Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon.

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The Early Kings of Israel:A Kingdom Divided

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

ecent issues of The Good News have cov-ered some of the archaeological evidence

that confirms and clarifies the biblicalrecord from Genesis through Solomon’s kingdom.We continue the story with the breakup of Israel,looking first at the archaeological evidence for thenorthern 10 tribes of Israel and their rulers. Later wewill direct our attention to the nation of Judah, whichoutlived the kingdom of Israel by more than a century.

After Solomon’s tragic apostasy as a ruler, Godremoved the blessings of national unity from thetribes of Israel. He had told Jeroboam, the future kingof the northern 10 tribes of Israel: “Behold, I will tearthe kingdom out of the hand of Solomon and willgive ten tribes to you (but he shall have one tribe forthe sake of My servant David, and for the sake ofJerusalem . . .), because they have forsaken Me, andworshiped Ashtoreth the goddess of the Sidonians . . .and have not walked in My ways to do what is rightin My eyes and keep My statutes and My judgments,as did his father David” (1 Kings 11:31-33).

Around 930 B.C. the united kingdom wasdivided, with Jeroboam governing the northern 10tribes and Rehoboam, Solomon’s son, governing thetwo southern ones, Judah and Benjamin. (As priests,a good portion of the tribe of Levi eventually eitherresettled in or remained with the southern kingdom.)As both of their wicked reigns came to an end—andaccording to God’s prophecies of punishment for disobedience—ominous clouds began to appear overIsrael’s northern horizon. Assyria began to awaken asa powerful enemy in that region.

Eugene Merrill suggests: “Perceptive observers ofthe world scene could already discern by 900 [B.C.]the stirrings of the Assyrian giant. Though it wouldbe almost fifty years before they fell beneath its heel,the little kingdoms of the west could hear it coming”(Kingdom of Priests, Baker Book House, GrandRapids, 1996, p. 336).

Once Israel came under Assyria’s expandingimperial reach, archaeological evidence attesting toIsrael’s historical evidence increases. Not only werethe Assyrians meticulous recorders of their political,economic and religious life; they also developed an

exquisite stone-carving technique, called bas-relief,which records their lives and accomplishments onnumerous palace walls.

In the 19th century British archaeologists exca-vated many of Assyria’s principal cities. Nineveh, oneof several capitals during the history of the empire,has been extensively explored. Archaeologists haveeven found in one of those capitals a vast library ofcuneiform tablets that belonged to one of Assyria’sfinal kings,Ashurbanipal (ca. 669-627 B.C.).

With this wealth of information about Assyrianhistory, it would be natural to expect some mentionof the long relationship between Israel and Assyria,as well as the final Assyrian victory over the northerntribes. This is precisely what has been found.

Omri, king of the house of Israel

After Jeroboam’s short-lived dynasty came to anend around 905 B.C., the next dynasty of importancewas founded by Omri (881-870 B.C.). He is men-tioned in Assyrian monuments for his militaryexploits and his establishment of Samaria, a vastfortress city that became the capital for the northerntribes. Because of his impressive military and politi-cal achievements and Omri’s line of powerful suc-cessors, the Assyrians would refer to Israel as “theland of Omri” even long after the Omride dynastyhad ceased to exist.

“The reputation of Omri won by his achieve-ments,” says The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible,“is evidenced by the fact that for over a century afterhis death, Samaria was called in the Assyrian records‘House of Omri’and the land of Israel the ‘land ofOmri’” (Abingdon Press, Nashville, 1962, p. 601).

Not only is King Omri mentioned in Assyrianrecords, but he is named on a monument made byone of Israel’s eastern neighbors, the Moabites.

The Moabite Stone

More than a century ago an Arab chieftainshowed an Anglican missionary a beautiful blackmonument that had been discovered at Dibon, east of the Jordan River, the region of ancient Moab. Thisdiscovery triggered fierce competition among the

18 The Good News

With this wealth ofinformation aboutAssyrian history, itwould be natural

to expect somemention of the

long relationshipbetween Israel and Assyria, as

well as the finalAssyrian victory

over the northerntribes. This is pre-

cisely what hasbeen found.

R

Western nations, which sought to acquirethis Moabite Stone (also called the MeshaStela), dated to the ninth century B.C. Whathas survived of the monument is foundtoday in the Louvre museum in Paris. Themonument itself is a record of how KingMesha of Moab rebelled against and finallyrolled back Israelite domination of Moabestablished by King Omri and perpetuatedby his son Ahab.

At the beginning of the reign of Omri’sgrandson, Jehoram, the Moabites sensedopportunity and rebelled. They were suc-cessful in gaining independence.

The first few lines of the text record the king’s boast: “I am Mesha, son ofKemosh[it], king of Mesha, the Dibonite.My father ruled over Moab for 30 years, andI ruled after my father . . . Omri (was) kingof Israel, and he oppressed Moab many days. . . And his son succeeded him, and he toosaid: ‘I will oppress Moab’. . . And Omri hadtaken possession of the land . . . and he dweltin it in his days and the sum of the days ofhis sons: 40 years; but [the god] Kamoshrestored it in my days” (translated by AndreLemaire, Biblical Archaeology Review,May-June 1994, p. 33).

Here we find confirmation by Israel’senemies of what is recorded in the biblicalnarrative. The Bible documents the Moab-ite rebellion and subsequent independence,but adds what king Mesha failed to explain:that he won the Moabites’ independenceonly after he had sacrificed his son to theirpagan god.

The Bible even relates the pivotal storyof that battle in the rebellion. “Now Meshaking of Moab was a sheepbreeder, and heregularly paid the king of Israel [referringfirst to Omri, then to Ahab and now to hisgrandson Jehoram] one hundred thousandlambs and the wool of one hundred thou-sand rams. But it happened that when Ahabdied, that the king of Moab rebelled againstthe king of Israel . . .

“And when the king of Moab saw that thebattle was too fierce for him, he took withhim seven hundred men who drew swords,to break through to the king of Edom [hisally], but they could not. Then he took hiseldest son who would have reigned in hisplace, and offered him as a burnt offeringupon the wall; and there was great indigna-

tion against Israel. So they departed fromhim and returned to their own land” (2 Kings3:26-27, emphasis added throughout).

King Mesha did triumph, but (perhapsunderstandably) in the Moabite stone herefrains from any mention of the costly pricehe paid for independence.

Some critics have doubted the biblicalaccount of King Mesha’s human sacrifice,since it seemed far-fetched that a king would

offer up his own son and successor to the throne. Yet in 1978 a tablet from the Syrian city of Ugarit mentions just this type of sacri-fice during war. The text said: “O Baal, driveaway the force from our gates, the aggressorfrom our walls . . . A firstborn, Baal, we shallsacrifice, a child we shall fulfill.”

Baruch Margalit, associate professor ofBible at Haifa University in Israel, explainswhat was meant in the biblical text by Israelhaving been “indignant” with Mesha’s sacrifice of his son. “The word denotes thepsychological breakdown or trauma thataffected the Israelite forces when theybeheld the sign of human sacrifice atop thewalls of Kir-Hareseth. The author of the

Ugaritic text apparently anticipated this reac-tion of mass hysteria when he confidentlypredicted the withdrawal of the attackingforce . . . It follows that Mesha’s sacrifice ofhis son, rather than unprecedented, was infact an integral, if seldom implemented, partof an age-old Canaanite tradition of sacralwarfare” (Biblical Archaeology Review,November-December 1986, p. 63).

Ahab’s clash with the Assyrians

Not only did the Assyrians have greatrespect for King Omri. They also had high regard for his son Ahab, who was askilled and powerful military leader. TheBible, however, is not so much concernedwith Ahab’s military exploits as with hisestablishment of Baal worship in Israelafter he married the Phoenician king’sdaughter Jezebel.

States The International Standard BibleEncyclopedia: “Ahab followed a wise policyin defense, entering into alliance withPhoenicia, Judah, and even his erstwhileenemies the Arameans. On the other hand,he fell under the influence of his fanaticalpagan queen Jezebel, who led him to wor-ship Baal as Yahweh’s peer, and conse-quently to introduce such horrors as tyranny(1 K[ings] 21), religious persecution (18:4),and human sacrifice (16:34)” (Eerdmans,Grand Rapids, 1979,Vol. 1, p. 75, “Ahab”).

Although the Bible is quite critical ofAhab’s morality, it does acknowledge hismilitary prowess and that he defeated theArameans and Syrians several times (1 Kings 20:1-30). The Assyrians also recorda major battle with Ahab and a coalition ofother neighboring states. Although they dealtAhab’s confederation heavy losses, the battledid temporarily halt the Assyrian advance tothe west.

“Ahab is mentioned in the MonolithInscription of Shalmaneser III (858-824B.C.), which tells the story of the great battleShalmaneser fought at Qarqar against anAramean-Israelite coalition . . . Ahab alone issaid to have contributed two thousand chari-ots and ten thousand foot soldiers. Ten lesserkings who took part made important contri-butions in infantry and cavalry” (ibid., p. 76).

King Ahab’s house of ivory

Archaeologists haven’t found only Assyr-Z. R

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The Moabite Stone records the Moab-ites’ rebellion against three kings ofIsrael—Omri, Ahab and Jehoram—described in 2 Kings 3:26-27.

July/August 1998 19

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20 The Good News

ian evidence for the existence of King Ahab.While excavating Samaria they have foundindications of another biblical descriptionconnected to Ahab’s reign—his house ofivory. The Bible says of Ahab, “Now the restof the acts of Ahab, and all that he did, theivory house which he built and all the citiesthat he built, are they not written in the bookof the chronicles of the kings of Israel?”(2 Kings 22:39).

Herschel Shanks, editor of BiblicalArchaeology Review, writes: “An importantivory find from the Iron Age comes fromAhab’s capital in Samaria where over 500ivory fragments were found . . . The Biblespeaks of Ahab’s ‘house of ivory’(1 Kings22:39). Does this refer to the paneling of thewalls or to the furnishings? To put the matterdifferently, did the ivory fragments found atSamaria decorate the walls of the building orthe furniture? There is some evidence fromNimrud that a room in an Assyrian palacewas, in fact, paneled with ivory veneer. Wasthis the case at Samaria? On the basis of theevidence at hand, it is difficult to tell.

“Whether paneling for the wall or decora-tion for furniture, the houses of ivory—based on a highly sophisticated Phoenicianivory industry—were for the Hebrewprophets symbols of social oppression andinjustice; the ‘ivory houses’[mentioned inAmos 3.15] were also evidence of participa-tion in the barbarous pagan practices andheathen worship of Phoenicia. Based on thearchaeological evidence, the prophets knewwhat they were talking about” (BiblicalArchaeology Review, September-October1985, p. 46).

Jehu kneels before an Assyrian king

Because of the wicked rule of the “houseof Omri,” God sentenced Ahab, Jezebel andtheir descendants to death. He would use ageneral of the Israelite army, Jehu, to accom-plish most of these sentences. God told theprophet Elijah: “Go, return on your way tothe Wilderness of Damascus; and when youarrive, anoint Hazael as king over Syria. Alsoyou shall anoint Jehu the son of Nimshi asking over Israel. And Elisha . . . you shallanoint as prophet in your place. It shall bethat whoever escapes the sword of Hazael,Jehu will kill; and whoever escapes thesword of Jehu, Elisha will kill” (1 Kings19:15-17). God would not allow the enor-mously wicked acts of the House of Omri to go unpunished.

Jehu eventually killed not only Jezebel,but all of Ahab’s children, in effect extermi-nating the dynasty of Omri. Although Jehubecame God’s rod of retribution, he failedto purge Israel of all ves-tiges of false religion.

“Thus Jehudestroyed Baal fromIsrael. HoweverJehu did not turnaway from the sinsof Jeroboam theson of Nebat, whohad made Israelsin, that is, fromthe golden calvesthat were at Betheland Dan. And theLORD said to Jehu,

‘Because you have done well in doing whatis right in My sight, and have done to thehouse of Ahab all that was in My heart,your sons shall sit on the throne of Israel tothe fourth generation.’But Jehu took noheed to walk in the law of the LORD God ofIsrael with all his heart; for he did not departfrom the sins of Jeroboam, who had madeIsrael sin. In those days the LORD began tocut off parts of Israel; and Hazael conqueredthem in all the territory of Israel . . .”(2 Kings 10:28-32).

During the spiritual decline of JehuAssyria again began directly to threatenIsrael. Soon Israel was paying Assyria tribute—protection money—to spare itself warfare and invasion. The Assyrians carvedan impressive monument, called the BlackObelisk, to the achievements of King Shal-maneser III. The monument includesdetailed panels portraying King Jehu (or hisemissary) bringing tribute to the Assyrianking. This elaborate illustration is the earli-

est known depiction of an Israelite (king or commoner).

This famous monument of the ninthcentury B.C., now prominently dis-played in the British Museum in Lon-don, was discovered in 1846 in theAssyrian city of Nimrud. It includesscenes depicting the tribute given tothe king and the bearers of that trib-ute. On one side, in the second scenefrom the top, the inscription reads,“Tribute of Iaua [Jehu], son of Omri.Silver, gold, a golden bowl, a goldenbeaker, golden goblets, pitchers ofgold, tin, staves for the hand of theking, [and] javelins, I [Shalmaneser]received from him” (BiblicalArchaeology Review, January-February 1995, p. 26).

The scene is startling. Therebefore the Assyrian king is eitherJehu himself or one of his chiefrepresentatives kneeling in sub-mission. The monument, includ-ing not only his name but hispicture, is remarkable evidence ofthis biblical king.

This series in The Good Newswill continue covering archaeo-logical discoveries relating to thelater kings of Israel. GN

The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III records Assyria’s dominationof its neighbors. Included among the scenes of the tributebrought to Shalmaneser is the Israelite king Jehu (or his repre-sentative) bowing before the Assyrian monarch.

The Later Kings of Israel:A Kingdom’s Downfall

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

he July-August issue of The Good News pre-sented archaeological evidence that confirmsand clarifies the biblical record of the early

kings of the northern 10 tribes of Israel after thedeath of Solomon. We continue the story with thelater kings and downfall of the kingdom.

We come to the final stages of the northern king-dom (Israel) as a nation. Jehu’s downfall came atthe halfway mark of Israel’s 19 kings and, tragi-cally, the kings who followed him would all refuseto repent and turn to the true God. Meanwhile,Judah remained more faithful to God and continuedfor more than a century after the fall of the northern10 tribes of Israel. Much archaeological evidencevalidates the account of Israel’s final years.

Another King Jeroboam

Jehu’s great-grandson, Jeroboam II, although evil,was an able military leader. Eugene Merrill explains

that through hispolitical leader-ship “Jeroboamwas able not onlyto recover the ter-ritories of Israelproper whichhad fallen overthe years toDamascus, but tobring all of southAram and theTransjordan backunder Israelitehegemony (2 Kings 14:25-28)” (A Kingdomof Priests, 1987,p. 374).At the begin-ning of the 20thcentury, theGerman Orien-tal Societymounted an

extensive archaeological dig of Megiddo, the siteof an important northern-kingdom stronghold. The excavations produced a beautiful agate sealdepicting a roaring lion. The Hebrew inscriptionread, “Belonging to Shema, servant of Jeroboam.”From the dating of the city level, certain archaeol-ogists proposed the king referred to was JeroboamII (791-751 B.C.).

It is not uncommon for seals to appear in excava-tions in the Middle East. Bible commentatorWilliam Barclay explains: “It was not the signature[as we use today], but the seal that authenticated. Incommercial and political documents it was the seal,imprinted with the signet ring, which made the doc-ument valid; it was the seal which authenticated awill; it was the seal on the mouth of a sack or a cratethat guaranteed the contents. Seals were made ofpottery, metal or jewels. In the British Museumthere are seals of most of the Assyrian kings. Theseal was fixed on clay and the clay attached to thedocument” (Daily Study Bible Commentary, BibleExplorer, Epiphany Software, San Jose, Calif.).

Since seals were durable and vital for politicaland commercial transactions, they were producedin abundance for the upper classes of society. Aswe see in this series, several seals have been foundthat include the names of monarchs mentioned inthe Bible.

Collapse of a dynasty

Meanwhile, true to God’s prediction, Jehu’sdynasty lasted only “to the fourth generation”(2 Kings 10:30). Jeroboam II was of Jehu’s thirdgeneration. His son, Zechariah, the fourth succes-sor, was assassinated during his first year as king.From then on, because of ever-increasing evils on a national scale, Israel could no longer count onGod’s protection. The nation plunged headlong intoa free fall of lawlessness and disregard for God.

“In the thirty-eighth year of Azariah king ofJudah, Zechariah the son of Jeroboam reigned overIsrael in Samaria six months. And he did evil in thesight of the LORD, as his fathers had done; he didnot depart from the sins of Jeroboam the son of

18 The Good News

King Tiglath-Pileser strengthened the Assyrian empire,making it an early superpower. After ascending thethrone, he expanded his empire by attacking and invading smaller nearby kingdoms—including Israel.

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Nebat, who had made Israel sin. Then Shal-lum the son of Jabesh conspired againsthim, and struck and killed him in front ofthe people; and he reigned in his place . . .This was the word of the LORD which Hespoke to Jehu, saying, ‘Your sons shall siton the throne of Israel to the fourth genera-tion. And so it was’”(2 Kings 15:8-12).

So, after almost 90 years, Jehu’s dynastycame to a violent end. From then on, assas-sinations and political instability would bethe rule until the final collapse of the north-ern kingdom. This military and politicalweakness would make the Israelites in thenorth an easy prey for the resurgent Assyr-ian Empire.

It is sad to reflect on how this once-mighty kingdom, which had halted theAssyrian war machine a century earlier,could muster hardly any resistance (exceptduring the reign of Jeroboam II). Accordingto an Assyrian inscription, King Ahab hadcontributed “two thousand chariots and tenthousand foot soldiers” to form a successfulmilitary coalition to stop the Assyrian

advance. A century later, when theAssyrian menace appeared again, thenorthern Israelite armies were reducedto “fifty horsemen, ten chariots, andten thousand foot soldiers; for theking of Syria had destroyed them”(2 Kings 13:7).Shallum, the assassin of KingAzariah, lasted only a month on thethrone before he, too, was murdered.“Shallum the son of Jabesh becameking . . . and he reigned a full monthin Samaria. For Menahem the son ofGadi went up from Tirzah, came toSamaria, and struck Shallum the sonof Jabesh in Samaria and killed him;and he reigned in his place” (2 Kings15:13-15).

Assyria gains control

Menahem reigned for 10 years butcould not resist the advancing Assyr-ian army. To avoid outright conquest,

he began paying the Assyrians tribute. “Andhe did evil in the sight of the LORD . . . Pul[Tiglath-pileser] king of Assyria cameagainst the land; and Menahem gave Pul athousand talents of silver, that his handmight be with him to strengthen the king-dom under his control . . . So the king ofAssyria turned back, and did not stay therein the land” (2 Kings 15:18-20).

The Assyrians, who meticulously

recorded their kings’ triumphs, mentionedthe tribute money given by King Menahem.The annals show the amazing accuracy of the biblical account. “The out-standing event of Menahem’s reign,” notesThe Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible,“was the supremacy of Assyrian power inthe West. This is confirmed in detail fromAssyrian sources . . . When Tiglath-pileserIII of Assyrian took the throne of Babylonin 729, he assumed the name Pulu [Pul inthe Bible] . . . In his annals Tiglath-pileserrecords the receiving of tribute from vari-ous nations of the West—Menahem ofSamaria, Rezin of Damascus, Hiram ofTyre, etc. A fragmentary text adds furtherdetails about Menahem. ‘He was over-whelmed like a snowstorm and fled like abird, alone, and bowed to the feet of hisconqueror, who returned him to his placeand imposed tribute upon him’” (Vol. III,1962, p. 348).

Menahem’s son, Pekahiah, ruled foronly two years before he was murdered byPekah. Once on the throne, Pekah rebelledagainst the Assyrians and refused to paytribute money. “With Pekahiah out of theway,” Eugene Merrill writes, “Pekah pro-claimed himself king and immediatelybroke the treaty with Assyria which Mena-hem had made. He no doubt felt safe indoing so because Tiglath-pileser was stilldetained elsewhere with matters of imperial

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The Assyrians were a terrifying force as they attacked nearby kingdoms. In thisAssyrian carving depicting the capture of a walled city, an archer at right shootsarrows while protected by a shiled-bearer. In front of them a wheeled batteringram gouges holes in the city walls. Above the ram are three defenders who havebeen impaled.At left, Assyrian infantry storm the walls using scaling ladders.

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The conqueror of Israel, King Sargon ofAssyria, receives a report from Tartan,his commander in chief. The Assyriansrecorded their conquests in exquisitecarved reliefs such as this, excavated atan ancient Assyrian capital city.

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responsibility . . . Whatever Pekah’s objec-tive, he was doomed to disappointment forwithin six years (by 734) Tiglath-pileserreturned to the west and quickly began toannex vast areas of Syria and Palestine,especially in Galilee and the Transjordan”(Merrill, p. 396).

Tiglath-pileser’s invasion

The Bible records the story of the inva-sion of Tiglath-pileser in 2 Kings 15:29-30:“In the days of Pekah king of Israel,Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria came andtook Ijon . . . Hazor, Gilead, and Galilee, allthe land of Naphtali; and he carried themcaptive to Assyria. Then Hoshea the son ofElah led a conspiracy against Pekah . . . andkilled him; so he reigned in his place . . .”

The biblical account is corroborated in an Assyrian victory stela, or inscribed, com-memorative stone (also spelled “stele”), ofPulu ( Tiglath-pileser). The Assyrian kingboasts, “The House of Omri [Israel] . . . all of its inhabitants and goods, I took toAssyria. They overthrew their king Pekahand I installed Hoshea as their king. I received from them ten talents of gold,a thousand talents of silver as tribute and I deported them to Assyria” (ArchaeologicalBible Commentary, 1984, p. 133).

This began a 15-year period duringwhich the northern Israelites were forciblydeported from their homeland to Assyrianterritory. Few would remain in the landwhen the Assyrians were through.

Amos, one of the prophets of that time,revealed what God would allow to happen

to the northern tribes. “Thus says the LORD:‘As a shepherd takes from the mouth of alion two legs or a piece of an ear, so shallthe children of Israel be taken out whodwell in Samaria’” (Amos 3:12).

The conquest of Samaria

The Assyrian records again confirm thebiblical account, although they show a biasthat is absent in Scripture. We see a markedcontrast between the boisterous claims ofthe Assyrian kings—who never admitted to losing any battles—and the biblical nar-rative, which is frank and honest about theirkings’moral lapses and sins and theirresulting defeats.

Writing for Biblical ArchaeologyReview, Erika Bleibtreu observes: “Accord-ing to the narrative representation on thesereliefs, the Assyrians never lost a battle.Indeed, no Assyrian soldier is ever shownwounded or killed. The benevolence of thegods is always bestowed on the Assyrianking and his troops. Like the official writtenrecords, the scenes and figures are selectedand arranged to record the king’s heroicdeeds and to describe him as ‘beloved ofthe gods’” (January-February 1991, p. 57).

What a stark contrast with the biblicalaccount of the defeat and downfall of Israel,also known as Samaria. “Now the king ofAssyria went throughout all the land, andwent up to Samaria and besieged it forthree years. In the ninth year of Hoshea, theking of Assyria took Samaria and carriedIsrael away to Assyria, and placed them inHalah and by the Habor, the River of

Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes. Forso it was that the children of Israel hadsinned against the LORD their God . . . andthey had feared other gods, and had walkedin the statutes of the nations whom theLORD had cast out from before the childrenof Israel . . .” (2 Kings 17:5-8).

The Assyrian records also mention theconquest of Samaria by King ShalmaneserV, Tiglath-pileser’s son. But this king diedunexpectedly during the siege of Samaria,and his son, Sargon II, completed the job.

In 1843 Paul Emil Botta uncovered theruins of Sargon´s palace, where a wall reliefcalled “The Display Inscription” recordsSargon’s victory over Samaria. In it Sargonboasted: “At the beginning of my rule, inmy first year of reign, I besieged and con-quered Samaria . . . I led away into captivity27,290 people who lived there . . . I causedothers to take their portion. People of thelands, prisoners my hand had captured, Isettled there. My officials I placed overthem as governors.”

Reasons for Israel’s downfall

The Bible states some of the reasons forthe Israelites’ removal: They “caused theirsons and daughters to pass through the fire,practiced witchcraft and soothsaying, andsold themselves to do evil . . . Therefore the LORD was very angry with Israel, andremoved them from His sight; there wasnone left but the tribe of Judah alone”(2 Kings 17:17-18).

Years later, after Judah likewise fell intoContinued on page 31

The sad fate of peoples conquered by Assyria is graphicallyshown in these carvings. In the panel above, scribes (upper cen-ter) record the plunder as livestock are driven away. The town’ssurviving inhabitants are carried away in ox-carts to an unknown

land and uncertain future. Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser boastedof such onnquests, “All the people and their goods I carried off to Assyria.” In the panel at right, the battle rages around anothertown as its defeated defenders begin the long walk into exile.

captivity, God gave through the prophetEzekiel additional reasons for the destruc-tion and exile of both nations. “Her priestshave violated My law and profaned Myholy things; they have not distinguishedbetween the holy and unholy, nor have theymade known the difference between theunclean and the clean; and they have hiddentheir eyes from My Sabbaths, so that I amprofaned among them” (Ezekiel 22:26).

The prophecy compares the priests towild beasts: “Her princes in her midst arelike wolves tearing the prey, to shed blood,to destroy people, and to get dishonest gain.Her prophets plastered them with untem-pered mortar, seeing false visions, anddivining lies for them, saying, ‘Thus saysthe Lord GOD,’when the LORD had not spoken” (verse 28).

“The people of the land have usedoppressions, committed robbery, and mis-treated the poor and needy; and they wrong-fully oppress the stranger. So I sought for aman among them who would make a wall,and stand in the gap before Me on behalf ofthe land, that I should not destroy it; but Ifound no one. Therefore I have poured outMy indignation on them; I have consumedthem with the fire of My wrath; and I haverecompensed their deeds on their ownheads,” says the Lord GOD” (verses 29-31).

Epilogue: Where did Israel go?What happened to the Israelites after

they were deported into Assyria? Most people think the 10 northern tribes of Israelhave disappeared forever. They are oftenreferred to as “the lost 10 tribes.” The schol-arly consensus is that these people wereeither assimilated by gentile nations or simply died out altogether.

But what does God’s Word have to sayabout their fate? Through the prophets, Goddepicts them as wandering until His willand plan could be brought to completion.The prophet Amos said: “Behold, the eyesof the Lord GOD are on the sinful kingdom,and I will destroy it from the face of theearth; yet I will not utterly destroy the houseof Jacob, says the LORD. For surely I willcommand, and will sift the house of Israelamong all nations, as grain is sifted in asieve; yet not the smallest grain shall fall tothe ground” (Amos 9:8-9, emphasis addedthroughout).

According to Amos’s prophecy, the

descendants of these Israelites were fated to wander among the nations until they fulfilled their destiny. God would knowexactly where they would be found, for theywould not disappear as a people, and Hepromised not to forget them.

God also prophesied: “Yet the number ofthe children of Israel shall be as the sand ofthe sea, which cannot be measured or num-bered. And it shall come to pass in the placewhere it was said to them, ‘You are not Mypeople,’ there it shall be said to them, ‘Youare sons of the living God.’Then the chil-dren of Judah and the children of Israelshall be gathered together, and appoint forthemselves one head; and they shall comeup out of the land. For great will be the dayof Jezreel [at the time of Christ’s coming]!”(Hosea 1:10-11).

God’s plans include the “lost 10 tribes”of Israel as well as Judah, the descendants ofthe southern kingdom of Judah who includemodern-day Jews. After Christ returns toearth, say many biblical prophecies, He willgather their descendants and bring themback to their ancestral homeland.

Isaiah prophesied of a second exodus ofthese peoples from the house of Israel andthe house of Judah: “And in that day thereshall be a Root of Jesse [Jesus Christ], whoshall stand as a banner to the people; for theGentiles shall seek Him, and His restingplace shall be glorious. It shall come topass in that day that the LORD shall set Hishand again the second time to recover theremnant of His people . . . and will assem-ble the outcasts of Israel and gather togetherthe dispersed of Judah . . . There will be ahighway for the remnant of His peoplewho will be left from Assyria, as it was forIsrael in the day that he came up from theland of Egypt” (Isaiah 11:10-16).

Many other Bible prophecies describeGod’s plan for these 10 tribes of Israel. TheUnited Church of God, an InternationalAssociation, is preparing a booklet on themodern-day identity of their descendants. If you would like to be placed on a mailinglist to receive this booklet when it is com-pleted, be sure to write to the office in yourcountry (or the country nearest you) onpage 2 of this issue. Also, be sure to requestthe booklets Is the Bible True? and How toUnderstand the Bible.

In the next installment, we will examinewhat archaeology tells us about the nationof Judah, which outlived the kingdom ofIsrael by more than a century. GN

ArchaeologyContinued from page 9

The Early Kings of Judah:Miraculous Deliverance

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he last two editions of The Good News coveredthe history of the kings of Israel after the northern10 tribes broke ties with the kingdom of Judah,

comprised of two tribes in the south. We now turn to see what archaeology has

revealed about the kings of Judahduring this time.

Around 720 B.C. the Assyri-ans conquered the northerntribes of Israel and expelledthem from their land. ButJudah, Israel’s sister nation in the south, miraculously sur-

vived the Assyrian invasion andcontinued for another 130 years.Although the people of Judah, too,

would later succumb to invasion—fromthe Babylonians—they managed to survive

their ordeal with their national identity intact, unliketheir kinsmen in the kingdom of Israel. After 70years of exile in Babylon, a remnant of Judahreturned to its former land. There descendants of this remnant would remain for another 600 yearsuntil the Romans finally expelled them. For nearly2,000 years the Jews would be dispersed around theworld. Finally, in this century, some of their descen-dants returned to the ancient land of Judah. Theynamed their nation Israel, although “Judah” wouldhave been more historically accurate.

What has archaeology revealed about theseresilient people from the southern kingdom? We pickup the fascinating story from the time of Ahaz, whobegan ruling in Judah some 200 years after the twoIsraelite kingdoms went their separate ways.

King Ahaz’s clay seal

“In the seventeenth year of Pekah the son ofRemaliah,Ahaz the son of Jotham, king of Judah,began to reign. Ahaz was twenty years old when he became king, and he reigned sixteen years inJerusalem; and he did not do what was right in thesight of the LORD his God, as his father David haddone” (2 Kings 16:1-2).

Ancient Near Eastern kings and other officials

stamped their documents with special seals. As aresult archaeologists have been able to identify theclay seals of two of the kings of Judah: Hezekiah andAhaz. The two seals belonging to Hezekiah are notwell preserved, but the one of King Ahaz of Judah isin beautiful condition. In 1996 archaeologists con-firmed its authenticity. Just as people today use signatures to validate documents such as checks andcontracts, in ancient times authorities stamped theirofficial documents with seals that were typicallycarved from semiprecious stones. Sometimes theseals were mounted on a ring, called a signet.

The most common material used for documents at that time was papyrus. “Papyrus documents wereclosed by rolling them and tying them with a string,”explains Tsvi Scheider, assistant librarian at HebrewUniversity’s Institute of Archaeology. “A lump of wetclay was then placed on the knot and stamped withthe seal . . . After the clay dried, the papyrus wasstored in an archive (see Jeremiah 32:10-14)” (Bibli-cal Archaeology Review, July-August 1991, p. 27).

The resulting clay imprint, or bulla, bore theseal’s impression. Although the papyrus, of organicmatter, would eventually disintegrate, the clay bullaeoften survived. Since Israel lay at the intersection ofthree great empires—Egypt,Assyria and Babylon—it experienced frequent wars. Conquering armiesoften burned enemy cities to the ground. Almosteverything would perish—except for some of theclay seals, which, when baked in such fires, turnedhard as pottery.

Thousands of years later, as they have conductedexcavations in such cities, archaeologists have some-times discovered the remains of royal archives. Occa-sionally they even stumble onto a cache of clay sealsthat reveal the exact spot where such official docu-ments were originally stored for safekeeping.

Robert Deutsch writes about Ahaz’s seal: “Theking whose seal is impressed in this well-preservedpiece of reddish-brown clay is King Ahaz of Judah,who ruled from 732 to 716 [B.C.] . . . This lump ofclay, called a bulla, was used to seal a papyrus docu-ment. We know this because the back of the bullastill bears the imprint of the texture of the papyrus

“Belonging toAhaz [son of] Yehotam[Jotham], king ofJudah,” reads theinscription pressed intothis lump of clay, called abulla. The clay originallysealed a papyrus scrollthat is long sincedecayed. Ahaz ruled the kingdom of Judahca. 734-715 B.C. A fin-gerprint, possibly that of the king himself, isvisible on the left edgein this magnified photograph.

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. . . On the left edge of the front of the bullais a fingerprint that may well be that of KingAhaz himself! . . .

“The seal contains not only the name of the king, but the name of his father, KingYehotam [Jotham]. In addition,Ahaz isspecifically identified as ‘king of Judah’. . .The Hebrew inscription, which is set onthree lines . . . , translates, ‘Belonging toAhaz (son of) Yehotam, King of Judah’. . .The Ahaz bulla has been examined by anumber of preeminent scholars . . . All agreethat the bulla is genuine” (Biblical Archaeo-logical Review, May-June 1998, pp. 54, 56).

Thus the existence of another biblicalking is verified through archaeology.

Sennacherib captures Lachish

Shortly after the fall of the northernIsraelite kingdom, the Assyrian king, Sen-nacherib, descended on Judah. His assaultcame around 700 B.C., during the reign ofAhaz’s successor, Hezekiah.

The Bible summarizes this invasion andHezekiah’s reaction. “And in the fourteenthyear of King Hezekiah, Sennacherib king of Assyria came up against all the fortifiedcities of Judah and took them. ThenHezekiah king of Judah sent to the king in Lachish, saying,‘I have donewrong;

turn away from me; whatever you impose on me I will pay’” (2 Kings 18:13-14).However, even though Hezekiah promisedto pay Sennacherib handsomely if he wouldspare Jerusalem, the Assyrian king decidedto conquer the city.

We not only have the biblical account of events, but also Assyrian records thatclosely parallel the Bible version.

A century and a half ago archaeologistHenry Austen Layard discovered theancient city of Nineveh and Sennacherib’spalace. There he found a graphic depictionof Sennacherib’s invasion of Judah carvedin a series of stone panels adorning the palatial walls.

Moshe Pearlman describes the find:“The gems of Sennacherib’s palace for bibli-cal scholars were a series of thirteen slabs ofwall reliefs depicting Sennacherib seatedupon a throne on a hill-slope before abesieged city amidst the landscape of whatwas evidently meant to be the land of Judah.The reliefs (which may be seen in the BritishMuseum) are clearly recognizable as a dramatic thirteen-part story in pictures ofSennacherib’s campaign in this southern Israelite kingdom . . . In a panel facing the

king is a cuneiform caption: ‘Sennacherib,king of the Universe, king of Assyria, satupon a throne and passed in review the bootytaken from the city of Lachish’” (Digging Upthe Bible, 1980, p. 96).

In effect, the biblical narrative is frozen in frames in Sennacherib’s wall depicting theconquest of the city of Lachish. The Bibleenlarges our view by adding an account ofthe letter sent at that time to Sennacheribfrom a desperate King Hezekiah. Judah’sking pleaded for forgiveness and offered anypayment to avoid Jerusalem’s destruction.

A careful study of the panels depictingthe taking of Lachish includes grisly details.“There sits the Assyrian monarch,” writesPearlman, “richly attired, observing his armyattacking a fortified city which is stoutlydefended. His battering rams are beingpushed up towards the walls over ramps, andare covered by archers, sling-throwers andspearmen to keep the defenders at bay. Inone panel prisoners are being impaled byAssyrian soldiers; in another they are beingflayed. Moving out of the city under guard isa long procession of captives, and carts ladenwith booty” (p. 96).

In the 20th century, archaeologists haveexcavated Lachish and corroborated the precision of the biblical and the Assyrianaccounts of the conquest. “The magnitude of Layard’s discovery was given an addeddimension some eighty years later whenexcavations unearthed the very stratum ofancient Lachish that was stormed by Sen-nacherib’s forces. Arrow-heads and sling-shots used by the Assyrians in that battlewere among the finds, and from the remainsof the shattered city it was possible to recon-struct the plan of its defensive fortifications.They virtually matched those depicted in thereliefs on Sennacherib’s palace walls. Thus,Lachish is a superb example of archaeologi-cal discovery joining ancient records in wordand picture to enrich the background of anepisode in the Bible” (p. 97).

These exquisitely detailed contemporaryfinds from Assyria, along with the excava-tions of Lachish, dramatically corroborateeach other and confirm the accuracy of thebiblical account.

The Prism of Sennacherib

The archaeological evidence of the

Sennacherib’s assault on Lachish is graphically shown in these carvings, discovered in the ruins of Sennacherib’s palace. It shows Assyrian troops advancing on ramps lead-ing to the city walls, from which the desperate defenders shoot arrows and hurl stonesand firebrands. At lower right, prisoners leave the city, passing impaled captives. To theleft of the prisoners, an Assyrian siege engine pounds away at a heavily defended tower.The Assyrian records and carvings and the Bible combine to tell a remarkable story.

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invasion does not end there. Another dis-covery sheds light on Sennacherib’s siegeof Jerusalem. In 1919 the Oriental Instituteof the University of Chicago purchased a15-inch clay cylinder, called the Prism ofSennacherib or the Taylor Prism. The artifact testifies of eight of Sennacherib’smilitary campaigns. Regarding the third,the narrator describes Sennacherib’s inva-sion of Judah and the subsequent siege of Jerusalem.

The account reads: “As to [Judah’s king]Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit to myyoke. I laid siege to forty-six of his strongcities, walled forts and to countless small vil-lages in their vicinity, and conquered themby means of well-stamped earth-ramps, andbattering-rams brought thus near to thewalls, combined with attack by foot soldiers. . . [Hezekiah] himself I made a prisoner inJerusalem, his royal residence, like a bird ina cage” (James Pritchard, The Ancient NearEast,Vol. 1, 1958, pp. 199-201).

Sennacherib boastfully begins hisdescription of the siege. His language leads the reader to expect that the Assyrianmonarch captured Jerusalem, just as he had taken 46 other strongholds during his campaign. But the account turns curiouslyquiet. Sennacherib ends the account bragging about the tribute money paid byHezekiah, a poor consolation prize. Sen-nacherib concludes: “Hezekiah himself,whom the terror-inspiring splendor of mylordship had overwhelmed, . . . did sendme, later, to Nineveh, my lordly city,together with talents of gold, . . . talents of silver . . . and all kinds of valuable trea-sures, his (own) daughters . . . In order todeliver the tribute and to do obeisance as a slave he sent his messenger” (p. 201).

What really happened? Although theAssyrian records are awkwardly silent, theBible completes the story: “And it came topass on a certain night that the angel of theLORD went out, and killed in the camp of theAssyrians one hundred and eighty-five thou-sand; and when people arose early in themorning, there were the corpses—all dead.So Sennacherib king of Assyria departed andwent away, returned home, and remained atNineveh” (2 Kings 19:35-36).

“The one city he sought to subdue, butfailed,” says Pearlman, “was Jerusalem, the

capital of Judah, where Hezekiah’s spirit of resistance was much strengthened by thetough advice of the prophet Isaiah [see Isaiah 36-37]. Doubtless he would havewished the centerpiece of his wall decora-

tions to have depicted the fall of Jerusalem.Instead, judging by the prominence givento Lachish, this must have been the scene of the fiercest fighting, and he evidentlyregarded its capture against stubborndefense as his most outstanding victory in this land”—instead of Jerusalem, whichescaped (Pritchard, p. 97).

The Assyrian report describes only thesiege of Jerusalem. Something incrediblemust have occurred for the mighty Assyri-ans, who had conquered many powerful

empires, to prevent the fall of Jerusalem.

A possible explanation

Sennacherib’s defeat is not only recordedin the Bible; the Greek historian Herodotusgives an account of Sennacherib’s humilia-tion in his History. He attributes the miracu-lous defeat to mice overrunning the campand wreaking great havoc. “An army offield-mice swarmed over their opponents in the night . . . [and] gnawed through theirquivers and their bows, and the handles oftheir shields, so that on the following daythey fled minus their arms and a great number fell” (Book 2:141).

The story about the mice might appear asfanciful myth. However, it might bear a ker-nel of truth. Josephus, a first-century Jewishhistorian, also mentions Sennacherib’sdefeat, explaining that it was caused by aplague. He cites an earlier historian who had written: “Now when Sennacherib wasreturning from his Egyptian war to Jeru-salem, he found his army . . . in danger [by a plague], for God had sent a pestilential dis-temper upon his army; and on the very firstnight of the siege, a hundred fourscore andfive thousand, with their captains and gener-als, were destroyed” (Antiquities of the Jews,Book X, Chapter I, Section 5).

Some speculate the mice may have beencarriers of the plague. If so, this would not be the only such historical example. Micecontributed to the spread of the black plaguein the Middle Ages and just as easily couldhave transported this deadly malady into theAssyrian camp. The Bible states simply thatthe destruction came from God and does notmention specifics.

Even the biblical description of the deathof Sennacherib is confirmed by discoveriesin ancient Assyrian archives. “Now it cameto pass, as he [Sennacherib] was worshipingin the temple of Nisroch his god, that hissons Adrammelech and Sharezer struck himdown with the sword; and they escaped intothe land of Ararat. Then Esarhaddon his sonreigned in his place” (2 Kings 19:37).

The Assyrian account of Sennacherib’sdeath is the same. The International Stan-dard Bible Encyclopedia explains: “Accord-ing to Esarhaddon’s records, his fatherSennacherib had named him over his broth-ers as successor. ‘To gain the kingship they

The Taylor Prism describes Sennacherib’smilitary campaigns, including an inva-sion of Judah. In its own curious way, this boastful account of the monarch’sexploits supports the biblical account ofan astounding miracle.

November/December 1998 21

slew Sennacherib their father,’” forcingEsarhaddon to hasten back from a militarycampaign to claim the throne (1988,Vol. 4,p. 396, “Sennacherib”). A parallel Babylon-ian account also mentions this assassination.

Thus we see confirmed even a tiny detailfrom the biblical account.

Hezekiah’s Siloam inscription

Another aspect of Sennacherib’s siege ofJerusalem is well worth noting. Assyrian tac-tics called for surrounding the targeted city,shutting the inhabitants off from any outsidesource of food and water to starve them intosubmission before a final and decisive directattack. While Sennacherib was busy plun-dering Judah’s other cities, Hezekiah began adesperate building project to provide the citya secure water source before the Assyrianscould lay siege to the capital.

“And when Hezekiah saw that Senna-cherib had come, and that his purpose was to make war against Jerusalem, he consultedwith his leaders and commanders to stop thewater from the springs which were outsidethe city; and they helped him” (2 Chronicles32:2-3). “. . . Hezekiah also stopped thewater outlet of Upper Gihon, and broughtthe water by tunnel to the west side of theCity of David” (verse 30).

Long after the Assyrian menace, this tun-nel lay forgotten and undisturbed for cen-turies. Then, in 1880, two Arab boys wereplaying near the Pool of Siloam in Jerusalemwhen one fell in. Swimming to the other sideof the small body of water, he came under a

rock overhang. There in the darkness henoticed a small passageway. After furtherinvestigation by the authorities, the biblicaltunnel of Hezekiah’s time was discoveredanew. In the tunnel they even discovered aninscription in Hebrew made by the workerscommemorating their amazing engineeringfeat during Hezekiah’s time.

It reads: “And this is the account of thebreakthrough. While the laborers were stillworking with their picks, each toward theother, and while there were still three cubitsto be broken through, the voice of each washeard calling to the other, because there wasa [split, crack or overlap] in the rock to thesouth and to the north. And at the moment of the breakthrough, the laborers struck eachtoward the other, pick against pick. Then the water flowed from the spring to the poolfor 1,200 cubits. And the height of the rockabove the heads of the laborers was 100cubits” (Biblical Archaeology Review, July-August 1994, p. 37).

The “Siloam Inscription,” as it came to becalled, resides in the Istanbul ArchaeologicalMuseum, taken there by Turkish authoritieswho ruled Jerusalem at the time. Israeliauthorities claim it as a national monumentand desire its return to Jerusalem.

The Bible vs. fables

All these accounts lead us to severalimportant conclusions.

• They call into question claims of criticsthat the Bible is merely a collection ofmyths, fables and other fiction. Extrabiblical

records, like those from Assyria, consistentlyconfirm the biblical accounts.

• These biblical narratives could nothave been written centuries after the fact asmany critics claim. The incidental detailspreserved in the Bible could have beenknown only by the people living during theevents described.

• Finally, a spiritual guiding force must be inspiring the biblical accounts, for theyalways seem to match what independentsources describe.

• The Bible narrative rings true. Unlikesecular accounts, which exaggerate theirheroes’accomplishments, the Bible standsas a believable report. It describes both thestrengths and weaknesses of its leading char-acters. Its truths are not exaggerated or dis-torted as is the obvious case with records leftby scribes and narrators with transparentnational interests or personal agendas.

Even if archaeology is an imperfect sci-ence incapable of providing all the answers,it continues to independently verify thetruthfulness of the biblical record.

In the next installment, we will continueour examination of archaeology and thekingdom of Judah. GN

King Hezekiah’s engineers performed a remarkable engineering feat, carving a longtunnel (right) through the limestone underneath Jerusalem to provide the city a securewater source in the face of an Assyrian invasion. This inscription records how workerstunneling from both ends met in the middle, completing the monumental task.

November/December 1998 21

This is a compilation of the 24-part series presented in the Good Newsmagazine over the past several years. This document is only available as an

electronic file. It is not available in print or hard-copy at this time.

The Bible andArchaeologySections 13-24

The Bible andArchaeologySections 13-24

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Can You Believe the Bible?

William Ramsay didn’t set out to prove the Bible’s accuracy. Infact, the young Oxford graduate and budding scholar set sail in1879 from England for Asia Minor convinced that, based on his

university studies, the New Testament—and the book of Acts in particular—was largely a hoax. After all, his professors had taught him that the Bible hadbeen written much later than it claimed to be, so its stories had been fabri-cated long after the fact and weren’t to be taken seriously.

The focus of his work was ancient Roman culture. But the more he duginto it, literally and figuratively, the more he came to see that the myriad oftiny details in the book of Acts—place names, topography, officials’ titles,administrative boundaries, customs and even specific structures—fit per-fectly with newly discovered historical and archaeological finds. He wasgradually convinced that, to use his own words, “in various details the narra-tive showed marvelous truth.”

Contrary to all his earlier education, he was forced to conclude that Luke,the author of Acts, was “a historian of the first rank” and that “not merely arehis statements of fact trustworthy; he is possessed of the true historic sense. . . This author should be placed along with the very greatest of historians.”

In an outstanding academic career Ramsay was honored with doctoratesfrom nine universities and eventually knighted for his contributions to mod-ern scholarship. He shocked the academic world when in one of his bookshe announced that, because of the incontrovertible evidence he had discov-ered for the truthfulness of the Bible, he had become a Christian. Several ofhis works on New Testament history are considered classics.

When confronted with the evidence of years of travel and study, SirWilliam Ramsay learned what many others before him and since have beenforced to acknowledge: When we objectively examine the evidence for theBible’s accuracy and veracity, the only conclusion we can reach is that theBible is true.

The evidence from archaeology is only one proof of Scripture’s accuracy,and that’s the focus of this series of articles. We offer you a sampling of theevidence that’s available—documentation showing that details of the people,places and events described in the Bible, many of them mentioned only inpassing, have been verified by archaeologists and historians. Many excellentbooks have been published in recent years that verify the dependability ofScripture, and no doubt more will follow as new discoveries come to light.

What are the implications of this for you? All the evidence in the worlddoes us no good if we are not willing to believe the Bible enough to put it to the ultimate test—that of doing what it tells us to do.

James, the half brother of Jesus, reminds us that mere belief is notenough, because even the demons believe. Instead he tells us we must putour beliefs into action if we are to please God (James 2:19-26).

In The Good News we regularly offer articles such as those in this issue to help build your faith. But be sure that you don’t neglect the articles thatshow you how to put your faith and belief into action. God is interested tosee how you respond to the truth He makes known to you. Ultimately that isthe far more important test.

—Scott Ashley

The Downfall of Judah:Exile to Babylon

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

n this series The Good News examines archaeo-logical finds that confirm and clarify the historicalrecord of the Bible. Several earlier articles dis-

cussed the time of the divided kingdom of the Israel-ites after they split into the kingdoms of Israel andJudah after the death of King Solomon. Two articles

described the history of the northern kingdomof Israel, and the last issue portrayed the

early years of the southern kingdom ofJudah. We continue with an examination

of the last years of Judah as a kingdom.Around 710 B.C. Judah found itself

in a dangerous position. A decadebefore, Judah’s fellow Israelites in the kingdom of Israel had been con-quered by Assyria. The Assyriansrepopulated the land with othersbrought in from distant parts of theAssyrian Empire.

Judah’s territory had been largelydevastated by Assyrian armies.Only a great miracle had saved theinhabitants of Jerusalem from thesame fate that had overtaken theirnorthern cousins.

Meanwhile, more winds ofchange were beginning to stir in theregion. A new power, Babylon, wasrising in the east. Could the tiny,weakened kingdom of Judah surviveits precarious position between pow-erful and warring Assyria, Babylonand Egypt?

The amazing story of Judah’s sur-vival is one of the themes of the OldTestament.

Hezekiah’s fateful mistake

Soon after Jerusalem’s miraculousdeliverance from the Assyrians, Judah’sKing Hezekiah fell ill. After Godhealed Hezekiah, a Babylonian princesent representatives with a message andgift of congratulations for the monarch.

“At that time Berodach-Baladan the son of Baladan,king of Babylon, sent letters and a present to Heze-kiah, for he heard that Hezekiah had been sick”(2 Kings 20:12).

Hezekiah’s response to what he naively inter-preted as a neighborly act of kindness and reconcilia-tion would prove costly in the end.

“And Hezekiah was attentive to them [the Baby-lonian ambassadors], and showed them all the houseof his treasures—the silver and gold, the spices andprecious ointment, and all his armory—all that wasfound among his treasures. There was nothing in hishouse or in all his dominion that Hezekiah did notshow them. Then Isaiah the prophet went to KingHezekiah, and said to him, ‘What did these men say,and from where did they come to you?’So Hezekiahsaid, ‘They came from a far country, from Babylon’. . . Then Isaiah said to Hezekiah, ‘Hear the word ofthe LORD: “Behold, the days are coming when allthat is in your house, and what your fathers haveaccumulated until this day, shall be carried to Baby-lon; nothing shall be left”’” (verses 13-17).

Although Hezekiah proved righteous and faithfulas king, he foolishly tried to impress his visitors byshowing them the kingdom’s wealth and weaponry.The Bible reveals that at this time God withdrewfrom Hezekiah “in order to test him, that He mightknow all that was in his heart” (2 Chronicles 32:31).God allowed Hezekiah to make this thoughtlessdecision. Thus the setting was established for thefuture Babylonian invasion of Judah and its rich capital, Jerusalem.

Manasseh: vassal of the Assyrians

After Hezekiah’s death his son Manasseh inher-ited the throne. It wasn’t long before the young kingdeparted from his father’s righteous example andexposed himself as a wicked ruler. “Manasseh wastwelve years old when he became king, and hereigned fifty-five years in Jerusalem. But he did evilin the sight of the LORD . . .” (2 Chronicles 33:1-2).

“So Manasseh seduced Judah and the inhabitantsof Jerusalem to do more evil than the nations whomthe LORD had destroyed . . . And the LORD spoke to

18 The Good News

I

The mighty Assyrian king Esarhaddonis depicted as towering over capturedrulers of Egypt and Tyre. Ropes passthrough the lips of both prisoners as they plead for mercy. A similar fate befell Judah’s King Manasseh, who wastaken away “with hooks” into captivity.

Manasseh and his people, but they would not listen. Therefore the LORD brought uponthem the captains of the army of the king ofAssyria, who took Manasseh with hooks,bound him with bronze fetters, and carriedhim off to Babylon” (verses 9-11).

Two Assyrian records corroborateManasseh’s submission to the Assyrians.“The name, ‘Manasseh, king of Judah’appears on the Prism of Esarhaddon . . . andon the Prism of Ashurbanipal” as among 22rulers who paid tribute to Assyria (The NewBible Dictionary, 1996, p. 724).

The biblical narrative describing KingManasseh as being carried off “with hooks”(verse 11) refers to nose rings used to leadprisoners by ropes. It was a painful, humili-ating and degrading punishment for thosewho would defy the mighty Assyrian kings.

Mighty capital of a mighty empire

The Assyrian Empire, with Nineveh asits capital, appeared invincible at the time.James Muir graphically describes thisempire at the time of the prophet Nahum(668 B.C):

“Assyria’s expansion across western Asiacould be likened to an octopus whose tenta-cles stretched from the Persian Gulf to the

Nile, and whose head was Nineveh. At thattime, Nineveh was considered one of themost beautiful cities in the world. Recently,three of its kings had adorned the city withthe wealth of their conquests and had builtfabulous palaces. These were made of brick,and on the walls of the palaces were exquis-itely crafted bas-reliefs which depicted theirgreat victories. The great walls which sur-rounded the city measured twelve miles in circumference” (Archaeology and theScriptures, 1965, pp. 182-183).

In spite of Nineveh’s greatness, Nahumforetold not only the city’s destruction butpredicted that it would never be rebuilt.“‘Behold, I am against you,’says the LORD

of hosts; ‘I will lift your skirts over your face,I will show the nations your nakedness, andthe kingdoms your shame. I will cast abom-inable filth upon you, make you vile, andmake you a spectacle. It shall come to passthat all who look upon you will flee fromyou, and say, “Nineveh is laid waste! . . .”’”(Nahum 3:5-7).

After its destruction, in 612 B.C, thismighty metropolis of the ancient world van-ished from view. “Nineveh disappeared soquickly from sight,” according to one author,“that when the Greek general Xenophon and

his ten thousand soldiers passed over the sitein his famous reconnaissance of the PersianEmpire, he didn’t realize the ruins of Nin-eveh were under his feet. What had hap-pened? When Nineveh was put to the torch,everything was burnt, and gradually whatwas left became an artificial mound coveredwith grass” (Arnold Brackman, The Luck of Nineveh, 1978, p. 21).

Although few would have believed it atthe time, Nahum’s remarkable predictioncame to pass just as he had foretold. Nin-eveh was rediscovered only in 1845 byBritish archaeologist Austen Henry Layard.As a result, many treasures from its ruinsadorn the galleries of great museums in several countries.

A scribe who made an impression

After Assyria fell, Babylon ascended torule the region. With the rise of King Neb-uchadnezzar (605-562 B.C), the days of thekingdom of Judah were numbered. Never-theless, God sent faithful messengers towarn the nation’s leaders to return to worshipof the one true God before it was too late.Nehemiah said later, “Yet for many yearsYou had patience with them, and testifiedagainst them by Your Spirit in Your prophets.Yet they would not listen; therefore You gavethem into the hand of the peoples of thelands” (Nehemiah 9:30).

One of those prophets was Jeremiah,who lived while the Babylonians werethreatening Jerusalem. His faithful scribe,Baruch, wrote down someof Jeremiah’sprophecies.“Then JeremiahcalledBaruchthe son of Neriah;and Baruchwrote on ascroll of abook, at theinstructionof Jeremiah,all the wordsof the LORD

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Prisoners from Judah play their lyres while guarded by a soldier. This scene from anAssyrian palace is reminiscent of the words of Psalm 137:1-3 describing Judah’s cap-tivity in Babylon : “By the rivers of Babylon we sat and wept when we rememberedZion.There on the poplars we hung our harps, for there our captors . . . said, ‘Sing usone of the songs of Zion!’” (New International Version).

January/February 1999 19

Thisimpression from the seal ofBaruch, Jeremiah’s scribe, isdramatic proof of the exis-tence of this biblical charac-ter. A fingerprint, possiblythat of Baruch himself,appears on the left side.

20 The Good News

to him” (Jeremiah 36:4).Archaeologists recently found a clay

impression from Jeremiah’s time bearing notonly Baruch’s name, but apparently even hisfingerprint!

Tsvi Schneider, who in 1991 served asassistant librarian at Hebrew University’sInstitute of Archaeology, writes about a sealwith Baruch’s name on it: “The first andbest-known biblical name to be identified ona bulla [a lump of clay bearing a seal impres-sion] is Baruch son of Neriah. Baruch wasthe scribe, loyal friend and political ally of the prophet Jeremiah. The inscription is in three lines and reads: ‘Belonging toBerekhyahu/son of Neriyahu/the scribe.’Thebulla refers to Baruch by his full given name. . . Baruch son of Neriah, the seal impres-sion tells us, was a scribe. Four episodes inthe Book of Jeremiah mention Baruch, sonof Neriah the scribe” (Biblical Archaeologi-cal Review, July-August 1991, p. 27).

The librarian explains that the names of three other people from Jeremiah’s day,including Baruch’s brother, appear in otherclay impressions and seals. “It is interestingthat chapter 36 of the Book of Jeremiah alsocontains the names of two other peoplewhose seals have been impressed in surviv-ing bullae: ‘Yerahme’el son of the king’and‘Gemariah son of Shaphan.’”

The seal of Seriah, Baruch’s brother, hasbeen found as well. Seriah’s name appearsseveral times in Jeremiah 51 (verses 59-64).“The seal reads, in two lines, ‘Belonging toSeriahu/Neriyahu’ . . . Seriah was thebrother of Baruch, Jeremiah’s scribe; bothSeriah and Baruch were the sons of Neriahand grandsons of Mahseiah (Jeremiah32:12, 51:59)” (Biblical ArchaeologicalReview, p. 30).

These remarkable finds confirm evensome of the tiniest details of the Bible—that four people mentioned in the book ofJeremiah were real people who lived inJerusalem at the time.

The fall of Jerusalem

The Bible’s account of the conquest ofJerusalem is also confirmed by Babylonianrecords. First, let’s notice the biblical record:“And the LORD God of their fathers sentwarnings to them by His messengers, rising

up early and sending them, because He had compassion on His people and on Hisdwelling place. But they mocked the mes-sengers of God, despised His words, andscoffed at His prophets, until the wrath of theLORD arose against His people, till there wasno remedy. Therefore He brought againstthem the king of the Chaldeans [Babyloni-ans] . . .” (2 Chronicles 36:15-17).

“Then they burned the house of God [the temple], broke down the wall of Jeru-salem, burned all its palaces with fire, anddestroyed all its precious possessions. Andthose who escaped from the sword he car-ried away to Babylon, where they becameservants to him and his sons until the rule of the kingdom of Persia, to fulfill the wordof the LORD by the mouth of Jeremiah . . .”(2 Chronicles 36:19-21).

Jerusalem was actually conqueredtwice. The city was first captured but notdestroyed. Later it fell a second time, in587 B.C., when it was destroyed as theBible describes. The city was put to thetorch, its palaces and temple burned and its walls demolished. The Bible faithfullydescribes both defeats but does not specifywhen the city was conquered the first time.

In 1887 several Babylonian tablets, whicharchaeologists call The Babylon Chronicles,were deciphered. They provided dates of thereigns of many Babylonian kings. Moretablets, deciphered in 1956, give the dates of Nebuchadnezzar’s reign and activities.Regrettably, one tablet is missing that couldaccount for the years 594-557 B.C. Otherthan this gap, the tablets document his reign.

The Archaeological Commentary on theBible explains the significance of the 1956find: “Until 1956, the date of the first con-quest of Jerusalem by the Babylonians wasnot known. But in that year, severalcuneiform tablets were deciphered whichgave an exact date for the first conquest—in 597 B.C.” (1979, pp. 143-144).

Exile to Babylon

Like the Assyrians, the Babyloniansdeported vanquished peoples to maintaintighter control over conquered territories. As their cousins in the northern kingdom ofIsrael fell into captivity by Assyria more thana century earlier, Judah’s inhabitants now

were taken to Babylon.The situation seemed hopeless. Judah

was devastated, and the Babyloniansforcibly removed most of its citizens. Yet,in spite of their situation, God through Hisprophets encouraged the people not to giveup hope that they would one day return totheir homeland. He not only sent prophets toJudah but to Babylon as well. Men such asDaniel and Ezekiel, who both lived in Baby-lon, spoke of a coming restoration of Judah.

Speaking through Jeremiah, God heldout hope for His people: “Thus says theLORD of hosts, the God of Israel, to all whowere carried away captive, whom I havecaused to be carried away from Jerusalemto Babylon: Build houses and dwell inthem; plant gardens and eat their fruit. Takewives and beget sons and daughters . . . thatyou may be increased there, and not dimin-ished. And seek the peace of the city whereI have caused you to be carried away cap-tive, and pray to the LORD for it; for in itspeace you will have peace . . . After seventyyears are completed at Babylon, I will visityou and perform My good word towardyou, and cause you to return to this place”(Jeremiah 29:4-10).

After these encouraging words, the exilesflourished as a community in Babylon. Theywere so successful that after the 70 prophe-sied years of their exile the majority decidedto stay. These circumstances nurtured thegrowth of two large Jewish enclaves in thatpart of the world, one in Babylon and theother in Jerusalem.

Archaeological evidence demonstratesthe kind of favorable conditions that Godpromised Judah’s inhabitants in Babylon.“In 1933, E.F. Weidner, the Assyriologist,took in hand to look through the tablets andsherds in the basement rooms of the Kaiser-Friedrich Museum . . . Among this dulladministrative rubbish Weidner suddenlyfound some priceless relics of red tape in theancient world. On four different receipts forstores issued, among them best qualitysesame oil, he came upon a familiar biblicalname: ‘Ja’-u-kinu’—Jehoiachin! There wasno possibility of his name being mistaken,because Jehoiachin was given his full title:‘King of the [land of] Judah’. . . Jehoiachin,

Continued on page 28

the deposed king of Judah, lived with hisfamily and his retinue in the palace of Neb-uchadnezzar in Babylon. We may concludefrom Weidner’s discovery that the biblicalaccount in the Second Book of Kings maybe thus supplemented: ‘And for his diet,there was a continual diet given him of theking of Babylon, every day a portion, untilthe day of his death, all the days of his life’(Jeremiah 52:34)” (Werner Keller, The Bibleas History, 1980, pp. 303-304).

The Bank of Murashu & Sons

The enterprising inhabitants of Judah,who had come to Babylon as a defeated andcaptive people, were given considerable lee-way by the equally industrious Babylonians.Historian Petra Eisele explains: “Althoughnot much is known of the lives of the Jewishexiles in Babylon, enough is known to con-firm their plight was not as harsh as theirslavery had been in Egypt during Moses’time. In Babylon they did not live as prison-ers or slaves, instead as a ‘semi-free’people. . . After the Persians conquered Babylon in539 B.C. and granted the Jews the right toreturn to their native land, only a minority of these supposedly ‘poor prisoners’ tookadvantage of this generous offer. Many didnot want to sacrifice the comforts and richesthey had acquired in this ‘foreign’ land and face the uncertainties of going back to their ‘homeland.’

“As the clay tablets of commercial doc-uments in the fifth century B.C show, evenafter the end of the exile, the Babylonianbanks were firmly in the hands of theJews. There was one Jewish banker whosefirm, Bank of Murashu & Sons, hadgreatly expanded into the real estate busi-ness. It had its headquarters in nearby Nip-pur, and had approximately 200 branchesthroughout the country!” (Babylon, quotedin Editorial EDAF, 1980, p. 70).

With thriving centers in Babylon andJerusalem, the Jewish people were betterequipped to survive the conquests of the Per-sians, Greeks and Romans. Several centurieslater, in the New Testament period, theyremained firmly established in Israel.Against all apparent odds, God’s promisethat Judah’s inhabitants would not remain in their Babylonian captivity was fulfilled.

As we will also see in future articles,archaeology has discovered much from thisperiod to confirm the biblical record. GN

The Kingdom of Judah: Exile & Restoration

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

he Good News has traced the history of the OldTestament from Genesis through the captivity ofthe kingdoms of Israel and Judah. This series has

shown that archaeological finds have confirmed andilluminated the biblical account. In this issue we pickup the story with conditions and circumstances thatallowed the descendants of the kingdom of Judah to return to their homeland.

Although many of the survivors of the Babylonianinvasion of Judah were exiled to Babylon for 70 years,they were not forsaken by God. In fact, some of thegreatest Bible prophecies were made at that time, notjust to give hope to those suffering captives but to comfort God’s people throughout the ages.

Daniel’s astounding prophecies

When Judah was defeated by the Babylonians,Daniel was one of the young princes taken captiveand educated in Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar’scourt. The details of Babylonian customs and its gov-ernmental system described in the book of Daniel fit nicely with historical records and subsequentarchaeological finds.

The New Bible Dictionary says about the book ofDaniel: “The author gives evidence of having a moreaccurate knowledge of Neo-Babylonian and early Per-sian history than any known historian since the 6th cen-tury BC . . . He knew enough of 6th century customs torepresent Nebuchadnezzar as being able to make andalter the laws of Babylon with absolute sovereignty(Daniel 2:12-13, 46), while depicting Darius the Medeas being helpless to change the laws of the Medes andPersians (Daniel 6:8-9). Also, he accurately repre-sented the change from punishment by fire under theBabylonians (Daniel 3) to punishment by the lions’denunder the Persians (Daniel 6), since fire was sacred tothem” (1982, p. 263, “Daniel, Book of”).

During the period Daniel served in Nebuchadnez-zar’s court, he received a series of prophecies fromGod. These remarkable predictions described the finalyears of the Old Testament era, the Intertestamentalperiod, the days of the New Testament and up to theestablishment of the Kingdom of God on earth.

God revealed to Daniel that four kingdoms would

rule a great part of the world from Daniel’s time tothe coming of God’s Kingdom. Although parts ofthese prophecies, in Daniel 2-12, are in mostly sym-bolic language, God does reveal the identity of thefour kingdoms.

The first was Babylon, the dominant kingdom ofDaniel’s time (Daniel 2:37-38). Afterwards wouldcome the kingdom of the Medes and the Persians(Daniel 8:20) followed by the Greek Empire (verse21). Finally the Roman Empire would arise and defeatthe Greeks and absorb parts of the previous empires(Daniel 2:40; 7:7, 23).

Although this final empire would experience periodicdeclines through the centuries, it would not permanentlydisappear. Rather, at successive intervals it would revivein the form of several incarnations of the “Holy RomanEmpire.” God revealed to Daniel that the last revivalwould be guided by a world dictator and a religiousleader who would govern with 10 rulers under them.They would rule until the establishment of the Kingdomof God at Christ’s return (Daniel 2:41-44; 8:23-26).

Prophecy of Babylon’s downfall

When Daniel received this prophecy, Babylon’spower was at its peak. Nebuchadnezzar could boast of his massive building projects that had enlarged andbeautified Babylon. “Is not this great Babylon, that I have built for a royal dwelling by my mighty powerand for the honor of my majesty?” he proudly andrhetorically asked (Daniel 4:30). The existence of Neb-uchadnezzar’s massive building projects is confirmedby archaeology.

Excavators at the beginning of this centuryunearthed some of the remains of this vast city. A his-torian summarizes the finds: “In 1899 the GermanOriental Society equipped a large expedition under thedirection of Professor Robert Koldewey, the architect,to examine the famous ruined mound of ‘Babil’on theEuphrates. The excavations, as it turned out, tooklonger than anywhere else. In eighteen years the mostfamous metropolis of the ancient world, the royal seatof Nebuchadnezzar, was brought to light, and at thesame time, one of the Seven Wonders of the World,the ‘Hanging Gardens,’ loudly extolled by Greek trav-

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ellers of a later day, and ‘E-temen-an-ki,’the legendary Tower of Babel. In the palace of Nebuchadnezzar and on the Ishtar Gate, which was situated beside it,countless inscriptions were discovered”(Werner Keller, The Bible as History,1980, p. 302).

Regarding Nebuchadnezzar, the sameauthor mentions: “Hardly any othermonarch in the past was such an assiduousbuilder. There is scarcely any mention ofwarlike activities, conquests and campaigns.In the forefront there is the constant buildingactivity of Nebuchadnezzar. Hundreds ofthousands of bricks bear his name, and theplans of many of the buildings have beenpreserved. Babylon in fact surpassed all thecities of the ancient orient: it was greater

than Thebes, Memphis and Ur, greater eventhan Nineveh” (Keller, p. 316).

It seemed impossible for this great city to be suddenly conquered. Yet Daniel pre-dicted its demise the same night it fell to thePersians. He interpreted the mysterioushandwriting on the wall of the palace andtold the king: “‘Your kingdom has beendivided, and given to the Medes and Per-sians’ . . . [and] that very night Belshazzar,king of the Chaldeans, was slain. And Darius the Mede received the kingdom . . .”(Daniel 5:28-31).

About 100 years later the Greek histo-rian Herodotus (484-420 B.C.) confirmedDaniel’s account of the fall of Babylon:“The Persians, drawing off the river[Euphrates] by a canal into the lake, which

was till now a marsh, he [Cyrus] made thestream to sink till its former channel couldbe forded. When this happened, the Per-sians who were posted with this intentmade their way into Babylon by the chan-nel of the Euphrates, which had now sunkto about the height of the middle of a man’sthigh . . . The Persians thus entered the city. . . and the inhabitants who lived in the cen-tral part of Babylon were unaware of theenemies’presence due to the great size ofthe city and since they were celebrating a festival. They continued dancing andexchanging gifts until they were suddenlytold of their sad fate. In this manner wasBabylon conquered” (History, book 1,paragraphs 191-192).

Cyrus’s acts foretold

True to Bible prophecy, these eventsoccurred when the 70 years of exile expired.Cyrus the Persian, allied with the Medes,conquered the Babylonian Empire and freedthe descendants of the kingdom of Judahwho had been taken into captivity. Severalprophets foretold the fall of Babylon. Isaiaheven mentioned Cyrus by name years beforehe rose to defeat the Babylonians.

Some 200 years before Cyrus was born,God said through Isaiah: “I am the LORD . . .who says of Cyrus, ‘He is My shepherd, andhe shall perform all My pleasure, saying toJerusalem, “You shall be built,” and to thetemple, “Your foundation shall be laid”’

“Thus says the LORD to His anointed, toCyrus, whose right hand I have held—tosubdue nations before him and loose thearmor of kings, to open before him the dou-ble doors, so that the gates will not be shut. . . I will give you the treasures of darknessand hidden riches of secret places, that youmay know that I, the LORD, who call you byyour name, am the God of Israel” (Isaiah44:24, 28; 45:1-3, emphasis added).

In a day when conquerors were ruthlesswith their captives, Cyrus is known in history as a considerate ruler who offeredrelative freedom to the peoples previouslyconquered by the Babylonians.

About a century ago, a clay cylinderinscribed with a decree from King Cyruswas found in the ruins of Babylon. Calledthe Cyrus Cylinder, it is on display in theEr

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The Ishtar Gate, the main entrance into Babylon, built during the reign of the bib-lical King Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 B.C.), has been restored in Berlin. Enameledtiles, mythical animals, lions and gods embellish the gate, which was dedicated toIshtar, the Babylonian fertility goddess. Nebuchadnezzar invaded Judah, destroyedJerusalem and the temple and took the people captive to Babylon, where theyspent 70 years in exile as punishment for their disobedience to God.

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20 The Good News

British Museum. Its language is similar tothe decree given by Cyrus in the Bible. Themain difference is Cyrus’s use of Babylon-ian wording for God. He declares that hewas liberating the peoples because a partic-ular “God” had pronounced his name andchosen him in a miraculous way.

Writing from a Babylonian perspective,Cyrus said: “Marduk [the Babylonian namefor the chief god] scanned and lookedthrough all the countries, searching for arighteous ruler willing to lead him. He pronounced the name of Cyrus, king ofAnshan, and declared him to be the ruler of the world . . . and ordered him to marchagainst his city Babylon . . . Without anybattle, he made him enter his town Babylon,sparing Babylon and calamity . . . I gatheredall their inhabitants and returned them totheir habitations. Furthermore, I resettled . . .all the gods . . . in their former chapels”J. B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts,1969, p. 316).

Return from exile

The biblical version of the decree,recorded in Ezra 1, reveals the prophecy’sfulfillment: “Now in the first year of Cyrusking of Persia, that the word of the LORD bythe mouth of Jeremiah might be fulfilled,the LORD stirred up the spirit of Cyrus kingof Persia, so that he made a proclamationthroughout all his kingdom, and also put itin writing, saying, Thus says Cyrus king ofPersia:All the kingdoms of the earth theLORD God of heaven has given me. And Hehas commanded me to build Him a house atJerusalem which is in Judah.

“Who is among you of all His people?May his God be with him, and let him go up to Jerusalem which is in Judah, and buildthe house of the LORD God of Israel (He isGod), which is in Jerusalem. And whoeveris left in any place where he dwells, let themen of his place help him with silver andgold, with goods and livestock, besides thefreewill offerings for the house of Godwhich is in Jerusalem” (Ezra 1:1-4).

Josephus, the first-century Jewish histo-rian, records the reactions of the Jews whenCyrus entered Babylon:

“This [prophecy] was known to Cyrus byhis reading the book which Isaiah left behind

him of his prophecies; for this prophet saidthat God had spoken thus to him in a secretvision: ‘My will is, that Cyrus, whom I haveappointed to be king over many and greatnations, send back my people to their ownland, and build my temple.’

“This was foretold by Isaiah one hundredand forty years before the temple wasdemolished. Accordingly, when Cyrus readthis, and admired the divine power, anearnest desire and ambition seized upon himto fulfil what was so written; so he called forthe most eminent Jews that were in Baby-lon, and said to them, that he gave themleave to go back to their own country, and torebuild their city Jerusalem, and the templeof God . . .” (Antiquities of the Jews, BookXI, Chapter I, Section 2).

Thus the history of the descendants ofthe kingdom of Judah, the Jews, continuedto be recorded in what would become theBible. However, their brethren of the otherIsraelitish tribes, taken into captivity earlierby the Assyrians, had by now largely losttheir identity in the former Assyrian Empire,just as foretold in prophecy (1 Kings 17).

Persian period: Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther

The Old Testament period ends duringthe era of Persian rule. Several Bible booksaccurately describe the Persian customs of the time. While the books of Ezra andNehemiah relate the return of the Jews tothe land of Judah, the book of Estherrecounts the story of a young Jewish girlnamed Esther who became the queen ofKing Xerxes I.

Nehemiah’s story begins with his serviceto the Persian king. “And it came to pass inthe month of Nisan, in the twentieth year of King Artaxerxes, when wine was beforehim, that I took the wine and gave it to theking . . .” (Nehemiah 2:1). While the title ofcupbearer doesn’t sound important today, itwas one of the highest government posts ofthat time.

The International Standard Bible Ency-clopedia explains: “[The cupbearer was] an officer of high rank at ancient orientalcourts, whose duty it was to serve the wineat the king’s table. On account of the con-stant fear of plots and intrigues, a person

must be regarded as thoroughly trustwor-thy to hold this position . . . His confiden-tial relations with the king often endearedhim to his sovereign and also gave him aposition of great influence” (1979, Vol. I,p. 837, “Cupbearer”).

Archaeologists have discovered a list of salaries paid to the highest Assyrian officials. This record reflects the generalvalues of similar posts in the Persianadministration. After the commandinggeneral, the prime minister and the palaceauthority came the cupbearer, who earnedthe fourth-largest salary in the kingdom.

Nehemiah had enough wealth accumu-lated when he arrived as Jerusalem’s newgovernor that he had no need to tax the localpopulace. Indeed he apparently took it onhimself to personally provide for a largenumber of his Jewish countrymen. “And atmy table,” he writes, “were one hundred andfifty Jews and rulers, besides those whocame to us from the nations around us. Nowthat which was prepared daily was one oxand six choice sheep. Also fowl were pre-pared for me, and once every ten days anabundance of all kinds of wine. Yet in spiteof this I did not demand the governor’s pro-visions, because the bondage was heavy onthis people” (Nehemiah 5:17-18).

Queen Esther saves the Jews

Even though thousands of Jews success-fully resettled the territory of the formerkingdom of Judah, many remained dis-persed throughout the chief cities of the Per-sian Empire. The book of Esther gives us aglimpse of the influence the Jewish commu-nity had in the empire between 500 and 450B.C., as well as the problems that influencesometimes engendered.

One of the Persian officials, Haman, com-plained to the king about the Jews: “There is a certain people scattered and dispersedamong the people in all the provinces ofyour kingdom; their laws are different fromall other people’s, and they do not keep theking’s laws. Therefore it is not fitting for theking to let them remain” (Esther 3:8). “Andthe king said to Haman, ‘The money and thepeople are given to you, to do with them asseems good to you’” (verse 11).

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As the book that honors her namerecounts, thanks to Queen Esther’s courageand faith, God miraculously intervenedand caused her people to be spared. Thebook of Esther was obviously written bysomeone familiar with the procedures and customs of the Persian court of themid–fifth century B.C.

Much archaeological evidence of thisJewish influence has been found through-out the territory of the Persian Empire.Assyriologist Georges Conteau writes:

“Hundreds of clay tablets have beenfound dating back to the beginning of thePersian period which deal with a prosperousJewish enterprise, Murashu and Sons.When Nebuchadnezzar conquered Jeru-salem in 587 BC, he deported some of thenoble families to Babylon, and the Murashufamily was among them.

“The family of exiles prospered in the cityof Nippur and reached its maximum influ-ence and wealth under the Persian rule ofArtaxerxes I (564-424 BC) and Darius II(423-405 BC). Many of the documents of thefirm are written in both cuneiform and Ara-maic characters so they can be more easilyunderstood by a wider audience. Most dealwith contracts, payments or rentals” (DailyLife in Babylon and Assyria, 1958, p. 95).

We have already seen in this article thatthe Persian customs and history of theaccount of Esther also ring true. Speaking of Esther, The Interpreter’s Dictionary ofthe Bible notes: “The author employs thecustomary formula for the beginning of anhistorical account . . . [and] his references toPersian customs show considerable accurateknowledge . . . More recently cuneiformevidence has been found to show that therewas a Persian official named Marduka(Mordecai) in Susa [Shushan] at the end ofthe reign of Darius I or the beginning of thereign of Xerxes” (1962, Vol. II, p. 151,“Esther, Book of”).

In the book of Esther, Mordecai isEsther’s uncle and is a high governmentofficial who is ultimately named as primeminister to the king.

We will continue the story with a fascinat-ing era: the Intertestamental period, the timebetween the testaments, when the eventsdescribed in the books of the Old Testamenthistory were completed but before the eventsthat introduced the four Gospels. GN

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his series has traced the history of the OldTestament from Genesis through the captiv-ity of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah,

describing archaeological finds and historicalaccounts that have confirmed and illuminatedthe biblical account. In this issue we show more evidence that confirms theaccuracy of the Bible accountsby picking up the story with theIntertestamental period: thetime between the testaments,when the events described inthe books of the Old Testamentwere completed but before theevents that introduced the fourGospels.

During this 420 years severalcrucial prophecies were ful-filled, dramatizing the authen-ticity of God’s Word and settingthe stage for another prophesiedevent: the appearance of theMessiah.

The Old Testament comes toa close shortly after the events in the books of Daniel, Ezra,Nehemiah and Esther. However,Daniel’s prophecies continue to forecast eventswithin the Intertestamental period.

Alexander the Great in prophecy

In a vision, God revealed to Daniel that thekingdom to rise after the Persians would be theGreeks under Alexander the Great. Gabriel, theangelic messenger from God, explained to Daniel:“The ram which you saw, having the two horns—they are the kings of Media and Persia. And themale goat is the kingdom of Greece. The largehorn that is between its eyes is the first king. As for the broken horn and the four that stood up in

its place, four kingdoms shall arise out of thatnation, but not with its power” (Daniel 8:20-21).

The Persian kingdom rapidly came to an end in 333 B.C. when Alexander the Great defeated the armies of Darius III at Issus. Yet, 10 years later,true to the prophecy in Daniel 8, Alexander unex-

pectedly died and the GreekEmpire divided into four parts,each headed by one of his fourgenerals.

God’s people were miracu-lously saved and liberatedwhen, according to Josephus,Cyrus saw his name and featsprophesied in the Bible. Thewritings of Josephus alsoinclude an account of Alexan-der the Great sparing Jerusalemfrom destruction after he sawhis exploits prophesied inScripture.

When Alexander descendedon the Middle East, it was nat-ural that almost everyoneresisted him. Those who didwere mercilessly trampledbefore him. Neighboring

Phoenicia felt Alexander’s wrath when he utterlydestroyed Tyre. It seemed the same fate awaitedrebellious Jerusalem, which had backed the haplessPersians crushed by Alexander at Issus.

Surprising showdown at Jerusalem

Josephus recounts how Alexander’s troops sur-rounded the city and readied themselves to attack.Suddenly the city gates swung open, and out camethe high priest with his entourage.

Josephus writes: “. . . For Alexander, when hesaw the multitude at a distance, in white garments,while the priests stood clothed with fine linen, and

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The rise of the Grecian empire ofAlexander the Great was prophe-sied by Daniel well before Alexan-der rose to conquer most of theknown world of his day.

The Intertestamental Period: Daniel’s Prophecies

Come to Pass

During this periodseveral crucial

prophecies were ful-filled, dramatizingthe authenticity of

God’s Word and set-ting the stage for

another prophesiedevent: the appear-

ance of the Messiah.

the high priest in purple and scarlet cloth-ing, with his mitre on his head, having thegolden plate whereon the name of Godwas engraved, he approached by himself,and adored that name, and first saluted thehigh priest . . . whereupon the kings ofSyria and the rest were surprised at whatAlexander had done, and supposed himdisordered in his mind. However, Parme-nio alone went up to him, and asked himhow it came to pass that, when all othersadored him, he should adore the high priestof the Jews?

“To whom he replied, ‘I did not adorehim, but that God who hath honouredhim with his high priesthood; for I sawthis very person in a dream, in this veryhabit [clothing], when I was at Dios inMacedonia, who . . . exhorted me tomake no delay, but boldly to pass over thesea thither, for that he would conduct myarmy, and would give me the dominionover the Persians; whence . . . now seeingthis person in it, and remembering thatvision . . . I believe that I bring this armyunder the divine conduct . . .’

“. . . And when the book of Daniel wasshewed him, wherein Daniel declared thatone of the Greeks should destroy theempire of the Persians, he supposed thathimself was the person intended; and as hewas then glad, he . . . bade them ask whatfavours they pleased of him; whereuponthe high priest desired that they . . . mightpay no tribute on the seventh year. Hegranted all they desired . . .” (Antiquities of the Jews, XI, viii, 5).

Antiochus IV Epiphanes and theabomination of desolation

Thus began the Greek reign over Judea,which would last 150 years. In chapter 11,Daniel prophesied the changes in fortunethe Jews would know under the Greeks.After Alexander died Judea became part of the realm of General Ptolemy, who gov-erned from Egypt. By and large the periodwas peaceful for the Jews.

However, the intermittent wars betweenthe Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucidsof Syria for complete control of the GreekEmpire came to a head in 198 B.C. In thatyear the Ptolemies saw defeat. Judea thencame under the dominion of the Seleucids.

Shortly after the Seleucid line of theGreek Empire began governing Judea, aking arose who was to fulfill several direprophecies recorded in Daniel. Accordingto historians, Antiochus IV Epiphanes was the ruler who set up the first “abomi-nation of desolation” mentioned in Daniel8 and 11.

Daniel 8:8-13 describes this time:“Therefore the male goat [the Greek

Empire] grew very great; but when hebecame strong, the large horn was broken

[Alexander the Greatsuddenly died at the

apex of his power], and in place of it fournotable ones came up toward the fourwinds of heaven [Alexander’s kingdomwas divided among his four top generals]”(verse 8).

“And out of one of them came a littlehorn [Antiochus IV Epiphanes] whichgrew exceedingly great toward the south[Egypt], toward the east [Mesopotamia],and toward the Glorious Land [Judea] . . .He even exalted himself as high as thePrince of the host; and by him the dailysacrifices were taken away, and the placeof His sanctuary [the temple at Jerusalem]was cast down . . . Then I heard a holyone speaking . . . ‘How long will thevision be, concerning the daily sacrificesand the transgression of desolation . . .?’”(verses 9-13).

The International Standard Bible Ency-clopedia says of Antiochus Epiphanes:“His career with respect to Palestine isrecorded in 1 and 2 Maccabees, andremarkably predicted in [Daniel] 11:21-35” (Vol. I, p. 145, “Antiochus IV Epi-phanes”). The books of 1 and 2 Maccabees

are not included in the traditional Hebrewcanon of Scripture but are valuable as his-torical accounts. Both books were writtenbefore the birth of Christ.

Antiochus’s cruel reign

A brief history of the three years of the“abomination of desolation” under Anti-ochus Epiphanes is to be found in TheBible Knowledge Commentary:

“This part of the vision anticipated therise of a ruler in the Greek Empire whosubjugated the people and land of Israel,desecrated her temple, interrupted her wor-ship, and demanded for himself the author-ity and worship that belongs to God. Hedesecrated the temple and abolished thedaily sacrifice.

“Antiochus sent his general Apolloniuswith 22,000 soldiers into Jerusalem on

what was purported to be a peace mis-sion. But they attacked Jerusalem on theSabbath, killed many people, took manywomen and children as slaves, and plun-dered and burned the city. In seeking toexterminate Judaism and to Hellenize the Jews, he forbade the Jews to followtheir religious practices (including theirfestivals and circumcision), and com-manded that copies of the Law be burned.Then he set up the abomination thatcauses desolation.

“In this culminating act he erected onDecember 16, 167 BC an altar to Zeus on the altar of burnt offering outside thetemple, and had a pig offered on the altar.The Jews were compelled to offer a pig onthe 25th of each month to celebrate Anti-ochus Epiphanes’birthday. Antiochuspromised apostate Jews great reward ifthey would set aside the God of Israel andworship Zeus, the god of Greece. Many inIsrael were persuaded by his promises andworshiped the false god. However, a smallremnant remained faithful to God, refusingto engage in those abominable practices.Antiochus IV died insane in Persia in 163BC” (Logos Library System, 1997).

The precision of Daniel’s description of events of this period (given more than300 years earlier) have led many Bible critics to redate the book of Daniel to afterthese events took place. They would not

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AntiochusEpiphanes, shownhere on a silver coin of hisempire, tried to stamp out Jewish reli-gious practices, abolished the Jerusalemtemple sacrifices and desecrated thetemple by sacrificing swine on the altar.

Continued on page 31

20 The Good News

admit that the events had been prophesied.However, thanks to the discovery in 1948of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which includeparts of every Old Testament book exceptEsther, the traditional date of Daniel hasgained additional support.

Explains Gleason Archer, professor ofOld Testament and Semitic studies at Trin-ity Evangelical Divinity School: “In orderto avoid the impact of the decisive evi-dence of supernatural inspiration withwhich Daniel so notably abounds, it wasnecessary for rationalistic scholarship tofind some later period in Jewish historywhen all the ‘predictions’had already beenfulfilled, such as the reign of AntiochusEpiphanes (175-164 BC) . . . With thewealth of new data from the manuscripts of the Dead Sea caves, it is possible to set-tle this question once and for all” (Encyclo-pedia of Bible Difficulties, 1982, p. 282).

Thanks to this new linguistic evidence,Dr. Archer proceeds to show the accuracyof the traditional dating of Daniel (around530 B.C.).

Jews lose their independence to Rome

In 164 B.C., with the heroic leadershipof the Maccabean family, the Jews over-threw their Syrian oppressors. For a century they enjoyed their Jewish indepen-dence under the rule of the Maccabeandescendants. However, in 63 B.C. theRoman general Pompey conquered Judea,making it Roman territory.

Several decades later the Jews wouldsuffer greatly when the Romans choseHerod the Great as king of Judea. Hereigned from 37 to 4 B.C. His last yearsbring the Intertestamental period to a closeand usher in the New Testament era.

Continue reading The Good News forother articles in this series examining howarchaeological evidence confirms theauthenticity of God’s Word.

If you would like to learn more aboutBible prophecy, including the manyprophecies of Daniel that remain to be ful-filled, be sure to request your free copiesof the booklets Is the Bible True? and You Can Understand Bible Prophecy.Both are free for the asking when you contact our office in your country (or thecountry nearest you) listed on page 2. GN

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he Good News has traced some of the manyhistorical and archaeological findings that con-firm and clarify the biblical record of the Old

Testament, a record that spans some 4,000 years. We continue that survey into the New Testament era.

How much has archaeology confirmed about theNew Testament period? Are the many names men-tioned in the New Testament real people? Can theirexistence be verified by credible historical evidenceother than the Bible?

Although the time in question is much briefer—less than a century—archaeology has much to tellus about the life and times of Jesus of Nazareth andHis apostles. As we examine this period, the physi-cal evidence supporting the biblical record multi-plies. Let’s begin this fascinating archaeologicaljourney into the New Testament world.

Appropriately, the Old Testament ends with God’spromise to send a messenger to prepare the way forthe Messiah. In Malachi, apparently the last prophe-tic book of the Old Testament to be written, the finaltwo chapters record a dramatic prophecy: “‘Behold,I send My messenger, and he will prepare the waybefore Me. And the Lord, whom you seek, will sud-denly come to His temple, even the Messenger of the covenant, in whom you delight. Behold, He iscoming,’says the LORD of Hosts” (Malachi 3:1).

It should come as no surprise that the story flowof the New Testament begins where the last of theOld Testament prophets leaves off—with the arrivalof the messenger foretold by Malachi. This shows a continuation from the Old to the New Testament,bearing in mind that a few hundred years hadpassed in the interim.

At the beginning of Luke’s gospel, an angel tellsZacharias the priest about the fulfillment of theprophecy in Malachi. The messenger prophesied by God in the Old Testament would be his son John(the Baptist), who would prepare the way for theChrist. The angel told him: “Do not be afraid,Zacharias, for your prayer is heard; and your wifeElizabeth will bear you a son, and you shall call hisname John . . . He will also go before Him in the

spirit and power of Elijah, ‘to turn the hearts of thefathers to the children,’and the disobedient to thewisdom of the just, to make ready a people preparedfor the Lord” (Luke 1:13, 17).

Thus, at the start of Luke’s gospel, the stage isset for the first coming of the Messiah.

Herod the mighty king

One of the first people to appear in the New Tes-tament account is King Herod. Matthew takes us tothe court of Herod the Great: “Now after Jesus wasborn in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of Herodthe king, behold, wise men from the East came toJerusalem, saying, ‘Where is He who has been born King of the Jews? For we have seen His star in the East and have come to worship Him. WhenHerod the king heard this, he was troubled, and allJerusalem with him . . .

“Then Herod, when he had secretly called thewise men, determined from them what time the starappeared. And he sent them to Bethlehem and said,‘Go and search carefully for the young Child, andwhen you have found Him, bring back word to me,that I may come and worship Him also” (Matthew2:1-3, 7-8).

Was Herod a real figure, and was he the king atthis time? Yes. Secular history and archaeologyhave confirmed his existence and reign beyond adoubt. He is known in history as Herod the Great.Under the Romans this non-Israelite king had ruledthe province of Judea (most of the area of the for-mer kingdoms of Israel and Judah) for almost 40years when Jesus Christ appeared on the scene.Herod was a great builder and left his name onmany monuments. He was a famous figure in Jewish and Roman history.

John McRay, archaeologist and Wheaton College professor of New Testament, summarizesHerod’s reign: “Archaeological excavations haveuncovered a surprisingly large amount of evidencepertaining to Herod the Great . . . Herod the Greatwas an Idumean who, in 41 B.C., was granted pro-visional rule of Galilee by Mark Antony [the friend

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Jesus Christ: The Early Years

Although the timeframe is much

briefer—less thana century—

archaeology hasmuch to tell us

about the life andtimes of Jesus of

Nazareth and His apostles.

of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra’s last lover]. . . In 30 B.C. Octavian (Caesar Augustus)affirmed Herod’s rule over Judea, Samaria,and Galilee . . . Herod remained in poweruntil his death in 4 B.C.; thus Christ wasborn in Bethlehem prior to that date”(Archaeology and the New Testament,1997, p. 91).

One of the main reasons Herod isreferred to as Herod the Great has to dowith his extensive and exquisite buildingprojects. F.F. Bruce, former professor ofbiblical criticism and exegesis at the Uni-versity of Manchester in England, says,“Had Herod done nothing else, he wouldhave made a secure niche in history forhimself as a great builder” (New TestamentHistory, 1972, p. 20).

He is known to have initiated construc-tion projects in at least 20 cities or towns in Israel and more than 10 in foreign cities.Two inscriptions pertaining to Herod havebeen found in Athens. One reads: “Thepeople [erect this monument to] KingHerod, lover of the Romans, because of hisbeneficence and good will [shown] byhim.” The other said: “The people [erect

this monument to] King Herod, devout andlover of Caesar, because of his virtue andbeneficence” (ibid., p. 92).

Josephus, a first-century Jewish histo-rian, confirms Herod’s great constructionprojects outside Israel: “And when he hadbuilt so much, he shewed the greatness ofhis soul to no small number of foreigncities . . . And are not the Athenians . . . fullof donations that Herod presented themwithal!” (Wars of the Jews, Book I, ChapterXXI, Section 11).

Of his notable building achievementsinside Israel, six are generally acclaimed asthe most notable: (1) his renovation of thetemple and expansion of the temple plat-form in Jerusalem; (2) Herodium, hispalace-fortress near Bethlehem, encased ina manmade mountain; (3) his magnificentpalace at Jericho, equipped with a swim-ming pool more than 100 feet long; (4)Masada, a mountain fortress where he builttwo palaces (the site was later immortalizedas the last holdout of the Jews in defense oftheir country against the Romans); (5) Cae-sarea, a manmade port city built under hissupervision that became the official head-

quarters of the Romans; and (6) Samaria,the capital of the former kingdom of Israel,which he rebuilt and renamed Sebaste.

Of the six, all except Herodium andMasada are mentioned in Scripture.

From studying the remains of Herod’svast building programs, archaeologists andarchitects have nothing but praise for thebeauty, massiveness, ingenuity and practi-cality of his projects. For instance, at thebase of the Temple Mount in Jerusalemarchaeologists discovered, among othermassive foundation stones, one block thatweighed 415 tons. In comparison, thelargest blocks in the Great Pyramid ofCheops in Egypt weigh only 15 tons, andthe megaliths in Stonehenge, England,weigh only up to 40 tons.

Herod the cruel king

Herod was known not just for his greatbuilding, political and military skills but forhis great cruelty. The Bible gives us an indi-cation of his utter disregard for human lifein its record of his reaction to hearing of thebirth of Jesus.

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The Jerusalem temple was but one of the enormous con-struction projects of Herod the Great. The partial modelabove, from Jerusalem’s Tower of David Museum, showshow the southwest corner of the temple platform andthe magnificent staircase that provided access to the

temple from the lower city likely appeared in JesusChrist’s day. Large areas of the platform’s massive retain-ing walls are still visible today, most notably at the West-ern Wall, right, now dominated by the Dome of theRock, built by Muslims on the former temple platform.

20 The Good News

had been born, Herod was greatly disturbedby this potential threat to his power andthrone (Matthew 2:1-3). When his schemeto identify the newborn Messiah failed(verses 7-8, 12), Herod lashed out violently.

“Then Herod, when he saw that he wasdeceived by the wise men, was exceedinglyangry; and he sent forth and put to death allthe male children who were in Bethlehemand in all its districts, from two years oldand under [the approximate age of Jesus],according to the time which he had deter-mined from the wise men” (verse 16).

The massacre in Bethlehem was not out of character for Herod. A.T. Robertson,chairman of New Testament interpretationat Southern Baptist Theological Seminary,shows us Herod’s savagery. Dr. Robertsondescribes Herod’s cruelty even towardthose in his own family:

“Those familiar with the story of Herodthe Great in Josephus can well understandthe meaning of these words. Herod in hisrage over his family rivalries and jealousiesput to death the two sons of Mariamne [hiswife] (Aristobulus and Alexander), Mari-amne herself, and Antipater, another sonand once his heir, besides the brother andmother of Mariamne (Aristobulus, Alexan-dra) and her grandfather John Hyrcanus.He had made will after will and was now ina fatal illness and fury over the question ofthe Magi. He showed his excitement andthe whole city was upset because the peo-ple knew only too well what he could dowhen in a rage over the disturbance of hisplans” (Word Pictures in the New Testa-ment, Bible Explorer Software, 1997).

The New Testament description ofHerod the Great is thus confirmed by whathistorians and archaeologists have foundconcerning his rulership, building projects,political strength and uncontrollable wrathtoward anyone threatening his kingship.

Caesar Augustus’s census

Luke, the meticulous historian, intro-duces other famous personages in hisaccount of the birth of Christ. “And it cameto pass in those days that a decree went outfrom Caesar Augustus that all the worldshould be registered. This census first tookplace while Quirinius was governing Syria.

So all went to be registered, everyone to hisown city” (Luke 2:1-3).

Caesar Augustus, or Octavian, wasJulius Caesar’s adopted son. He ruled theRoman Empire for 57 years (43 B.C. toA.D. 14) and established an era of peaceand stability that would facilitate thegrowth of Christianity.

Archaeologists have made greatprogress in discovering how and when aRoman census was taken. Ancient papyruscensus decrees have been found for theyears 20, 34, 48, 62 and 104. These showthey normally took place every 14 years,although local counts at times were takenmore frequently.

A papyrus in the British Museumdescribes a census similar to Luke’saccount, taken in 104, in which peoplewere ordered to return to their birthplaces.It reads: “Gaius Vibius Mazimus, Prefect of Egypt: Seeing that the time has come forthe house to house census, it is necessary tocompel all those who for any cause whatso-ever are residing out of their provinces toreturn to their own homes, that they mayboth carry out the regular order of the cen-sus and may also attend diligently to thecultivation of their allotments” (FrederickG. Kenyon, Greek Papyri in the BritishMuseum, 1907, plate 30).

For many years some scholars haddoubted the Bible’s accuracy since theythought Luke had erroneously referred toanother Quirinius who ruled a decade afterChrist’s birth. But now the biblical accounthas been confirmed by further evidence.

Researcher Randall Price writes: “Somerecent archaeological evidence has providednew insights into the time and place of thebirth of Jesus. The Gospel of Luke gives thetime of birth with a specific reference to acensus decreed by Quirinius, the governor of Syria (Luke 2:2). While inscriptional evi-dence reveals that there was more than oneruler with this name, a Quirinius within thetime frame of Jesus’birth has been found ona coin placing him as proconsul of Syria andCilicia from 11 B.C. until after 4 B.C.” (TheStones Cry Out, 1997, p. 299).

Joseph’s occupation in Nazareth

Once Herod died, Joseph and Mary

brought Jesus back to Israel and returned to their home in Nazareth. Joseph was askilled craftsman who worked not onlywith wood but with stone masonry.

“The Greek word tekton, translated‘carpenter’ in Mark 6:3, has the rootmeaning of ‘artisan,’ that is, a skilledworker who works on some hard materialsuch as wood or stone or even horn orivory . . . In Jesus’ day construction work-ers were not as highly specialized as intoday’s work force. For example, the tasksperformed by carpenters and masonscould easily overlap” (Richard A. Batey,Jesus & the Forgotten City: New Light on Sepphoris and the Urban World ofJesus, 1991, p. 76).

Jesus learned the trade from Joseph and lived in the area of Nazareth most ofHis life. Although Nazareth was a smallGalilean village of no more than a few hun-dred inhabitants, Joseph and Jesus likelyfound steady work in the city of Sepphorisfour miles away.

About the time of Jesus’birth, HerodAntipas—son of Herod the Great and rulerover Galilee who would later order the exe-cution of John the Baptist—chose Seppho-ris as his capital. “For more than threedecades while Jesus grows up in nearbyNazareth a huge construction project con-tinues, as Sepphoris rapidly becomes thelargest and most influential city in theregion . . . Joseph and Jesus knew of theconstruction of the new capital and wouldhave been acquainted with artisans andother workers employed on the site”(Batey, p. 70).

Recent archaeological excavations inSepphoris show it to have been a bustling,prosperous city during the years Jesus grew up in nearby Nazareth. This historicalrecord helps us better understand the back-ground of Christ’s teachings, whichincluded illustrations drawn not just fromfarming and animal husbandry, but alsoconstruction, rulers and nobility, the theater,government, finance and other aspects ofcity life.

In the next article in this series we willcontinue with important background infor-mation that helps us better understand thelife and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. GN

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n the September-October Good News we exam-ined historical and archaeological evidence thathelps us better understand the time in Judea

when Jesus Christ was born and grew up in thehousehold of Joseph and Mary. We continue withthe beginning of the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth.

After briefly discussing Jesus’childhood, theGospels go right into His ministry. According toLuke, “Jesus . . . began His ministry at about thirtyyears of age . . .” (Luke 3:23).

Archaeologists generally date the start ofChrist’s ministry to the year A.D. 27. “The begin-ning of Jesus’public ministry,” writes archaeologyprofessor John McRay, “is dated by synchronisms[chronological arrangements of events and people]in the Gospel of Luke (3:1-2). A date of A.D. 27seems likely . . . The dates mentioned by Luke arerather well established . . .” (Archaeology and theNew Testament, 1997, p. 160).

Nazareth, Jesus’ hometown

At first Jesus Christ’s ministry centered on thehill country of Galilee and Nazareth, His home-town. “So He came to Nazareth, where He hadbeen brought up. And as His custom was, He wentinto the synagogue on the Sabbath day, and stoodup to read” (Luke 4:16).

During the last century archaeological excava-tions have confirmed the New Testament descrip-tion of Nazareth as a small, insignificant village.The Gospels record that one of the disciples,Nathanael of nearby Cana, quipped, “Can anythinggood come out of Nazareth?” (John 1:46). So fararchaeologists have found it to have been an agri-cultural village with wine and olive presses, cavesfor storing grains and cisterns for water and wine.

However, Jesus’ministry in Nazareth was short-lived. When Jesus entered the synagogue andrevealed He was the Messiah, the townspeoplerejected His message and tried to kill Him. “So all those in the synagogue, when they heard thesethings, were filled with wrath, and rose up andthrust Him out of the city; and they led Him to the

brow of the hill on which their city was built, thatthey might throw Him down over the cliff. Thenpassing through the midst of them, He went Hisway. Then He went down to Capernaum . . .”(Luke 4:28-31).

The Bible reveals that some members of Jesus’own family did not believe in Him and were embar-rassed when He cast out demons. At one point theythought He had lost His mind. “Then the multitudecame together again [seeking healing], so that theycould not so much as eat bread. But when His ownpeople heard about this, they went out to lay hold ofHim, for they said, ‘He is out of His mind’ . . . ThenHis brothers and His mother came, and standingoutside they sent to Him, calling Him. And a multi-tude was sitting around Him; and they said to Him,‘Look,Your mother and Your brothers are outsideseeking You.’But He answered them, saying, ‘Whois My mother, or My brothers?’And He lookedaround in a circle at those who sat about Him, andsaid, ‘Here are My mother and My brothers! Forwhoever does the will of God is My brother and My sister and mother’” (Mark 3:20-21, 31-35).

Jesus ended His ministry in Nazareth with thewords, “Assuredly, I say to you, no prophet isaccepted in his own country” (Luke 4:24).

Relocation to Capernaum

Having been rejected in His hometown ofNazareth, Christ moved to Capernaum, one of the towns around the harp-shaped Sea of Galilee.This region had a large population sustained by a thriving agricultural and fishing industry.

“Their soil,” wrote the Jewish historian Jose-phus, “is universally rich and fruitful, and full of the plantations of trees of all sorts, insomuch that itinvites, by its fruitfulness, the most slothful to takepains in its cultivation. Accordingly it is all culti-vated by its inhabitants, and no part lies idle” (Warsof the Jews, Book III, Chapter III, Section 2). Jesusdrew many of His parables and illustrations fromdaily life and activities around the lake.

The site of Capernaum, which means “village

18 The Good News

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Jesus Christ’s Early Ministry

Although the timeframe is brief—less

than a century—archaeology hasmuch to tell us

about the life andtimes of Jesus of

Nazareth and His apostles.

of Nahum,” was identified in 1838 and wasextensively excavated during this century.What have archaeologists found?

John Laughlin, professor of religion atAverett College, Danville, Va., participatedin excavations at Capernaum. He com-ments: “What is known indicates that atthis time Capernaum was a small villagelocated on the shore of the Sea of Galileewith a population of probably no morethan 1,000 people. The few architecturalremains indicate the buildings were spa-cious and well constructed of dressedstones and large amounts of plaster. Thissuggests that the village flourished eco-nomically during Jesus’ time. Its locationon the crossroads of important traderoutes, the fertile lands surrounding it andthe rich fishing available all contributed to its economic development” (BiblicalArchaeological Review, September-October 1993, p. 59).

The synagogue at Capernaum

“Then He went down to Capernaum, acity of Galilee, and was teaching them onthe Sabbaths . . . Now He arose from thesynagogue and . . . when the sun was set-ting, all those who had any that were sickwith various diseases brought them to Him;and He laid His hands on every one of themand healed them” (Luke 4:31, 38, 40).

Archaeologists have found at Caper-naum the remains of a beautiful limestonesynagogue dated to the fourth or fifth cen-tury. Yet what caused more excitement wasthe discovery in the 1960s that beneath thisbuilding was the foundation of an earliersynagogue built of basalt, which is com-mon to that area, that apparently dates toChrist’s time.

The Gospels even include the detail ofwho built the synagogue in Capernaum.“Now when [Jesus] concluded all His sayings in the hearing of the people, Heentered Capernaum. And a certain centu-rion’s servant, who was dear to him, wassick and ready to die. So when he heardabout Jesus, he sent elders of the Jews toHim, pleading with Him to come and healhis servant. And when they came to Jesus,they begged Him earnestly, saying that theone for whom He should do this wasdeserving, ‘for he loves our nation, and has built us a synagogue’” (Luke 7:1-5,emphasis added throughout).

It was a tradition among the Jews tobuild a new synagogue on the foundation of the older one. “Pottery found in andunder this basalt floor,” explains archaeolo-gist Hershel Shanks, “clearly dates thebasalt structure to the first century A.D. orearlier. Since the site of a synagogue rarelychanged in antiquity, this basalt building,

which closely follows the plan of the laterlimestone synagogue, must also be a syna-gogue, and very likely the one in whichJesus preached” (Biblical ArchaeologicalReview, November-December 1983, p. 27).

Peter’s house discovered?

Between this synagogue and the nearbylake, excavators discovered what manybelieve to be the remains of the house of the apostle Peter. Along with his brotherAndrew, Peter made his living as a fisher-man on the Sea of Galilee (Matthew 4:18).Matthew records that Peter had a house inCapernaum in which Jesus healed hismother-in-law (Matthew 8:5, 14-15).

In 1968 the excavators of the synagogueinvestigated the remains of a nearby octag-onal structure with mosaic floors. Duringthe Byzantine period such structures oftenwere constructed over what were thought to be significant religious sites.

Archaeologists dated the structure to the fifth century. Beneath it they found anearlier church that they dated to the fourthcentury based on writings and inscriptionson the walls. The central hall of this church“was part of an earlier house built, accord-ing to the excavators, in the mid-first century A.D.” (McRay, p. 164).

“The first century house was builtaround two courtyards with the outsideentrance opening directly into one of thecourtyards. A taboun (round oven) wasfound in this courtyard, which indicates itwas used as the main family room. Thesouthern courtyard may have been used foranimals or as a working area. In either sizeor building material, the house is not unlikeall the other houses found in Capernaum”(McRay, pp. 164-165).

In other ways, however, the house wasdistinctly different. At some point early inits history the house’s large center roomhad been plastered, making it the onlyhouse in Capernaum yet discovered to haveplastered walls. The walls and floor werelater replastered twice.

“During the mid-first century the potteryused in the room ceased to be of the typicaldomestic variety. Only storage jars and oillamps were found after this point. Thus theuse of the room must have changed fromnormal residential living. More than oneSc

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This beautiful limestone synagogue in Capernaum was built in the fourthor fifth century on the foundation of an earlier first-century structure. Theearlier structure was likely the very synagogue in which Jesus Christ taught.

hundred fifty inscriptions were scratchedon its walls in Greek, Syriac, Hebrew, Ara-maic, and Latin from this time until thefourth century . . .

“Sometime after the first century twopillars were erected to raise the roof of thelarge central room, creating an impressivelyhigh ceiling. The fifth-century octagonalchapel was built with the center of its con-centric walls directly over this room. Evi-dence now available suggests that thischapel was built over a first-century housewhich was set apart in the middle of thatcentury as a public area. It was made into achurch and at some point came to be vener-ated as the house of Peter. It would not be

prudent to apply the data beyond that”(McRay, pp. 165-166).

Around the Sea of Galilee

The Gospels record even such detail asmeteorological conditions around the Seaof Galilee. “Now when they had left themultitude, [the disciples] took [Jesus] alongin the boat as He was. And other little boatswere also with Him. And a great windstormarose, and the waves beat into the boat, sothat it was already filling” (Mark 4:36-37).

Since most of Christ’s disciples livedaround the Sea of Galilee, it is not surpris-ing many of them were fishermen. TheGospels faithfully describe the life, workand occasional dangers of fishing in the

lake. Why did dangerous storms sometimesarise on what normally should have been alarge, placid inland lake?

“We do not realize,” explains biblicalgeographer George Adam Smith, “that thegreater part of our Lord’s ministry wasaccomplished at what may be truly calledthe bottom of a trench, 680 feet below sealevel . . . The cold currents, as they passfrom the west, are sucked down in vorticesof air, or by the narrow gorges that breakupon the Lake. Hence sudden storms arise[for] which the region is notorious” (TheHistorical Geography of the Holy Land,1931, p. 286).

Some who have doubted the biblical

accounts of sudden storms on the lakehave been caught by surprise. WilliamBarclay notes: “Dr. W.M. Christie, whospent many years in Galilee, mentioned acompany of visitors who were standing onthe shore of Lake Galilee, and, noting theglassy surface of the water and the small-ness of the lake, expressed doubts as to the possibility of such storms as thosedescribed in the gospels. Almost immedi-ately the wind sprang up. In twenty min-utes the sea was white with foam-crestedwaves. Great billows broke over the tow-ers at the corners of the city walls, and thevisitors were compelled to seek shelterfrom the blinding spray, though now twohundred yards from the lakeside. In less

than half an hour the placid sunshine had become a raging storm. This is whathappened to Jesus and His disciples oncertain occasions” (Daily Bible StudyCommentary, Bible Explorer Software).

Discovery of a fishing boat of Jesus’s time

A few years ago archaeologists exca-vated a fishing boat dating to around thetime of Christ.

“An example of the sort of boat Jesusand the disciples used was found buried in mud on the northern shore of the Sea ofGalilee in January 1986,” notes archaeolo-gist John McRay. “It is the first work boatfound on an inland lake in the entireMediterranean area. The boat, datingbetween the first century B.C. and the endof the first century A.D., was excavated thatFebruary and found to measure 26.5 feetlong, 7.5 feet wide and 4.5 feet high. Itwould have accommodated about fifteenaverage-size men of Jesus’Galilee . . .Originally it had a mast for sailing and twooars on each side. Jesus and his disciplescould easily fit into such a boat and theiruse is mentioned or inferred often in theGospels” (McRay, p. 170).

Many details in the Gospels, such asfishing methods and the use of differentnets, reflect an accurate description ofJesus’ time. When Christ said, “The king-dom of heaven is like a dragnet that wascast into the sea” (Matthew 13:47), Hewas referring to the most common methodof commercial fishing in His day—using a seine.

Historian and Jewish fisherman MendelNun, who in 1993 had lived near the Sea ofGalilee for 50 years, writes: “The seine, ordragnet, is the oldest type of net. Untilrecently, it was the most important fishingmethod on the lake . . . [The parable of thedragnet] exactly fits the function of theseine. It is spread into the sea, then draggedto the shore; in the process all kinds of fishare caught, which the fishermen sitting onthe shore sort out. The ‘bad’ones refer tothe scaleless catfish, forbidden by Jewishlaw and not even offered for sale” (BiblicalArchaeology Review, November-December1993, p. 52).

20 The Good News

Jesus Christ spent much of the time of His ministry in Galilee. This view,from the traditional site of the Mount of the Beatitudes near Capernaum,looks south over the Sea of Galilee.

November/December 1999 21

Matthew 4:18 describes a different typeof net. “And Jesus, walking by the Sea ofGalilee, saw two brothers, Simon calledPeter, and Andrew his brother, casting anet into the sea; for they were fishermen.”This refers to a cast net, which is used by a single fisherman. It is circular, some 20feet in diameter, with lead sinkers attachedto the edge.

“Like the seine,” comments MendelNun, “the cast net is an ancient device.Complete cast nets have been found inEgyptian tombs dating to the second mil-lennium B.C. Two kinds were used in theSea of Galilee, one for large fish and theother for sardines” (ibid., p. 53).

No wonder this Jewish fishing expertconcludes about the Gospel accounts,

“I am continually surprisedat how accurately the NewTestament writers reflectnatural phenomena on thelake” (ibid., p. 47).

The wedding in Cana

“On the third day therewas a wedding in Cana ofGalilee, and the mother ofJesus was there. Now bothJesus and His discipleswere invited to the wed-ding . . . There were setthere six waterpots ofstone, according to themanner of purification ofthe Jews, containingtwenty or thirty gallonsapiece” (John 2:1-2, 6).

One of the curious partsof the wedding account isthe mention of large stonewaterpots. In the ancientworld such large containerswere normally made ofpottery or wood. It was anenormous and expensiveeffort to carve large potsfrom stone. Was this aperiod when the puritylaws were enforced to thepoint that these pots werecommon in Israel?

“Until recently thisquestion plagued historians of the era calledthe late second Temple period,” writesIsraeli archaeologist Yitzhak Magen.“Indeed, recent excavations have confirmedthat Jews of all social and economic levelswere deeply concerned with ritual purity inthis period . . . Stone vessels were consid-ered immune from impurity, and their pop-ularity during this short period providesstrong evidence of heightened interest inritual purity among all Jews . . .

“Large vessels—sometimes made from stone blocks weighing almost 800pounds—were manufactured on massiveheavy-duty lathes. Some of these vessels. . . may have been used to store rituallyclean water for washing hands, as illus-trated in the New Testament story of Jesus’

transformation of water into wine at Cana,in Galilee . . . Stone vessels have beenunearthed at more than 60 sites” (BiblicalArchaeological Review, September-October 1998, pp. 49-50).

Even such incidental details as the largewaterpots mentioned in the Gospels havebeen explained by archaeological findingsand discovered to have been in commonuse at the time.

Jacob’s well and Mount Gerizim

“So he came to a city of Samaria whichis called Sychar, near the plot of groundthat Jacob gave to his son Joseph. NowJacob’s well was there” (John 4:5-6).

“Jacob’s well,” explains ProfessorMcRay, “is one of the few sites whose identity is agreed upon by Jews, Christians,Muslims, and Samaritans alike.” It is still in use. “During annual visits over the pasttwenty years,” he adds, “I have alwaysfound cold, refreshing water in the well”(McRay, p. 181).

Nearby, on the northern top of MountGerizim, archaeologists have found whatappears to be the remains of the temple ofMount Gerizim mentioned in John 4:20.The building was 66 feet long by 66 feetwide by 30 feet high and was in the centerof a large courtyard.

“The discovery of this monumentalstructure dating from the Hellenistic periodon Mount Gerizim above Shechem, thechief city of the Samaritans,” commentsThe International Bible Dictionary, “hasled the excavator to call the complex theSamaritan temple and the unhewn stonehalf cube the Samaritan altar of sacrifice[which present-day Samaritans stillrevere]. The remains of this altar wouldhave been visible to Jesus and the Samar-itan woman from Jacob’s well, as it istoday” (Supplement Volume, 1976, p. 361).

So the scene from John 4 of Jesus andthe Samaritan woman, with Jacob’s welland the temple of Gerizim as the backdrop,also reflects a historical setting.

Through these archaeological finds we have covered some areas of Jesus’early ministry. In the next installment we will continue our study of His life and times. GN

This ancient fishing boat, found in the mud of theSea of Galilee in 1986, dates to the time of Christ.The boat is apparently typical of the fishing boatscommonly used at the time and mentioned often inthe Gospels. Several of the disciples were fishermen.

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n the September-October and November-December 1999 issues of The Good News, we

considered some of the many archaeologicalfindings that shed light on Judea in the early firstcentury, when Jesus Christ grew to manhood andbegan His ministry. We continue in this issue withother findings that shed light on and confirm theaccuracy of historical details recorded for us in the Gospels.

While Christ’s early ministry took place primar-ily in Galilee, His later ministry centered on Jeru-salem. In Galilee, in spite of His many miracles andinspired preaching, He was eventually rejected bymost of the townspeople.

“Then He began to rebuke the cities in whichmost of His mighty works had been done, becausethey did not repent: ‘Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! For if the mighty works whichwere done in you had been done in Tyre and Sidon,they would have repented long ago in sackcloth andashes. But I say to you, it will be more tolerable forTyre and Sidon in the day of judgment than for you.And you, Capernaum, who are exalted to heaven,will be brought down to Hades; for if the mighty

works which were done in you had been done inSodom, it would have remained until this day’”(Matthew 11:20-23).

An unusual pool

The Gospels often note that Jesus and His disci-ples traveled to Jerusalem for the biblical festivalsGod commanded in Leviticus 23 (Luke 2:41-42;22:7-20; John 2:13, 23; 7:1-2, 8, 10, 14, 37-38).John 5 records an event that took place during oneof these feasts, although it doesn’t specify which (to learn more about these biblical feasts, be sure to request your free copy of the booklet God’s HolyDay Plan: The Promise of Hope for All Mankind).

“After this there was a feast of the Jews, andJesus went up to Jerusalem. Now there is in Jeru-salem by the Sheep Gate a pool, which is called in Hebrew, Bethesda, having five porches. In theselay a great multitude of sick people, blind, lame,paralyzed, waiting for the moving of the water . . .

“Now a certain man was there who had an infir-mity thirty-eight years. When Jesus saw him lyingthere, and knew that he already had been in thatcondition a long time, He said to him, ‘Do you want

18 The Good News

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Jesus Christ’s Later Ministry

Archaeologicalfindings shed

light on and con-firm the accuracy

of historicaldetails recorded

for us in theGospels.

A pool with five porches? For years critics of the Bible thoughtthe apostle John’s description of the Bethesda Pool to be a fabrication—until the area was excavated a century ago. Thereexcavators found the remains of a large double pool, left, with

a central colonnaded causeway dividing the two parts, asshown on a model of the pool, right, based on the ruins uncov-ered there. After almost 2,000 years, John’s description of a pool“having five porches” was proven to be accurate.

to be made well?’The sick man answeredHim, ‘Sir, I have no man to put me into thepool when the water is stirred up; but whileI am coming, another steps down beforeme.’Jesus said to him, ‘Rise, take up yourbed and walk.’And immediately the manwas made well, took up his bed, andwalked . . .” (John 5:1-9).

For years critics questioned John’sdescription of a pool “having five porches,”because such an architectural design wouldbe highly unusual. But that changed whenexcavators began digging in the area abouta century ago.

“. . . When Bethesda was cleared of therubble of centuries and brought once moreto the light of day, [archaeologists discov-ered] a vast double pool covering 5,000square yards to the north of the Templearea. It in fact had five colonnades. Four ofthese surrounded the whole place, but thefifth porch, in which the sick folk lay wait-ing to be healed, stood on a ridge of rockwhich divided the two pools” (WernerKeller, The Bible as History, 1982, p. 423).

The fifth “porch,” which had led someto question or even dismiss John’s account,was this columned walkway separating the two pools. John’s description wasproven accurate.

John McRay, archaeologist and profes-sor of New Testament at Wheaton CollegeGraduate School in Illinois, adds that in theexcavations “many fragments of columnbases, capitals and drums [column sections]were found, which probably belonged tothe five porches (i.e., porticoes or colon-naded walkways) of the pool John men-tions” (Archaeology & the New Testament,1991, p. 187).

The Pool of Siloam

The apostle John mentioned anotherpool in connection with another of JesusChrist’s miracles of healing. “Now as Jesuspassed by, He saw a man who was blindfrom birth . . . He spat on the ground andmade clay with the saliva; and He anointedthe eyes of the blind man with the clay. AndHe said to him, ‘Go, wash in the pool ofSiloam’(which is translated, Sent). So hewent and washed, and came back seeing”(John 9:1, 6-7).

This pool, too, has been discovered, and

thousands of visitors to Jerusalem visit iteach year. Professor McRay explains:“[The pool] was built by King Hezekiah inthe eighth century B.C. at the southern endof a long tunnel hecut through solidrock to bring waterfrom Gihon Springto the pool inside thecity walls (2 Kings20:20) . . .

“The appearanceof the pool haschanged through the centuries; it hasbecome consider-ably smaller (50 feetlong by 15 feet wide)than originally. In1897 F.J. Bliss andA.C. Dickie uncov-ered a court about 75 feet square, in thecenter of which wasthe pool. It was prob-ably surrounded by a colonnaded portico. . . After the 1897 excavations, the peopleof the village of Silwan (an Arabic render-ing of Siloam) built a mosque with aminaret over the northwest corner of thepool, and it still stands above the pool”(ibid., p. 188).

Professor McRay notes that “discoveriesof the Well of Jacob (John 4:12), the Pool ofBethesda (5:2) [and] the Pool of Siloam (9:7). . . have lent historical credibility to the textof John . . . These are but a few of the exam-ples that could be produced which put NewTestament contexts squarely in the stream of history and geography” (pp. 18-19).

Conflicts with Pharisaic practices

Of all the human adversaries during Hisministry, the Pharisees caused Jesus themost trouble. They had imposed tediousreligious regulations on the practicing Jew-ish population. Jesus described their effect:“For they bind heavy burdens, hard to bear,and lay them on men’s shoulders; but theythemselves will not move them with one of their fingers. But all their works they doto be seen by men” (Matthew 23:4-5).

Christ denounced the Pharisees’hypoc-risy of enacting many religious laws that

obscured or even contradicted the intent of the laws God had revealed to Israel. Hecompared them to “whitewashed tombswhich indeed appear beautiful outwardly,

but inside are full of dead men’s bones and all uncleanness. Even so you also out-wardly appear righteous to men, but insideyou are full of hypocrisy and lawlessness”(verses 27-28).

Whitewashed tombs were a commonsight in Israel. The practice of whitewashinggrave sites was based on a ritual establishedby the Pharisees.

Archaeologists have uncovered manyancient tombs and other burial places inIsrael. They range from a simple hole in theground with a stone covering to elaborateburial chambers for the rich. The Interna-tional Standard Bible Encyclopedia says:“For groups without a settled abode, inter-ment must have taken the form of roadsideburials . . . Under Greco-Roman influence,Palestine tombs took on the exterior formsand ornamentation of classic architecture. . . Exposed areas were whitewashed toobviate uncleanness through accidentalcontact at night (Matthew 23:27)” (1979,Vol. 1, pp. 557, 559, “Burial”).

William Barclay gives further informa-tion that helps us understand burial prac-tices of the time: “Here again is a picturewhich any Jew would understand. One ofthe commonest places for tombs was by thePh

otos

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The Pool of Siloam is mentioned in connection with one of JesusChrist’s miraculous healings. Although the remains of the poolhave since greatly changed, it can still be visited. The pool, in thearea of the original City of David, is fed by the Gihon Spring.

wayside. We have already seen that anyonewho touched a dead body became unclean(Numbers 19:16). Therefore, anyone whocame into contact with a tomb automati-cally became unclean. At one time in par-ticular the roads of Palestine were crowdedwith pilgrims—at the time of the PassoverFeast. For a man to become unclean on hisway to the Passover Feast would be a disas-ter, for that meant he would be debarredfrom sharing in it. It was then Jewish prac-tice in the month of Adar to whitewash allwayside tombs, so that no pilgrims mightaccidentally come into contact with one of them and be rendered unclean.

“So, as a man journeyed the roads ofPalestine on a spring day, these tombswould glint white, and almost lovely, in thesunshine; but within they were full of bonesand bodies whose touch would defile. That,said Jesus, was a precise picture of what thePharisees were. Their outward actions werethe actions of intensely religious men; theirinward hearts were foul and putrid withsin” (Daily Bible Study Commentary, BibleExplorer Software).

Christ used this commonly seen featureof the Israelite countryside to drive home a spiritual point.

The Corban vow

Another conflict Jesus had with thePharisees was over their laws and regula-tions that at times directly negated the TenCommandments. One such example wasthe Corban vow.

In a stinging rebuke, Jesus told the Phar-isees: “‘All too well you reject the com-mandment of God, that you may keep yourtradition. For Moses said, “Honor yourfather and your mother”; and, “He whocurses father or mother, let him be put todeath.” But you say, “If a man says to hisfather or mother, ‘Whatever profit youmight have received from me is Corban’—(that is, a gift to God), then you no longerlet him do anything for his father or hismother, making the word of God of noeffect through your tradition which youhave handed down. And many such thingsyou do’” (Mark 7:9-13).

In the 20th century archaeologists havefound dramatic confirmation of this kind of vow. In the 1950s they discovered a stonecoffin inside a Jewish tomb in the KidronValley southeast of Jerusalem. The lid borean inscription stating the contents were“corban.” The inscription reads, “All that

a man may find to his profit in this ossuary[is] an offering (corban) to God from himwho is within it” (McRay, p. 194).

The vow was inscribed in the hope that it would dissuade any potential thief fromtaking any valuable contents, such as jew-elry, by declaring all had been consecratedto God and that the robber would be com-mitting sacrilege to take it and use it for anyother purpose.

But why would Jesus condemn this kindof vow? The passage in Mark points out thekinds of problems that arose. Jesus wascondemning a man-made vow that couldbreak God’s commandments. In the exam-ple He used, some, He said, were declaringpart or all of their possessions “corban,” ordedicated to God. In such circumstances a needy father or mother could not inherit a deceased son’s goods because they hadbeen declared “corban” and thus were consecrated to God.

This vow was based on a nonbiblicalbelief that a person would receive extrafavor from God for such a vow. As timewent along, this kind of vow was also usedas an excuse to avoid helping a parent inneed. As Jesus pointed out, such practicesbroke the Fifth Commandment, which tellsus to honor our parents.

The Bible Knowledge Commentaryexplains: “Jesus showed how these reli-gious leaders had in effect nullified thiscommandment. They could simply affirmthat a particular item had been a giftdevoted to God. Then the item could not be used by an individual but was keptseparate. This was simply a clever way ofkeeping things from passing to one’s par-ents. The person would of course continueto keep those things in his own homewhere they had been supposedly set asidefor God.

“Such action was condemned by Jesusas being hypocritical, for while it appearedto be spiritual, it actually was done to keepone’s possessions for himself. Thus thisfailure to help one’s parents deliberatelyviolated the fifth commandment . . . Suchaction had been described by Isaiah cen-turies before (Isaiah 29:13). Their [thePharisees’] religion had become a matter of action and man-made rules. Their heartswere far from God and consequently theirworship was in vain” (Logos Software).

We will continue this series with the cli-mactic events surrounding Jesus Christ’sarrest, trial, crucifixion and resurrection. GN

20 The Good News

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

n recent issues of The Good News we have exam-ined archaeological findings that shed light on theperiod of Jesus Christ’s ministry in Judea in the

early first century.In the four Gospels no period of Christ’s min-

istry is more detailed than the last few days whenHe was arrested, tried and crucified as a commoncriminal. What have archaeologists found that con-firm and illuminate many of the details of Jesus’ lastdays on earth?

Evidence of Caiaphas’s tomb

Events rushed to a crescendo as Jesus and His dis-ciples came to Jerusalem for that final Passover feast.The chief priests began to panic after hearing that innearby Bethany Jesus had resurrected His friendLazarus from the dead (John 11).

How did they react to news of this miracle? “Thenthe chief priests and the Pharisees gathered together a council and said, ‘What shall we do? For this Manworks many signs. If we let Him alone like this,everyone will believe in Him, and the Romans willcome and take away both our place and nation.’Andone of them, Caiaphas, being high priest that year,said to them, ‘You know nothing at all, nor do you

consider that it is expedient for us that one manshould die for the people, and not that the wholenation should perish.’Now this he did not say on hisown authority; but being high priest that year heprophesied that Jesus would die for the nation . . .Then, from that day on, they plotted to put Him to death” (verses 47-53).

Amazingly, the tomb of this priest was discoveredin 1990. Israeli archaeologist Zvi Greenhut, whoconfirmed the finding, describes the event:

“It was a cold day at the end of November when I received word at the Antiquities Authority that anold cave had been discovered . . . When I arrived Iobserved that the roof of the cave had collapsed. Buteven while standing outside, I could see four ossuar-ies, or bone boxes, in the central chamber of the cave.To an archaeologist, this was a clear indication thatthis was a Jewish burial cave . . . So it was that wediscovered the final resting place of the Caiaphasfamily, one of whose priestly members presided atthe trial of Jesus” (“Burial Cave of the CaiaphasFamily,” Biblical Archaeological Review, September-October 1992, pp. 29-30).

Two of the 12 stone boxes found had the nameCaiaphas written on the side, and one contained theentire name, “Joseph, son of Caiaphas.” Inside thisbox were the remains of a 60-year-old man, alongwith the bones of a woman and four younger people,probably those of his own family.

Archaeologist Ronny Reich provides furtherdetails of the find: “The most elaborately decoratedossuary found in this cave contains two inscriptionsrelating to Caiaphas . . . The elderly man buried in the highly decorated ossuary was apparently Joseph.It was probably a forefather who had acquired thisnickname [Caiaphas was apparently a nickname that meant “basket,” probably from “basketmaker.”]

“A person named Joseph with the nicknameCaiaphas was the high priest in Jerusalem between18 and 36 A.D. The New Testament provides onlyhis nickname in the Greek form: Caiaphas (seeMatthew 26:3, 57; Luke 3:2; John 11:49, 18:13-14,24, 28; Acts 4:6). Josephus [the first-century Jewish

18 The Good News

I

Jesus Christ’s Arrest, Trial and Crucifixion

What havearchaeologists

found that confirm and illu-minate many of

the details ofJesus’ last days

on earth?

The Gospels tell us the high priest who plotted Christ’s deathwas named Caiaphas. In 1990 archaeologists found thepriest’s family tomb and this ossuary bearing his name.

historian] gives his proper name as well:Joseph Caiaphas, or elsewhere, ‘Joseph whowas called Caiaphas of the high priesthood.’In short, we are explicitly told by Josephusthat Caiaphas was indeed a nickname”(“Caiaphas Name Inscribed on BoneBoxes,” Biblical Archaeological Review,September-October 1992, p. 41).

Archaeologists have thus confirmed theexistence of this important New Testamentfigure. They have also proven the existenceof another leading character instrumental in the events surrounding Jesus’arrest, trialand execution.

The Pilate inscription

Once Jesus was arrested, on Caiaphas’sorders, He was tried before Caiaphas andlater sent to the Roman governor PontiusPilate. The New Testament portrayal of Pilateagrees with other historical accounts. “Philoand Josephus unite in attributing dire and evilpractices to Pilate, so that a dark character isascribed to him” (The Interpreter’s Dictio-nary of the Bible, 1989,Vol. 3, p. 813).

Philo, the Alexandrian Jewish philosopher(20 B.C.–A.D. 50), described Pilate as “a man of a very inflexible disposition, and verymerciless as well as very obstinate.” He saysPilate’s rule was characterized by “corrup-tion, . . . insolence, . . . cruelty, . . . continualmurders of people untried and uncon-demned, and his never ending, and gratu-itous, and most grievous inhumanity” (The

Works of Philo, translated by C.D. Yonge,“On the Embassy to Gaius,” pp. 301-302).

Years after Christ’s crucifixion Pilate wassent to Rome to undergo a humiliating trialafter ordering the massacre of some Samari-tan pilgrims. Eusebius, the fourth-centuryhistorian, notes that Pilate was found guiltyand exiled. In his shame he later committedsuicide. Such was the end of this proud andcorrupt governor.

For centuries Pilate was known only fromscant historical records and the Gospels. Nodirect physical evidence had been found.Then, in 1961, a stone plaque engraved withPilate’s name and title was discovered inCaesarea, the Roman port and capital ofJudea in Christ’s day. “The two-foot bythree-foot slab, now known as the PilateInscription, was . . . apparently written tocommemorate Pilate’s erection and dedica-tion of a Tiberium, a temple for the worshipof Tiberias Caesar, the Roman emperor during Pilate’s term over Judea.

“The Latin inscription of four lines gives his title as ‘Pontius Pilate, Prefect ofJudea,’a title very similar to that used ofhim in the Gospels (see Luke 3:1). This was the first archaeological find to mentionPilate, and again testified to the accuracy of the Gospel writers. Their understandingof such official terms indicates they livedduring the time of their use and not a cen-tury or two thereafter, when such termswould have been forgotten” (Randall Price,

The Stones Cry Out, 1997, pp. 307-308).

Gruesome evidence of crucifixion

Until recently some scholars consideredthe description of Christ’s crucifixion to befalse. They thought it was impossible for ahuman body to be held up by nails driveninto the hands and feet since the flesh wouldeventually tear away. Instead they thoughtthe victims must have been bound by ropes.

Yet, in 1968, the body of a crucified man dating to the first century was found inJerusalem. Here the true method of crucifix-ion was discovered: His ankles, not his feet,had been nailed and could easily support his weight.

Archaeologist Randall Price explains:“This rare find has proved to be one of themost important archaeological witnesses toJesus’crucifixion as recorded in the Gospels.First, it reveals afresh the horrors of theRoman punishment . . . This method of exe-cution forced the weight of the body to beplaced on the nails, causing terribly painfulmuscle spasms and eventually death by theexcruciating process of asphyxiation . . . Second, it was once claimed that theGospel’s description of the method of cruci-fixion was historically inaccurate . . . Thediscovery of the nail-pierced ankle bonerefutes those who say nails could not havebeen used” (Price, pp. 309-310).

The Roman law of the time prescribedcrucifixion as punishment for the most Z.

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The Roman governor Pontius Pilate figures prominentlyin the accounts of Jesus Christ’s trial and execution. In1961 a stone plaque bearing his name and official titlewas discovered in Caesarea, Israel. Pilate’s name (Latin

“[PON]TIVS PILATVS”) is visible on the second line. In1968 archaeologists found sobering evidence of the cruelpractice of crucifixion—a human heel bone pierced by alarge iron nail, with a fragment of olive wood attached.

20 The Good News

serious offenses, such as rebellion, treasonand robbery. A famous example of mass cru-cifixions took place in 71 B.C. when Sparta-cus led a slave rebellion against Rome. Heultimately failed, and the 6,000 capturedslaves were crucified.

The Jews knew of crucifixions evenbefore Roman rule, for around 87 B.C. theJewish king Alexander Janneus had 800rebellious Pharisees crucified. Josephus,who witnessed the crucifixion of his fellowJews during the siege of Jerusalem (A.D.66-70), called it “the most wretched ofdeaths.” It continued to be the punishmentfor high crimes until the time of EmperorConstantine, when it was finally abolished.

Was Jesus crucified on a cross?

The exact shape of the stake or cross used to crucify Jesus is not known, since theRomans used several styles.

The Greek word translated “cross” isstauros. Vine’s Expository Dictionary of Oldand New Testament Words gives backgroundinformation on the word. “Stauros . . .denotes, primarily, ‘an upright pale or stake.’On such malefactors were nailed for execu-tion. Both the noun and the verb staroo, ‘tofasten to a stake or pale,’are originally to bedistinguished from the ecclesiastical form ofa two beamed ‘cross.’The shape of the latterhad its origin in ancient Chaldea [Babylo-nia], and was used as the symbol of the godTammuz (being in the shape of the mysticTau, the initial of his name) in that countryand in adjacent lands, including Egypt.

“By the middle of the 3rd cent. A.D. thechurches had either departed from, or hadtravestied, certain doctrines of the Christianfaith. In order to increase the prestige of theapostate ecclesiastical system pagans werereceived into the churches apart from regen-eration by faith, and were permitted largelyto retain their pagan signs and symbols.Hence the Tau or T, in its most frequentform, with the cross-piece lowered, wasadopted to stand for the ‘cross’of Christ.

“As for the Chi, or X, which Constan-tine declared he had seen in a vision leading him to champion the Christianfaith, that letter was the initial of the word ‘Christ’ and had nothing to do with‘the Cross’ (for xulon, ‘a timber beam,

a tree’ . . .).” (1985, “Cross, Crucify”).

The empty tomb

The Gospel writers give many details ofJesus’burial and tomb. “Now when eveninghad come, there came a rich man from Ari-mathea, named Joseph, who himself had alsobecome a disciple of Jesus. This man went to Pilate and asked for the body of Jesus.Then Pilate commanded the body to be givento him. When Joseph had taken the body, hewrapped it in a clean linen cloth, and laid it in his new tomb which he had hewn out ofthe rock; and he rolled a large stone againstthe door of the tomb, and departed . . .

“On the next day, which followed theDay of Preparation, the chief priests andPharisees gathered together to Pilate, saying,‘Sir, we remember, while He was still alive,how that deceiver said, “After three days Iwill rise.” Therefore command that the tombbe made secure until the third day’. . . Sothey went and made the tomb secure, sealingthe stone and setting the guard” (Matthew27:57-66).

How do the Gospel accounts match upwith archaeologists’discoveries about first-century burial practices? Several tombs havebeen found around Jerusalem that perfectlyfit the description given by the Gospel writ-ers. “In Roman times the entrance was oftenclosed with a large circular stone, set up onedge and rolled in its groove to the mouth ofthe tomb so as to close it securely. This stonecould then be further secured by a strap, or bysealing. Pilate thus directed that the tomb ofJoseph of Arimathea, in which the body ofJesus was laid, should be carefully sealed andmade as inviolable as possible (Mt. 27:66)”(The International Standard Bible Encyclo-pedia, 1979,Vol. 1, p. 559, “Burial”).

When the Romans wanted to secure atomb, they attached a cord across the circu-lar stone. They secured this strap with waxand stamped it with the seal of imperialRome. To tamper with the seal was to defyRoman authority and risk the death penalty.Guards were then placed around the tombwith orders to defend it at all costs; if anyfell asleep they would pay with their lives.With all these safeguards in place, a tombwas considered to be completely securedand untouchable.

Yet, when Jesus was resurrected and anangel opened the tomb, the Bible recordsthat the guards “shook for fear of [the angel]and became like dead men” (Matthew 28:4).When the guards revived and saw the emptytomb, they immediately sought help fromthe chief priests, for they knew they facedthe death penalty.

“Now while they were going, behold,some of the guard came into the city andreported to the chief priests all the things thathad happened. When they had assembledwith the elders and consulted together, theygave a large sum of money to the soldiers,saying, ‘Tell them [the Roman authorities],“His disciples came at night and stole Himaway while we slept.”And if this comes tothe governor’s ears, we will appease him andmake you secure.’So they took the moneyand did as they were instructed; and this say-ing is commonly reported among the Jewsuntil this day” (verses 11-15).

True to the historical description of Pilate,we see that even the chief priests understoodthat the Roman governor was corrupt andsubject to being bribed.

Conclusion on the Gospels

Through archaeology many details of thedescriptions of Jesus’trial, crucifixion andburial have been confirmed. ArchaeologistPrice considers the all-important implica-tions: “. . . Archaeology has shown us thatthe facts that support faith [in the resurrec-tion of Jesus] are accurate—an identifiabletomb attesting to literal events—faith in theChrist of history does depend upon a his-torically empty tomb for its reality. Whilearchaeology can only reveal the tomb, thepersons and events attending to its historicpurpose (Herod, Pilate, Caiaphas, crucifix-ion, and so on), the resurrection is interwo-ven with these facts so as to command thesame consideration” (Price, pp. 315, 318).

We can summarize the purpose of thisseries on the Gospels with an appropriatequote: “Five gospels record the life of Jesus.Four you will find in books and one you willfind in the Land they call holy. Read the fifthgospel and the world of the four will open to you” (Bargil Pixner, With Jesus ThroughGalilee According to the Fifth Gospel, 1992,back cover). GN

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

s discussed in recent issues of The GoodNews, archaeologists have made manydiscoveries that verify and illuminate

our understanding of the four Gospels. After theGospels, the next section in the New Testament wewill survey is the books of the Acts of the Apostles,or simply Acts.

The book of Acts is simply a continuation ofone of the Gospel accounts. Luke compiled hisGospel about Jesus Christ as the first volume of atwo-part work. In his first manuscript he coveredthe life of Jesus; in the second he described theearly history of the Church Jesus founded.

The Expositor’s Bible Commentary notes: “TheActs of the Apostles is the name given to the sec-ond part of a two-volume work traditionally identi-fied as having been written by Luke, a companionof the apostle Paul. Originally the two volumes cir-culated together as two parts of one complete writ-ing” (Richard Longenecker, 1981, Vol. 9, p. 207).

Luke explains to Theophilus, to whom he dedi-cated this work, the purpose of his first tome: “Theformer account I made, O Theophilus, of all thatJesus began both to do and teach, until the day inwhich He was taken up . . .” (Acts 1:1-2). Thephrase former account in this first verse is protonlogos in Greek. It refers to the first papyrus roll of alarger work, called in Greek tomos, from which weget our English word tome.

In the second scroll Luke relates events that tookplace after Jesus “was parted from them [the disci-ples] and carried up into heaven” (Luke 24:51). Itcovers about the first 30 years of Church history.

A scholar attacks Acts

About a century ago British scholar WilliamRamsay focused on the book of Acts to try to showit was rife with geographical and archaeologicalerrors. After all, many scholars of his day, equippedwith the tools of textual criticism and archaeology,had exposed many errors in other classic writings.This eminent humanity professor diligently preparedhimself by studying archaeology and geography

before departing for the Middle East and Asia Minorin his quest to prove Luke’s history of the earlyChurch was mostly myth.

His quest didn’t turn out as he expected. After aquarter century of research in what is today Israeland Turkey, where he carefully retraced the steps ofthe apostles as described in the book of Acts, thisfamous unbeliever shook the intellectual worldwhen he announced he had converted to Christian-ity. He confessed this radical change of mind andheart was thanks in great part to his surprise at theaccuracy he found in Luke’s narrative in Acts.

After decades of examining the historical andgeographical details mentioned in the book, Ram-say concluded: “Luke is a historian of the firstrank; not merely are his statements of fact trust-worthy, he is possessed of the true historic sense . . . In short this author should be placed along withthe very greatest of historians” (The Bearing ofRecent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of theNew Testament, 1953, p. 80).

He went on to write many books about Acts and the epistles of Paul. Ultimately Ramsay wasknighted for his contributions to the study ofarchaeology and geography.

The tomb of King David

When the Christian Church began on the Day of Pentecost, when its first 120 members receivedGod’s Spirit, thousands of Jewish pilgrims werevisiting Jerusalem worshiping at the time of thatholy festival (Acts 2:1-5).

That day the apostle Peter, filled with the HolySpirit, delivered an inspired sermon to the Jewishcrowd. Thousands heard and repented of their sins.Speaking of the recent resurrection of Jesus, hequoted from one of King David’s prophetic psalms:“For You will not leave my soul in Hades, nor willYou allow Your Holy One to see corruption” (Acts2:27; Psalm 16:10).

Peter continued: “Men and brethren, let mespeak freely to you of the patriarch David, that heis both dead and buried, and his tomb is with us to

18 The Good News

A

The Book of Acts:The Church Begins

After decades ofexamining the

details mentionedin Acts, Sir

William Ramsayconcluded: “Lukeis a historian of

the first rank; notmerely are his

statements of facttrustworthy, he is

possessed of thetrue historic sense

. . . In short thisauthor should be

placed along withthe very greatest of

historians.”

this day” (Acts 2:29, emphasis added).Peter, speaking in the temple area inJerusalem, could point to the nearby tombsof the kings of Israel—specifically David’sburial site.

Although it was not an Israelite or Jew-ish custom to bury the dead in towns orcities, royalty was an exception. The Biblerecords that “David rested with his fathers,and was buried in the City of David”(1 Kings 2:10). Many later Israelite kingswere also buried in Jerusalem, althoughnot all in the designated tombs of thekings. For instance, evil King Jehoram wasburied “in the City of David, but not in thetombs of the kings” (2 Chronicles 21:20).

Several hundred years later, during therestoration of Jerusalem under Nehemiah,the area around the tombs of the kings wasrepaired. “After him Nehemiah the son ofAzbuk . . . made repairs as far as the placein front of the tombs of David . . .”(Nehemiah 3:16).

Josephus, a Jewish historian bornshortly after Peter gave his Pentecost ser-mon, wrote that a few decades earlierHerod the Great had broken into David’stomb at night to plunder its riches, only to discover a previous king had alreadylooted it (Antiquities of the Jews, BookXVI, Chapter VII, Section 1). David’s

tomb was widely known even when Jose-phus wrote his account decades afterPeter’s sermon.

A.T. Robertson notes: “His [David’s]tomb was on Mt. Zion where most of thekings were buried. The tomb was said tohave fallen into ruins in the reign of theEmperor Hadrian [A.D. 117-138]” (WordPictures in the New Testament, BibleExplorer software).

Although archaeologists don’t agree on whether the extensive tomb area discov-ered almost a century ago in the southernend of Jerusalem is the location of thetombs of the kings of Israel, the locationagrees with accounts mentioned in theBible and does have the backing of someprominent scholars.

Hershel Shanks, editor of BiblicalArchaeology Review, writes: “The pro-posed site of David’s tomb, and of othersadjacent to it, is precisely where one wouldexpect to find the burial site mentioned inthe Bible—in the southern part of the Cityof David, an area that would normally beforbidden to burials.

“In 1913 to 1914 a Frenchman namedRaymond Weill excavated this area andfound several tombs that he numbered T1to T8 . . . The most magnificent of thesetombs is T1. It is a kind of long tunnel or

artificially excavated cave 521⁄2 feet long,over 8 feet wide and over 13 feet high . . .The fact that some extravagant, evenostentatious tombs were located preciselywhere the Bible says the kings of Judah,including King David, were buried cer-tainly suggests to a reasonable mind thatthe fanciest of these tombs (T1) may wellhave belonged to King David” (BiblicalArchaeological Review, January-February,1995, p. 64).

Precise identification is difficultbecause the area was heavily quarried in later centuries and only portions of thetombs remain. Whether more research canconfirm this site as David’s tomb or not,we can be confident that during Peter’ssermon given on the Day of Pentecost,when the New Testament Church began,he could point to an area in Jerusalemwhere everyone knew David’s tomb waslocated and could attest that his remainswere still there.

David obviously had not risen from the dead, but now Peter and many otherwitnesses could confirm that it had beenJesus’ tomb, not David’s, that had openedand from which Jesus had come back tolife, confirming He was the Messiah.Thousands of Jewish listeners could notrefute the evidence. This proof, among others, led many to accept Jesus as theMessiah immediately (Acts 2:41).

Gamaliel the wise

During the days and weeks afterPeter’s sermon, the apostles faced violentopposition, including being thrown in jail.

During their trial before their incarcera-tion, many Jewish authorities plotted to killthem, but one of the chief religious leadersspoke up in their defense:

“Then one in the council stood up, aPharisee named Gamaliel, a teacher of thelaw held in respect by all the people . . .And he said to them: ‘Men of Israel, takeheed to yourselves what you intend to doregarding these men . . . I say to you, keepaway from these men and let them alone;for if this plan or this work is of men, itwill come to nothing; but if it is of God,you cannot overthrow it—lest you even be found to fight against God.’And theyagreed with him, and when they had calledZ.

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Some archaeologists think this area at the southern end of the City of Davidcontains the remains of the tombs of the kings of Judah who reigned in Jeru-salem. The tomb at the top center may be the remains of King David’s tombmentioned by Peter in Acts 2:29. Regrettably, much of the area has beenhacked away over the centuries from quarrying the limestone there.

for the apostles and beaten them, theycommanded that they should not speak in the name of Jesus, and let them go”(Acts 5:34-40).

This Gamaliel, who opposed the apos-tles’ execution, was a teacher of Paul (Acts22:3). He was the grandson of Hillel,the founder of a dominant school of thePharisees, a major branch of Judaism.

Gamaliel’s family name has been con-firmed by archaeological findings. In atomb in the catacombs of Beth-Shearim,near the Sea of Galilee, in a section calledthe Tomb of the Patriarchs, one of thegraves has an inscription in Hebrew andGreek: “This [tomb] is of the RabbiGamaliel.” The Gamaliel of Bible famewas the first of an illustrious rabbinic family bearing his name. This tomb wasthat of one of his descendants.

The historian Josephus and some Talmudic works also mention Gamaliel,describing him as a benevolent and bril-liant man. William Barclay adds: “He wasa kindly man with a far wider tolerancethan his fellows. He was, for instance,one of the very few Pharisees who did notregard Greek culture as sinful. He was oneof the very few to whom the title ‘Rabban’had been given. Men called him ‘TheBeauty of the Law.’When he died it wassaid, ‘Since Rabban Gamaliel died therehas been no more reverence for the Law;and purity and abstinence died out at thesame time’” (The Daily Study Bible Com-mentary, Bible Explorer software). So wesee another biblical figure mentioned in theScriptures confirmed by sources outsidethe Bible.

History confirms still another biblical character

As the gospel spread to the outlyingareas of Israel, Peter arrived in Samaria to preach the Word of God. There he met a magician named Simon, who was bap-tized but was later rejected by Peter andJohn for trying to bribe his way into aposition of power and influence in theChurch (Acts 8:18-24).

Nothing else is directly mentioned inthe Scriptures about this shady character,known in history as Simon Magus.

However, about a century after Simon’sdeath, writings appear that describe hisactivities after the apostles rejected him.

Writing to the Romans, Justin Martyrcomments: “There was a Samaritan,Simon, a native of the village called Gitto,who in the reign of Claudius Caesar [A.D.41-54], and in your royal city of Rome, didmighty acts of magic, by virtue of the art ofthe devil’s operating in him. He was con-sidered a god, and as a god was honored byyou with a statue, which statue was erectedon the river Tiber, between two bridges,and bore this inscription, in the language ofRome: ‘Simoni Deo Sancto’ [To Simon theholy God]. And almost all the Samaritans,and a few even of other nations, worshiphim . . .” (The Ante-Nicene Fathers, “TheFirst Apology of Justin,” p. 171).

In 1574 excavators found a fragment ofmarble on an island in the Tiber River withthe inscription “Semoni Sanco Deu Fidio.”Some interpret this as referring to a Sabinedeity, Semo Sancus, but most likely it waspart of the statue Justin Martyr describedas having been dedicated to Simon Magus.

The editors of The Ante-Nicene Fathersmake this point: “It is very generally sup-posed that Justin was mistaken in under-standing this to have been a statue erectedto Simon Magus. This supposition rests on the fact that in the year 1574 there wasdug up in the island of the Tiber a fragmentof marble, with the inscription ‘SemoniSanco Deo,’ etc., being probably the baseof a statue erected to the Sabine deitySemo Sancus. This inscription Justin issupposed to have mistaken for the one hegives above.

“This has always seemed to us veryslight evidence on which to reject so precisea statement as Justin here makes; a state-ment which he would scarcely have haz-arded in an apology addressed to Rome,where every person had the means of ascer-taining its accuracy. If, as is supposed, hemade a mistake, it must have been at onceexposed, and other writers would not haveso frequently repeated the story as they havedone” (ibid., footnote, p. 171).

Whether the base of the statue was dedicated to Simon Magus or not, the his-toricity of this biblical personage is also

confirmed in literature of the second andthird centuries.

Paul in Damascus

After the gospel went to Samaria, itspread northward to Damascus, where adramatic conversion took place—that ofSaul, who became the apostle Paul. Afterhis conversion God told him, “Arise and gointo the city, and you will be told what youmust do” (Acts 9:6).

After Paul arrived in Damascus, Jesusspoke in a vision to Ananias, one of theChristians living there: “So the Lord saidto him, ‘Arise and go to the street calledStraight, and inquire at the house of Judasfor one called Saul of Tarsus, for behold,he is praying” (Acts 9:11).

The street called Straight was one of themain avenues in Damascus. The Exposi-tor’s Bible Commentary explains: “Thestreet called Straight was an east-weststreet that is still one of the main thorough-fares of Damascus, the Derb el-Mustaqim.It had colonnaded halls on either side andimposing gates at each end . . . and pre-sumably was as well known in antiquity as Regent Street in London or MichiganAvenue in Chicago today. The directionsincluded not only the name of the street butalso the house where Saul could be found”(Longenecker, p. 373).

When the Jews persecuted Paul in Damascus, his friends lowered him fromthe city’s walls in a basket (Acts 9:25).Archaeologists have discovered sections ofthis ancient wall, which the Romans built.John McRay writes: “Part of the Romanwall has been found about 1000 feet southof the East Gate (Bab Sharqi) beneathSaint Paul’s Chapel and Window. Underthe present Ottoman gateway, this smallchapel was built by Greek Catholics over a gate from the Roman period. Traditionassociates the spot with Paul’s escape by abasket that was lowered from a window inthe wall (2 Cor. 11:33)” (Archaeology andthe New Testament, 1991, p. 234).

Magnificent Caesarea

Meanwhile in Jerusalem Peter had beenarrested again and this time was sentencedto death by Herod Agrippa, grandson of

20 The Good News

September/October 2000 21

Herod the Great. A few decades ago thisruler, too, was confirmed as a historical fig-ure when Israeli archaeologist BenjaminMazar found scale weights with HerodAgrippa’s name and title that date to thefifth year of his reign.

When Herod Agrippa heard of Peter’smiraculous escape (Acts 12:5-9), he flewinto a rage. “But when Herod had searchedfor him and not found him, he examinedthe guards and commanded that theyshould be put to death. And he went downfrom Judea to Caesarea, and stayed there”(verse 19).

Caesarea was an impressive artificialport built by Herod the Great. Named inhonor of Augustus Caesar, it became theRoman headquarters of Judea. Herod alsohad a magnificent palace there where hewould court Roman officials.

“The city included buildings typical of a Hellenistic city, such as a theater,amphitheater, hippodrome, aqueduct,colonnaded street, and an impressive temple dedicated to Caesar” (The Inter-preter’s Dictionary of the Bible, 1962, Vol.1, p. 480). Most of the remains of thesebuildings have recently been found byarchaeologists, including a stone plaquethat mentions Pontius Pilate [see TheGood News, May-June 2000, p. 25].

“I was on the supervisory staff at Cae-sarea from the beginning of full-scaleexcavations in 1972 until 1982,” writesJohn McKay. “Our work has largely con-firmed the impression given by Josephus inboth his Wars and Antiquities, of the grandscale on which Herod built to satisfy hisown vanity and that of the emperor Augus-tus” (Archaeology and the New Testament,1991, pp. 139-140).

Herod Agrippa’s death

The Bible also records Herod Agrippa’sunexpected death at Caesarea. “NowHerod had been very angry with the peopleof Tyre and Sidon; but they came to himwith one accord, and having made Blastusthe king’s personal aide their friend, theyasked for peace, because their country wassupplied with food by the king’s country.So on a set day Herod, arrayed in royalapparel, sat on his throne and gave an ora-tion to them. And the people kept shouting,‘The voice of a god and not of a man!’Then immediately an angel of the Lordstruck him, because he did not give gloryto God. And he was eaten by worms anddied” (Acts 12:20-23).

Josephus offers additional details in hisindependent account of Herod Agrippa’sdeath: “On the second day of which shows

he put on a garment made wholly of silver,and of a contexture truly wonderful, andcame into the theatre early in the morning;at which time the silver of his garmentbeing illuminated by the fresh reflection ofthe sun’s rays upon it, shone out after a sur-prising manner . . . and presently his flatter-ers cried out . . . ‘Be thou merciful to us; foralthough we have hitherto reverenced theeonly as a man, yet shall we henceforth ownthee as superior to mortal nature.’Upon thisthe king did neither rebuke them, nor rejecttheir impious flattery . . . A severe pain alsoarose in his belly . . . And when he had beenquite worn by the pain in his belly for fivedays, he departed this life . . .” (Antiquitiesof the Jews, XIX, viii, 2).

The two accounts, the Bible and Jose-phus, in this complement each other. Jose-phus does not mention the origin of thestomach pain, but the Bible mentions itwas because of “worms.” Luke, the physi-cian, used the Greek word skolekobrotosin reference to Herod Agrippa’s terminalcondition. The word refers to tapewormsor other intestinal worms, which can blockthe intestinal tract and cause great painand sometimes lead to death, as was thecase here.

We will continue our survey through thebook of Acts in the next installment. GNPh

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The port city of Caesarea Maritima is mentioned severaltimes in the book of Acts. Built by Herod the Great, itwas the major port in the region and a Roman adminis-trative center. Its magnificent amphitheater, left, over-

looks the Mediterranean Sea. Partially restored, today it serves as a popular venue for concerts. An equallyimpressive twin aqueduct, right, supplied the city withfresh drinking water from the nearby hills.

18 The Good News

b y M a r i o S e i g l i e

n this issue of The Good News we proceed withour survey of archaeological and historical find-ings that verify and illuminate the accounts

recorded in the Bible. In our last issue we surveyedthe first 12 chapters of Acts, in which the focus ison the exploits of the original apostles.

We pick up the story as the emphasis shifts tothe travels of the apostle Paul. How accurate arethese accounts? Thanks to the modern tools ofarchaeology, researchers have found much cultural,historical and geographical background materialthat supports the biblical account of Paul’s tripsthrough the Mediterranean world.

Sergius Paulus, governor of Cyprus

“So, being sent out by the Holy Spirit, they [theapostles Paul and Barnabas] went down to Seleu-cia, and from there they sailed to Cyprus . . . Nowwhen they had gone through the island to Paphos,they found a certain sorcerer, a false prophet, a Jewwhose name was Bar-Jesus, who was with the pro-consul, Sergius Paulus, an intelligent man” (Acts13:4-7, emphasis added throughout).

From Antioch Paul and Barnabas first went toCyprus, Barnabas’s birthplace (Acts 4:36). Histori-ans have confirmed several background detailsabout this account. For example, the Roman oratorCicero mentions in one of his books that Paphoswas indeed the Roman headquarters of Cyprusduring Roman rule (Ad Familiares, XIII.48).

Also, Luke is correct in mentioning that Cypruswas governed by a proconsul when Paul and Bar-nabas visited the island. Before A.D. 22 Cyprus had been administered by a direct representative of the emperor, called a propraetor. But after 22 theisland’s rule was turned over to the Roman senate,whose representatives were called proconsuls.“Annexed by the Romans in 55 B.C.,” notes TheInterpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, “Cyprusbecame a senatorial province in 22 B.C., with agovernor bearing the title of proconsul, as Acts13:7 correctly names Sergius Paulus, who receivedBarnabas and Paul” (1962, Vol. 3, p. 648).

The Expositor’s Bible Commentary adds: “ThatLuke distinguishes correctly between senatorialand imperial provinces and has the former gov-erned by a proconsul on behalf of the senate andthe latter governed by a propraetor representingthe emperor says much for his accuracy, for thestatus of provinces changed with the times”(Richard Longenecker, Vol. 9, 1981, notes on Acts 18:12-13, p. 485).

Archaeologists have also found evidence indi-cating Sergius Paulus was indeed a Roman gover-nor of Cyprus. In 1877 an inscription was uncov-ered a short distance north of Paphos bearingSergius Paulus’s name and title of proconsul.

In addition, in 1887 his name was found on amemorial stone in Rome. “On a boundary stone of [Emperor] Claudius, his name [Sergius Paulus]is found among others, as having been appointed(A.D. 47) one of the curators of the banks and thechannel of the river Tiber. After serving his threeyears as proconsul at Cyprus, he returned toRome, where he held the office referred to”(“Sergius Paulus,” Easton’s Bible Dictionary,Bible Explorer software).

It is also true that in those days proconsuls usedseers for advice. “These were intensely supersti-tious times,” writes William Barclay, “and mostgreat men, even an intelligent man like SergiusPaulus, kept private wizards, fortune tellers whodealt in magic and spells” (Daily Study Bible,1975, Bible Explorer software).

To the Unknown God in Athens

From Cyprus Paul eventually made his way to Athens, the capital of Greek philosophy. “Nowwhile Paul waited for them at Athens, his spirit wasprovoked within him when he saw that the city wasgiven over to idols . . . Then Paul stood in the midstof the Areopagus and said, ‘Men of Athens, I per-ceive that in all things you are very religious; for as I was passing through and considering the objectsof your worship, I even found an altar with thisinscription: TO THE UNKNOWN GOD. Therefore, the

I

Thanks to the modern tools of

archaeology,researchers have

found much cultural, historicaland geographical

background material that

supports the biblicalaccount of Paul’strips through the

Mediterraneanworld.

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November/December 2000 19

One whom you worship without knowing,Him I proclaim to you” (Acts 17:16, 22-23).

Why was Paul so incensed with theidols in Athens? Is this an accurate descrip-tion of the place? A.T. Robertson notes:“Pliny [the Roman writer] states that in the time of Nero [A.D. 54-68], Athens hadover 30,000 public statues besides count-less private ones in the homes. Petronius [a Roman satirist] sneers that it was easierto find a god than a man in Athens. Everygateway or porch had its protecting god”(Word Pictures of the New Testament,notes on Acts 17:16).

What about the altar “to the unknowngod”? Has there been any confirmationthat such altars existed? ArchaeologistJohn McRay mentions: “Pausanias [theGreek historian], who visited Athensbetween 143 and 159 A.D. saw such altars.In describing his trip from the harbor toAthens he wrote: ‘The Temple of AtheneSkiras is also here, and one of Zeus furtheroff, and altars of the ‘Unknown gods’ . . .Apollonius of Tyana, who died in A.D. 98,spoke of Athens as the place ‘where altarsare set up in honor even of unknown gods’. . .” (Archaeology & the New Testament,1991, p. 304).

In 1909 an archaeological expeditionuncovered an altar with the inscription “To unknown gods” in Pergamum, aRoman province. McRay comments thatthe idolatry in Athens was so widespreadthat Athenians built altars to unknown

gods so they would leave no one out. “The adherents of ancient polytheisticreligions,” he says, “characterized as theywere by superstitious ignorance, may havesimply erected altars to unknown gods ‘sothat no deity might be offended by humanneglect’” (ibid.).

Jews expelled from Rome

From Athens Paul traveled a short wayto another Greek city, Corinth. “After thesethings Paul departed from Athens and wentto Corinth. And he found a certain Jewnamed Aquila, born in Pontus, who hadrecently come from Italy with his wifePriscilla (because Claudius had com-manded all the Jews to depart from Rome),and he came to them” (Acts 18:2).

Were Jews expelled from Rome duringthe reign of Emperor Claudius? TheRoman historian Suetonius records such an order: “As the Jews were indulging inconstant riots at the instigation of Chrestus,he banished them from Rome” (Life ofClaudius, 25.4). It is estimated some20,000 Jews eventually were expelled,among them Aquila and Priscilla.

It is worthwhile to note this expulsiondecree is a key date for fixing Paulinechronology. “One example of how archae-ology has contributed to establishing aPauline chronology,” writes ProfessorMcRay, “is that now we can set theapproximate beginning of Paul’s work inCorinth on his second journey. The key is

found in Acts 18:2 where we learn thatwhen Paul arrived in Corinth he foundPriscilla and Aquila, who had lately comefrom Italy, having been banished fromRome in a general expulsion of Jews underClaudius, who reigned from 41-54. Thisevent is referred to by Suetonius and othersand can be dated to A.D. 49” (McRay,pp. 225-226).

Who was this Chrestus who wasresponsible for the Jewish riots? The sub-ject has been intensely debated. Since the name Chrestus and Christus are pro-nounced alike, it is likely that it had to dowith the dissension in the Jewish commu-nity over the newly established Christianityand the teachings of Christ.

F.F. Bruce mentions that Chrestus couldhave simply been a Jewish troublemaker,but he adds: “It is more likely that [Sueto-nius] had the Founder of Christianity inmind, but that, writing some seventy yearsafter the event and not being particularlyinterested in Christian origins, he consultedsome record of the riots and imaginedwrongly that Chrestus, who was men-tioned as the leader of one of the partiesconcerned, was actually in Rome at thetime, taking a prominent part in the strife.In fact, what we have in this statement ofSuetonius is the dissension and disorder inthe Jewish community at Rome resultingfrom the introduction of Christianity intoone or more of the synagogues of the city”(The International Commentary of the C

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The apostle Paul, struck by the rampant idolatry of the Athenians, confrontedthem on Mars Hill. Nearby stood the Parthenon, above, dedicated to the god-dess Athena, and a much smaller temple built to honor the goddess Nike.

20 The Good News

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New Testament, 1974, p. 368, “Acts”).Later Aquila and Priscilla were to

become instrumental in Paul’s ministry.They gave him a job in Corinth (Acts 18:3)and traveled with him to Ephesus (verse19). They then served as hosts for a churchgroup in their home and sent their greet-ings to their Corinthian friends in one ofPaul’s letters (1 Corinthians 16:19). Some-time after Claudius’s death in 54, theyreturned to Rome and were included inPaul’s greetings to the church membersthere (Romans 16:3).

Gallio, proconsul of Corinth

During Paul’s long stay in Corinth hispreaching eventually led to conflict withthe Jews there. “And he continued there ayear and six months, teaching the word ofGod among them. When Gallio was pro-consul of Achaia, the Jews with one accordrose up against Paul and brought him to thejudgment seat” (Acts 18:11-12).

Here Luke mentions another Romangovernor of the time. Has any evidencebeen found to corroborate the existence of Gallio?

It turns out Gallio was prominent inRoman history. He was the brother of the great Stoic writer Seneca, who was

Emperor Nero’s tutor. Gallio came from anillustrious family in Spain that eventuallymoved to Rome. His real name was Mar-cus Annaeus Novatus, but he was adoptedby the orator Lucius Junius Gallio andafterwards bore his adoptive father’s lastname. His brother Seneca, who mentionshim in his writings, said, “No mortal is so pleasant to any one person as Gallio is to everybody.”

It is striking that Luke also describesGallio’s stable and affable personality.After Paul’s persecutors trumped upcharges against Paul, Gallio quickly sawthrough their lies and dismissed the falseaccusations. To prevent such incidentsfrom occurring again, he had the Jewishleaders punished for filing false charges(Acts 18:14-17). This set a legal precedentthroughout the Roman Empire concerningPaul’s mission and the Christian religion.

“If Gallio had accepted the Jewishcharge,” adds The Expositor’s Bible Com-mentary, “and found Paul guilty of thealleged offense, provincial governorseverywhere would have had a precedent,and Paul’s ministry would have beenseverely restricted. As it was, Gallio’srefusal to act in the matter was tantamountto the recognition of Christianity as a reli-gio licita [an authorized religion]; and thedecision of so eminent a Roman proconsulwould carry weight wherever the issuearose again and give pause to those whomight want to oppose the Christian move-ment . . . For the coming decade or so, theChristian message could be proclaimed inthe provinces of the empire without fear of coming into conflict with Roman law,thanks largely to Gallio’s decision” (Lon-genecker, p. 486, notes on Acts 18:14-16).

It is remarkable that archaeological evi-dence has also been found confirming Gal-lio was the proconsul of Achaia, just asLuke had recorded.

“At Delphi,” writes Professor McRay,“archaeologists found a stone which prob-ably was once attached to the outer wall ofthe Temple of Apollo. Inscribed in it is acopy of a letter from Claudius to the city of Delphi, naming Gallio as the friend of Claudius and proconsul of Achaia”(McRay, p. 226).

What happened to Gallio after hisencounter with Paul? Regrettably, afterClaudius died in 54, Nero became theemperor. For a while Nero governedwisely under the tutorship of Gallio’sbrother Seneca. But five years later Nerodid an about-face and gave himself to hispassions and lusts. He expelled his mentorfrom his sight. His debauchery eventuallycaused Nero to become insane, and soonNero was feeling tormented by Seneca’sand Gallio’s integrity and presence, so hehad them both executed in 65.

F.F. Bruce says about Gallio: “He leftAchaia because of a fever and went on acruise for his health (Seneca, Moral Epis-tles, 14.1) . . . In 65, along with Seneca andother members of his family, he fell victimto Nero’s suspicions” (The InternationalCommentary of the New Testament, 1974,p. 374, “Acts”).

Such were the times in Rome. Duringthis same period Nero began his murder-ous rampage of Christians in Rome afterhe falsely blamed them for having set thecity on fire, which historians generallyblame Nero as having started.

We will continue with our survey ofActs in the next article in this series. GN

20 The Good News

The Roman emperor Claudiusexpelled all Jews from Rome. Thisaction is recorded in Acts 18:2.

The emperor Nero greatly perse-cuted early Christians. Paul wasexecuted during his reign.

n the last two installments in this series we covered events from the start of the ChristianChurch to Paul’s first travels through theMediterranean world. In this article we conclude

our discussion of the book of Acts by coveringPaul’s trips to Ephesus, Jerusalem and Rome.

The Ephesian scripts

After visiting Corinth Paul began his return jour-ney to Jerusalem by way of Ephesus, an importantcity of Asia Minor.

“And it happened, while Apollos was at Corinth,that Paul, having passed through the upper regions,came to Ephesus . . . And many who had believedcame confessing and telling their deeds. Also, manyof those who had practiced magic brought theirbooks together and burned them in the sight of all.And they counted up the value of them, and it totaledfifty thousand pieces of silver. So the word of theLord grew mightily and prevailed” (Acts 19:1, 18-20,emphasis added throughout).

The Greek word used here for “books” is biblos.The word origi-nally referred to“the inner part . . .of the stem of thepapyrus [plant]”and later “came todenote the papermade from thisbark in Egypt, andthen a written‘book,’roll, or vol-ume” (W.E. Vine,Vine’s CompleteExpository Dictio-nary of Old andNew TestamentWords, 1985,“Book”).Since the 1870s

archaeologists have made intensive efforts to findancient papyrus scrolls, especially in Egypt, where

the desert climate can preserve such fragile treasures.They have realized remarkable success, findingscrolls dating back to New Testament times. Amongthe papyrus scrolls discovered are some containingthe wording of magical spells; these scrolls wereused as amulets (charms).

“A number of such magical scrolls have survivedto our day,” notes F.F. Bruce. “There are especiallyfamous examples in the London, Paris and Leydencollections. The special connection of Ephesus withmagic is reflected in the use of the term ‘Ephesianscripts’for such magical scrolls. The spells whichthey contain are the merest gibberish, a rigmarole ofwords and names considered to be unusually potent,arranged sometimes in patterns which were part ofthe essence of the spell, but they fetched high prices. . . The closest parallel to the Ephesian exorcists’misuse of the name of Jesus appears in the Parismagical papyrus, No. 574, where we find an adjura-tion beginning on line 3018, ‘I adjure thee by Jesusthe God of the Hebrews’” (The New InternationalCommentary of the New Testament: The Book ofActs, 1974, pp. 390-391).

The value of such scrolls that were destroyed isgiven in the Bible as “fifty thousand pieces of silver”(Acts 19:19), a sum scholars say would be wortharound $48,000 in modern currency.

One of the seven wonders of the ancient world

Paul’s preaching in Ephesus caused many to turnaway from their idols and pagan practices. This ledto an uprising among the craftsmen who made theirliving making statuettes of the goddess Diana andher temple.

“And about that time there arose a great commo-tion about the Way. For a certain man named Deme-trius, a silversmith, who made silver shrines ofDiana, brought no small profit to the craftsmen. He called them together with the workers of similaroccupation, and said, ‘Men, you know that we haveour prosperity by this trade. Moreover you see andhear that not only at Ephesus, but throughout almost

18 The Good News

The Book of Acts:Paul’s Later Travels

Luke provides uswith a detailed

and accurateaccount of Paul’sapostolic missions

during the firstdecades of the

Church.

The temple of Diana in Ephesus was one of the sevenwonders of the ancient world. Paul’s preaching broughthim into conflict with those who made a living from activ-ities associated with idolatrous worship of the goddess.

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all Asia, this Paul has persuaded and turnedaway many people, saying that they are notgods which are made with hands.

“So not only is this trade of ours in dangerof falling into disrepute, but also the templeof the great goddess Diana may be despisedand her magnificence destroyed, whom allAsia and the world worship. Now when theyheard this, they were full of wrath and criedout, saying, ‘Great is Diana of the Ephesians.’So the whole city was filled with confusion,and rushed into the theater with one accord,having seized Gaius and Aristarchus, Paul’stravel companions” (Acts 19:23-29).

The temple of Diana, one of the sevenwonders of the ancient world, was four timesthe size of the Parthenon in Athens, Greece.Its ruins were brought to light by the British

archaeologist John T. Wood in 1869. Laterhe found, in remarkably good condition, thehuge theater mentioned in Acts 19:29, whichcould seat more than 24,000 people.

William Barclay comments about thetemple of Diana: “It was 425 feet long by220 feet wide by 60 feet high. There were127 pillars, each the gift of a king. Theywere all of glittering marble and 36 weremarvelously gilt and inlaid. The great altarhad been carved by Praxiteles, the greatest ofall Greek sculptors. The image of Diana wasnot beautiful. It was a black, squat, many-breasted figure, signifying fertility; it was so old that no one knew where it had comefrom or even of what material it was made.

The story was that it hadfallen from heaven” (DailyStudy Bible, 1975, commenton Acts 19:1-7).

Another reference workadds: “Thousands of pil-grims and tourists came to itfrom far and near; around itswarmed all sorts of trades-

men and hucksters who made their living bysupplying visitors with food and lodging,dedicatory offerings, and souvenirs. TheTemple of Artemis [Diana] was also a majortreasury and bank of the ancient world,where merchants, kings, and even citiesmade deposits, and where their money couldbe kept safe under the protection of deity”(Richard Longenecker, The Expositor’sBible Commentary, Vol. 9, 1981, p. 503).

It is not surprising that a lucrative trade of small statues of Diana and her templeexisted in Ephesus. Commenting on verses24 and 27,A.T. Robertson explains: “Thesesmall models of the temple with the statue of Artemis [Diana] inside would be set up in the houses or even worn as amulets . . .Temples of Artemis [Diana] have beenfound in Spain and Gaul [France]” (OnlineBible software, 1995, Word Pictures of theNew Testament).

Throughout Europe archaeologists havefound many statues of the many-breastedgoddess Diana (or Artemis, as she was calledby the Romans). In 1956 an impressivestatue of Diana was discovered in Ephesus;it stands prominently in the museum there.

Into this scene of popular paganismentered the apostle Paul. Demetrius had

accused him of teaching that “man-madegods are no gods at all” (Acts 19:26, NewInternational Version). In other words, Paulhad fearlessly taught keeping the SecondCommandment and avoiding worship ofreligious images. Thanks to the help offriendly government officials in Ephesus,Paul was protected and the crowd wasfinally dispersed.

It is a bit ironic that, although the cult of the goddess Diana gradually died down,another cult eventually replaced her in Eph-esus. “Christianity,” says historian MarinaWarner, “fastened on her [Diana] and addedsuch typical feminine Christian virtues asmodesty and shame to her personality . . .”(Alone of All Her Sex, 1976, p. 47). Diana,continues Warner, “was associated with themoon . . . as the Virgin Mary is identifiedwith the moon and the stars’influence aswell as with the forces of fertility and generation” (p. 224).

At the Council of Ephesus in A.D. 431the veneration of Mary became an officialelement of the Roman church. Warner saysabout Diana: “Memories of her emblem, thegirdle, survived in the city [Ephesus] wherethe Virgin Mary was proclaimed Theotokos[Mother of God], three hundred and fiftyyears after the silversmiths, who lived bymaking statuettes of Diana, rebelled againstthe preaching of Paul and shouted, ‘Great isDiana of the Ephesians’(Acts 19:23-40).There could be, therefore, a chain of descentfrom . . . Diana to the Virgin, for one tradi-tion also holds that Mary was assumed intoheaven from Ephesus . . .” (ibid., p. 280).

Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem

From Ephesus Paul hurried to Jeru-salem to stay there “if possible, on the Day of Pentecost” (Acts 20:16). When hearrived he soon went to the temple to wor-ship and fulfill a vow along with four otherJewish Christians.

“Now when the seven days were almostended, the Jews from Asia, seeing him in thetemple, stirred up the whole crowd and laidhands on him, crying out, ‘Men of Israel,help! This is the man who teaches all meneverywhere against the people, the law, andthis place; and furthermore he also broughtGreeks into the temple and has defiled thisholy place.’(For they had previously seenPa

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Elaborate statues of Diana graced tem-ples dedicated to her worship in manyareas of the Roman Empire. Such statuestypically depict her with multiple breastsor eggs, emphasizing her attributes asthe primary fertility goddess. The coin at right depicts her statue in a temple.

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Trophimus the Ephesian with him in the city, whom they had supposed that Paul hadbrought into the temple)” (Acts 21:27-29).

Paul was arrested on a false charge ofhaving taken a gentile (a non-Israelite) insidethe temple. Next to each temple entrancewas an inscription warning everyone thatonly Israelites were permitted to enter.

Bruce explains: “That no Gentile mightunwittingly enter into the forbidden areas,notices in Greek and Latin were fixed to thebarrier at the foot of the steps leading up tothe inner precincts, warning them that deathwas the penalty for further ingress. Two ofthese notices (both in Greek) have beenfound—one in 1871 and one in 1935—thetext of which runs: ‘No foreigner may enterwithin the barricade which surrounds thetemple and enclosure. Anyone who is caughtdoing so will have himself to blame for hisensuing death” (The New InternationalCommentary of the New Testament: TheBook of Acts, 1974, p. 434).

Paul’s journey to Rome

After Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem, theRoman authorities discovered a plot to killhim and hurriedly sent him to nearby Cae-sarea, the Roman capital of Judea. Since hewas a Roman citizen, a rare and prestigiousdesignation in those days, he was entitled to full military protection. In Caesarea he

submitted to several preliminary hearingsthat left him unsatisfied, so he exercised hisright as a Roman to appeal his case to theemperor in Rome.

The voyage to Rome, on a cargo ship,was harrowing. Luke accompanied Paul on the trip. His narrative is a masterpiece of accuracy down to tiniest details. “Luke’saccount of Paul’s voyage to Rome,” explainsThe Expositor’s Bible Commentary, “standsout as one of the most vivid pieces ofdescriptive writing in the whole Bible. Itsdetails regarding first-century seamanshipare so precise and its portrayal of conditionson the eastern Mediterranean so accurate . . .that even the most skeptical have concededthat it probably rests on a journal of some such voyage as Luke describes”(Longenecker, p. 556).

The remains of several ships similar tothe one described by Luke have been foundon the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea.They corroborate the precision of Luke’saccount. “These grain ships were not small,”notes Barclay. “They could be as large as140 feet long and 36 feet wide. But in astorm they had certain grave disadvantages.They were the same at the bow as at thestern, except that the stern was swept up likea goose’s neck. They had no rudder like amodern ship, but were steered with two greatpaddles coming out from the stern on each

side. They were, therefore, hard to manage.Further, they had only one mast and on thatmast one great square sail, made sometimesof linen and sometimes of stitched hides.With a sail like that they could not sail intothe wind” (Daily Study Bible, comment onActs 27:21).

On the voyage to Rome, Paul and hiscompany were shipwrecked near the island ofMalta and barely made it to the beach withoutdrowning. There they waited several monthsuntil another ship took them to Rome.

The Appian Way

Luke’s account continues: “And so wewent toward Rome. And from there, whenthe brethren heard about us, they came tomeet us as far as Appii Forum and ThreeInns” (Acts 28:14-15).

According to archaeological and literaryevidence, Luke accurately recounts the waystations to enter Rome from the west, theshortest route from the nearest seaport. “AtNeapolis, Paul and his contingent turnednorthwest to travel to Rome on the Via Appia—the oldest, straightest, and most perfectlymade of all the Roman roads, named after thecensor Appius Claudius who started its con-struction in 312 B.C. During the seven-daystopover at Puteoli, news of Paul’s arrival inItaly reached Rome. So a number of Chris-tians there set out to meet him and escort himback to Rome. Some of them got as far as theForum of Appius (Appii Forum), one of the‘halting stations’built every ten to fifteenmiles along the entire length of the Romanroad system . . . Others only got as far as theThree Taverns Inn, another halting stationabout thirty-three miles from Rome” (ibid.,comment on Acts 28:15).

Luke thus provides us with a detailed and accurate account of Paul’s apostolic mis-sions during the first decades of the Church.The book of Acts ends with Paul waiting forhis case to be heard by the emperor. Fromlater historians we learn that he was set freeand continued his apostolic journeys for sev-eral years until he was again arrested, impris-oned and ultimately beheaded in Rome.

We will continue this series with a look at archaeological evidence that illuminatesdetails of some of Paul’s many letters to congregations and members of the earlyChurch. GN

20 The Good News

This Greek inscription from the temple in Jerusalem warns that only Israelites areallowed to pass this point and enter the inner courts of the temple.

n the previous three installments of this serieswe covered events described in the book ofActs. We now turn our attention to the apostolicwritings, better known as the epistles, addressed

to specific individuals or congregations or largergroups of people.

How accurate are the epistles from an archaeo-logical and historical point of view? We can bethankful that much background information isavailable about these writings that confirms theirauthenticity.

The apostolic letters

One of the first questions that comes to mindwhen examining the epistles is how they comparewith the style and composition of other writings ofthe same era.

In the 20th century archaeologists discoveredmany private letters dating from the apostles’ timethat show the prevailing style of writing and corre-spondence. Written on papyrus, they corroborate

that the apostles’letters are writtenin the style com-mon in those days.

Scholar WilliamBarclay notesabout Paul’s writ-ings: “It is a greatpity that Paul’s letters were evercalled epistles.They are in themost literal senseletters. One of thegreat lights shedon the interpreta-tion of the NewTestament hasbeen the discoveryand the publica-

tion of papyri. In the ancient world, papyrus was thesubstance on which most documents were written

. . . The sands of the Egyptian desert were ideal fortheir preservation, for papyrus, although very brit-tle, will last for ever so long as moisture does notget at it.

“As a result, from the Egyptian rubbish heaps,archaeologists have rescued hundreds of docu-ments, marriage contracts, legal agreements, gov-ernment forms, and, most interesting of all, privateletters. When we read these private letters we findthat there was a pattern to which nearly all con-formed; and we find that Paul’s letters reproduceexactly that pattern” (Daily Study Bible, BibleExplorer software, notes on Romans 1:1, emphasisadded throughout).

So far some 15,000 papyrus documents havebeen documented that date from 2700 B.C. to NewTestament times and well beyond. From the bibli-cal point of view the most important papyrusscrolls include:

• The 87 papyri containing parts of the GreekNew Testament.

• The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered some 50years ago, which include books and commentariesabout the Old Testament.

• The Septuagint version of the Old Testament (aGreek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures that wasin common use in the time of the apostles).

The New Testament papyrus scrolls date from thelate first to the seventh century and vary in size fromscraps containing a few words to almost completebooks of a Gospel,Acts or the Pauline epistles.

Grant Jeffrey compares the number of biblicalwritings discovered to other works found: “Modernscholars now possess more than five thousand manu-script copies of portions of the New Testament in theGreek language. In addition, there are an additionalfifteen thousand manuscripts in other languages fromthe first few centuries of this era. No other importanttext, whether historical or religious, has more than a few dozen copies that have survived until our generation” (The Signature of God, 1996, p. 88).

From the private letters of the apostles’ time we find their introduction typically included the

18 The Good News

Archaeologyand the Epistles

How accurate arethe epistles from anarchaeological andhistorical point ofview? We can be

thankful thatmuch background

information isavailable about

these writings thatconfirms their

authenticity.

Paul wrote to Christians in Rome, heart of a mightyempire, well before he set foot there. Little did he knowhe would die in Rome several years later. Palatine Hilland the Roman Forum, ruins of which are shown here,were the heart of the city.

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identity of the author, the name of the recip-ient, a prayer for the recipient and a greet-ing. The conclusion of such letters reflectsthe apostles’ similar style of identifying therecipients, offering thanks and ending witha blessing.

“The power of the Epistles,” says TheBible Through the Ages, “especially thoseof Paul, lay partly in their adherence to astructure recognized by educated peoplethroughout the Greek-speaking world”(1996, p. 148).

Let’s see a few specific examples of howthese letters fit into the context of those days.

Paul’s letter to the Romans

Throughout his letter to the Romans wesee Paul urging gentile and Jewish Chris-tians in Rome to reconcile their differ-ences. What historical event could have led to disunity that would prompt this kindof admonition?

Paul mentions in this letter that he wouldsend it from one of the ports of Corinth,called Cenchrea, by way of a membernamed Phoebe (Romans 16:1).

In his first visit to Corinth a few years ear-lier, Paul had met the married couple Pris-cilla and Aquila, converted Jews who hadbeen among those expelled from Rome. Weread in Acts 18:2 that the Jews at Rome hadbeen exiled by Emperor Claudius around 49 B.C. After Claudius died, Priscilla andAquila returned to Rome (Romans 16:3).

The content of the epistle to the Romansreflects the new situation of the return of theJewish Christians to the Roman church andthe need for the gentile Christians again toaccept their leadership.

Another indication of the authenticity of the epistle is the mention by Paul of 26people in Romans 16. Scholars note thesenames were quite common during thatperiod. Surprisingly, 13 of them have beenfound in inscriptions or documents con-nected with the emperor’s palace in Rome.

William Barclay notes that, “althoughmany are common names, this fact [theirrelationship with Caesar’s palace] isnonetheless suggestive. In Philippians 4:22,Paul speaks of the saints of Caesar’s house-hold. It may be that they were for the mostpart slaves, but it is still important thatChristianity seems to have penetrated early

into the imperial palace” (Daily StudyBible, comments on Romans 16:5-11,Bible Explorer software).

Thus this mention of Roman, Greek andHebrew names common in those days andthe historical evi-dence of a Christianpresence even inCaesar’s householdgive credence towhat Paul writes inRomans.

The letters to theCorinthians

Paul’s two epis-tles to the Corinthi-ans also fit well with archaeologists’discoveries aboutCorinth and what we learn from classi-cal Greek literature.

Unlike Paul’s letters to people inother areas, in bothof the letters to Corinth he refers to sinsinvolving sexual immorality. Paul mentions in 1 Corinthians 5:1-2 that thebrethren were openly tolerating a memberinvolved in a sexual relationship with hisstepmother. Paul instructs the members thereto put that person out of the church until herepents and then warns them not to becomecorrupted by this bad example or allowthemselves to return to their former sins.

He admonishes: “Do you not know thatthe unrighteous will not inherit the king-dom of God? Do not be deceived. Neitherfornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers,nor homosexuals, nor sodomites, northieves, nor covetous, nor drunkards, norrevilers, nor extortioners will inherit thekingdom of God. And such were some of you” (1 Corinthians 6:9-11).

Of all the Greek cities, Corinth was theone most known for sexual immorality.“The ancient city had a reputation for vul-gar materialism,” notes The Bible Knowl-edge Commentary. “In the earliest Greekliterature it was linked with wealth andimmorality. When Plato referred to a prosti-tute, he used the expression ‘Corinthiangirl.’According to Strabo, the Greek geog-

rapher, much of the wealth and vice inCorinth centered around the temple ofAphrodite and its thousand temple prosti-tutes. For this reason a proverb warned,‘Not for every man is the voyage to

Corinth!’” (Logos Library System soft-ware, 1985, introduction to 1 Corinthians).

Archaeologists have uncovered theremains of the temple of Aphrodite, the god-dess of love, and other temples dedicated tofertility cults that contributed to the city’srampant immorality. They have also foundruins of the marketplace that indicate thatwine was a popular product. “Around themarket were a good many shops, numbersof which had individual wells, suggestingthat much wine was made and drunk in thecity. [Paul warned] in 1 Cor[inthians] 6:10that drunkards will not ‘inherit’ the kingdomof God” (Harold Mare, The Expositor’sBible Commentary, 1979, p. 177).

The incident of sexual immorality in theCorinthian church appears to have a positiveending. After the members there repented oftheir moral laxity, they obeyed Paul and putthe guilty party out of the congregation. Butin 2 Corinthians 2:3-11 Paul tells them heheard of the sinner’s repentance and urgedthem to forgive and restore him as a member.

Paul’s other epistles and those the otherapostles wrote all reflect the aspects ofeveryday life in the Greco-Roman world of that age. Although critical scholars C

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Paul “continued there [in Corinth] a year and six months,” accord-ing to Acts 18:11. He later wrote two epistles to Church members inthat Greek city, some of the ruins of which are clearly visible today.

May/June 2001 19

have focussed intensely on the apostolicepistles to try to find any discrepancy oranachronism, none has been forthcoming.

The epistle of James

Of all the epistles, James’ is the mostpractical and picturesque. The BibleKnowledge Commentary calls it “a literarymasterpiece . . . that combines the rhyth-mic beauty of Greek with the stern inten-sity of Hebrew” and says that, “in fact, theBook of James probably has more figuresof speech, analogies, and imagery fromnature than all Paul’s epistles together”(Logos Library System software, 1985,introduction to James).

How could Jesus’half brother (Matthew13:55) have developed such a polished lit-erary style? One commentary says abouthim: “The author had been from fifteen totwenty years a member, and for a numberof years, the official head, of the JerusalemChurch, which very early in its history hadmore Hellenists than Hebrews in its mem-bership. In daily contact with such Hel-lenists, James could, in the course of theyears, have attained to considerable profi-ciency the use of the Greek tongue” (TheNew International Commentary of the NewTestament: James, 1974, p. 19).

Another evidence of the authenticity ofthe letter is the mention of Christians stillmeeting in synagogues. James writes of dif-ferent classes of people coming “into yourassembly” (James 2:2). The Greek wordtranslated “assembly” here is sunagoge,an assembly of people. It was natural forJames, as leader of the church in Jerusalem,to refer to the meeting places where Chris-tians gathered as synagogues, since theterm did not have the negative connotationit later took among anti-Jewish groups.

“There is evidence that early JewishChristians sometimes met in synagogues,”says archaeologist John McRay. “The NewTestament letter of James refers to Chris-tians (undoubtedly Jewish) meeting in asynagogue (2:2), but bear in mind that atthis time Jews probably met most often inhomes and rented halls” (Archaeology andthe New Testament, 1997, p. 72).

Peter’s epistles

Peter’s writing style and the background

of his two epistles also conform to the norm for those times. The Expositor’s BibleCommentary states, “First Peter is an epis-tle or letter written in the normal letter formof the [New Testament] world” (EdwinBlum, 1981, p. 213).

But how could Peter, a Galilean fisher-man, write in the fine Greek style of theseepistles?

“The parallels between this first letterand Peter’s sermons recorded in Acts aresignificant,” answers The Bible KnowledgeCommentary. “Peter’s public ministryspanned more than 30 years . . . He livedand preached in a multicultural world. It is reasonable to believe that after threedecades Peter could have mastered the lan-guage of the majority of those to whom heministered. Certainly Peter had the timeand talent to become an outstanding com-municator of the gospel via the Greek lan-guage” (Logos Library System software,introduction to 1 Peter).

Peter ends his first epistle with a refer-ence to his location: “She who is in Baby-lon, elect together with you, greets you; andso does Mark my son” (1 Peter 5:13).

Some commentators regard the men-tion of Babylon as a cryptic way of refer-ring to Rome, but the historical evidenceshows that the actual city of Babylon had a thriving Jewish community duringthose days.

The Scriptures indicate most of Peter’smission dealt not with gentiles but withJews. Paul mentioned that “the gospel forthe uncircumcised [gentiles] had been com-mitted to me, as the gospel for the circum-cised [Jews] was to Peter” (Galatians 2:7).

“Many have wondered,” writes historianWilliam McBirnie, “if this [reference toBabylon] did not mean Rome, which wasfrequently called ‘Babylon’by the earlyChristians. The actual city of Babylon,however, still was of importance. It was a great center of Jewish colonists and was a powerful center when Peter ministeredthere for a time. The Eastern churches tracetheir lineage to Babylon, and hence toPeter, to this day” (The Search for theTwelve Apostles, 1973, p. 57).

John’s writings

John’s Gospel and epistles have an

unusual style and are among the mostrespected by scholars.

“No two works in the whole range ofliterature,” wrote Sir William Ramsay,“show clearer signs of the genius of onewriter, and no other pair of works are socompletely in a class by themselves, apartfrom the work of their own and everyother time” (Alexander Ross, The NewInternational Commentary of the New Tes-tament: The Epistles of James and John,1974, p. 110).

John penned his epistles toward the endof the New Testament period. They reflectthe later struggles of the remaining apostlesagainst gnostic groups and other opponentsof God’s law (antinomians) who were influencing Church members and seducingmany away from the truth. Archaeologyhas helped us better understand some of the issues that John faced.

“The extensive Gnostic library that was found at Nag Hammadi in Egypt in1945,” states John McRay, “has providedus with new information regarding heresyin the early church and about the nature of the canon of the New Testament at thistime” (p. 18).

Thanks to the discovery of material documenting some of the gnostic beliefs,the issues John mentioned have been confirmed to be historical.

Conclusion

This concludes the brief overview ofwhat archaeology and history tell us aboutthe apostolic epistles.

Grant Jeffrey sums up the historical find-ings: “The tremendous advances in histori-cal research and biblical archaeology in thelast century have convinced most scholarsin the last two decades that the Gospels and Epistles were written within thirty-fiveyears or less of the events which theydescribe . . . In an article for ChristianityToday, Jan. 18, 1963, W.F. Albright [the so-called dean of modern archaeology] wrote:‘In my opinion, every book of the New Testament was written by a baptized Jewbetween the forties and eighties of the firstcentury A.D.’” (pp. 86-87).

In the next installment we will concludethis archaeological survey by covering thelast book of the Bible, Revelation. GN

20 The Good News

n our long-running series “The Bible and Archae-ology,” we have gone through the Scriptures fromGenesis through the Epistles reviewing many of

the surprising archaeological finds that confirm andilluminate the biblical record. We conclude the serieswith a look at archaeological and historical evidencerelating to the last book of the Bible, Revelation.

Many people view Revelation, sometimes calledthe Apocalypse, as a mysterious book of strange sym-bols and images. Yet it has a clear and definite histori-cal background. The apostle John, who wrote it underthe inspiration of Jesus Christ (Revelation 1:1), men-tions where it was written and that it was addressed to congregations in seven cities in Asia Minor.

How do the descriptions of these places comparewith discoveries about them from history andarchaeology?

Exiled to Patmos

We learn from John that he wrote Revelationfrom the island of Patmos (verse 9), in the AegeanSea 40 miles off the coast of Asia Minor (modern-

day Turkey). Patmos is a small island of only 24square miles (62 square kilometers), with a coastlinein the shape of a horseshoe.

Was it customary in the Roman Empire for con-victs to be exiled to an island? The Roman historianTacitus (A.D. 56-120), in his book Annals, mentionsthe policy of banishing political prisoners to smallislands (Sections 3:68; 4:30; 15:71).

Patmos, a rocky, volcanic and sparsely populatedisle, was an appropriate place to send captives. Banishment was a terrible punishment that ofteninvolved whippings and being bound in chainsbefore the prisoner was sent off for years of hardlabor in rock quarries. At John’s advanced age itwould have been a harrowing ordeal. Yet he men-tions it as an honor to participate “in the tribulationand kingdom and patience of Jesus Christ” (verse 9).

During the time of John’s exile, traditionally 94-96, history records violent persecution againstChristians under the reign of the Roman emperorDomitian (81-96). This despot declared himself agod and demanded the worship of his subjects—with the exception of Jews. This meant that once ayear each head of household had to appear beforeauthorities, burn incense to the emperor and declare,“Caesar is lord.” Those who refused were brandedas traitors and either sentenced to death or exiled.

Since Christians confessed they had only oneLord, Jesus Christ, they were mercilessly hounded.John, the last living apostle of the original 12,apparently was banished for this reason.

A message to seven churches

While on Patmos, John received a long and com-plicated vision from Jesus Christ (verses 1-2, 10-20)with the instructions: “. . . What you see, write in abook and send it to the seven churches which are inAsia: to Ephesus, to Smyrna, to Pergamos, to Thy-atira, to Sardis, to Philadelphia, and to Laodicea”(verse 11).

How accurate are the descriptions of these sevencities mentioned in the book of Revelation accord-ing to archaeology and history? Interestingly, Jesus

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The Book of Revelation:History and Prophecy

Many people viewRevelation, some-

times called theApocalypse, as a

mysterious book ofstrange symbols

and images. Yet ithas a clear and

definite historicalbackground.

Seven cities mentioned in Revelation apparently formed anancient postal route connected by Roman roads stretching from the port city of Ephesus to Laodicea. John received his visions whileexiled on the island of Patmos off the coast of modern-day Turkey.

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used some of the characteristics of each cityto spiritually evaluate its congregation andto prophesy the history of His Church up to His second coming.

The first church: Ephesus

The port city of Ephesus was a short voyage from Patmos. Therefore one couldlogically send a letter there and then on tothe remaining six cities Christ mentioned.

Archaeologists have uncovered theremains of the Roman roads that stretchedfrom Ephesus to Laodicea. “It is no acci-dent,” notes John McRay, “that the letters in Revelation 1-3 are arranged in this samesequence. Beginning with Ephesus, the roadsfollow a geographic semicircle, extendingnorthward, turning to the east, and continuingsouthward to Laodicea—thus connecting thecities on what must have functioned as anancient postal route” (Archaeology and theNew Testament, 1997, p. 242).

The apostle Paul had founded a largechurch in Ephesus, and now Jesus addressedthe members there with a prophetic messagethat applied to them and was predictive ofthe Church’s future. Jesus had told John:“Write the things which you have seen, andthe things which are [at the present time],and the things which will take place after this

[in the future]” (verse 19, emphasis addedthroughout). Hence part of the message ofRevelation would apply to John’s time, andpart would be for future generations.

Christ recognizes the effort of the Ephe-sian brethren, in spite of many obstacles, tokeep the faith and carry out the commissionHe had given them. “I know your works,your labor, your patience,” He told them,“and that you cannot bear those who areevil” (Revelation 2:2).

In Ephesus was much evil to avoid—within and without the congregation. It wasthere that Paul had warned the “elders of thechurch” (Acts 20:17): “For I know this, thatafter my departure savage wolves will comein among you, not sparing the flock. Alsofrom among yourselves men will rise up,speaking perverse things, to draw away thedisciples after themselves” (verses 29-30).

Moreover, the Ephesian brethren had toresist the many temptations the immenselypopular pagan temple worship offered them.Archaeologists have found at Ephesus theruins of one of the seven wonders of theancient world, the temple of Diana, orArtemis, also mentioned in the Bible (Acts19:27). Thousands of priests and priestessesserved the temple; many of the priestesseswere dedicated to cultic prostitution.

Centuries earlier Heracleitus, an Ephe-sian philosopher, described the inhabitantsthere as “fit only to be drowned[,] and thereason why [they] could never laugh orsmile was because [they] lived amidst suchterrible uncleanness.” Such was the reputa-tion of ancient Ephesus. It would have beendifficult to live as a Christian in the midst of such an immoral city.

Knowing this, Christ gives the brethrenthe hope that if they persevere in the faiththey will receive something that all the temple worship of Diana could never givethem—the gift of eternal life. “To him whoovercomes,” He promised, “I will give to eat from the tree of life [symbolizing eternallife], which is in the midst of the Paradise of God” (Revelation 2:7).

Smyrna: Center of emperor worship

The next city on the ancient postal circuitwas Smyrna, about 40 miles north of Eph-esus. It was a flourishing city and the maincenter of emperor worship.

Jesus tells the church in Smyrna: “Donot fear any of those things which you areabout to suffer. Indeed, the devil is about to throw some of you into prison, that you may be tested, and you will have tribulation ten days” (verse 10).M

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The port city of Ephesus played a prominent role in apostolic times and is mentioned in six New Testamentbooks. Although it was home to a large Christian congre-gation addressed by the apostle John in the book of Rev-elation, Ephesus was also a center of idolatrous worshipof the goddess Diana, whose temple (right) was one ofthe seven wonders of the ancient world. It also boastedtemples for the worship of several Roman emperors,including Hadrian (above), Augustus and Domitian.

These words had not only a propheticsense but a literal fulfillment in John’s day as well. The brethren in Smyrna knew theywere special targets of the persecution underDomitian, for the city’s history had shownan unwavering loyalty to Rome. It wasproud that it had been declared a “free city,”which meant its residents had the right togovern their own affairs.

“Long before Rome was undisputed mistress of the world,” comments WilliamBarclay, “Smyrna had cast in its lot with her, never to waver in its fidelity. Cicero [theRoman orator] called Smyrna ‘one of ourmost faithful and most ancient allies’ . . .Such was the reverence of Smyrna forRome that as far back as 195 B.C. it was the first city in the world to erect a temple to the goddess Roma” (Letters to the SevenChurches, 1957, p. 29).

The only way Church members could goabout peacefully in this place was to carry acertificate showing they had offered incenseto the emperor and proclaimed him lord.Among the ancient papyri letters thatarchaeologists have found is one with such a request and another with an accompany-ing certificate declaring: “We, the repre-sentatives of the Emperor, Serenos and Hermas, have seen you sacrificing.”

Many of the Christians in Smyrna would die because of fierce persecutions.So Christ encourages and reminds themthat He is offering them something Caesarworship could never provide—the chance to live forever. He exhorts them: “He whoovercomes shall not be hurt by the seconddeath” (verse 11).

Pergamos: “Where Satan’s throne is”

Next on the Roman mail route was Per-gamos, the Roman capital of Asia Minor.This city would never reach the commercialgreatness of Ephesus or Smyrna, but it wasthe indisputable center of religious, medicaland artistic culture of the region. The city’sfamous library, with 200,000 parchmentrolls, was rivaled only by the library inAlexandria, Egypt.

Christ tells the church at Pergamos:“I know your works, and where you dwell,where Satan’s throne is” (verse 13). Again,this prophecy had a literal fulfillment as well

as serving as a description of a future timefor the Church.

The mention of Satan’s throne in Per-gamos likely refers to the famous worship ofits most popular deity, the serpent god Askle-pios Soter, whose Latin equivalent means“the man-instructing serpent and savior.”The serpent god was none other than Satan,whom Revelation describes as “that serpentof old, called the Devil” (Revelation 12:9).

Pergamos was so renowned for the wor-ship of this god, who supposedly healed the sick, that this deity was called “thePergamene god.” Many of the coins discov-ered in Pergamos have the serpent as part of their design.

The remains of the shrine to Asklepioshave been uncovered by archaeologists. “A 450-foot segment of the widest sectionwas excavated and reconstructed so visitorsto the site can experience a beautifulapproach to the Asklepieion,” notes JohnMcRay. “Dedicated to Asklepios Soter, thegod of healing, the Asklepieion was a kindof Mayo Clinic of the ancient world . . .Numerous treatment rooms, sleeping rooms(for incubation and autosuggestion in psy-chiatric treatment), meeting rooms, andtemples were located here . . . Patients com-ing to the shrine believed that Asklepioswould heal them. There was no perceiveddissonance between science and religion inthe ancient world“ (McRay, pp. 271-272).

“From all over the world,” adds WilliamBarclay, “people flocked to Pergamos forrelief of their sicknesses. R.H. Charles hascalled Pergamos ‘the Lourdes of the ancientworld’ . . . Thus, pagan religion had its cen-ter in Pergamos. There was the worship ofAthene and Zeus, with its magnificent altardominating the city [now partially recon-structed in the Pergamum Museum inBerlin]. There was the worship of Askle-pios, bringing sick people from far and near,and above all there were the demands ofCaesar worship, hanging forever like apoised sword above the heads of the Chris-tians” (The Daily Study Bible, notes on Rev-elation 2:12-17, Bible Explorer Software).

Origin of serpent worship in Pergamos

How did serpent worship begin in

Pergamos? Some historians trace it to thecollapse of the Babylonian Empire, whensome Chaldean priests established their reli-gious center in Pergamos. “The defeatedChaldeans fled to Asia Minor, and fixedtheir central college at Pergamos,” notes his-torian William Barker in his book Lares andPenates of Cilicia (1853, p. 232).

Certainly the Old Testament identifiesSatan’s chief seat of activity as being inancient Babylon, where the doctrines of itsmystery religion “made all the earth drunk”(Jeremiah 51:7). This would make its reli-gious successor, Pergamos, the temporarynew “Satan’s seat” of the Babylonian mystery religion.

“That seat,” comments Alexander His-lop, “after the death of Belshazzar [the lastBabylonian king], and the expulsion of theChaldean priesthood from Babylon by theMedo-Persian kings, was at Pergamos,where afterwards was one of the sevenchurches of Asia. There, in consequence,for many centuries was ‘Satan’s seat.’

“There, under favor of the deified kingsof Pergamos, was his favorite abode andwas the worship of Asklepios, under theform of the serpent . . . Pergamos itselfbecame part and parcel of the RomanEmpire, when Attalus III, the last of itskings, at his death, left by will all his domin-ions to the Roman people in 133 BC” (TheTwo Babylons, 1959, p. 240).

In this way, the Roman emperors hadbecome the heirs of “Satan’s seat” duringJohn’s day. Later, when the Roman Empirecollapsed, its successor, the Holy RomanEmpire, would inherit the role. It is note-worthy that Revelation 17:4-5, 18 revealsthat in the end time a powerful religious sys-tem from the ancient past will again reignover the nations and be identified as “Mys-tery, Babylon the Great, the Mother of har-lots and of the Abominations of the Earth.”

Pressure to compromise in Thyatira

Some 40 miles east of Pergamos layThyatira, a city important for its commercein wool and textiles.

When the city was excavated from 1968to 1971, its architectural remains showed ithad the typical Roman style of colonnadesand public buildings and a temple to the

20 The Good News

July/August 2001 21

goddess Artemis. The city was especiallyfamous for its fine woolen cloth, usuallydyed in a shade that came to be called Thyatiran purple. It was from Thyatira that Lydia, a seller of purple and convert to Christianity, had come (Acts 16:14).Inscriptions at the site reveal the existenceof trade guilds, many of them associatedwith the powerful textile industry.

Christ says about this congregation:“I know your works, love, service, faith,and your patience; and as for your works,the last are more than the first. Neverthe-less I have a few things against you,because you allow that woman Jezebel,who calls herself a prophetess, to teach and seduce My servants to commit sexualimmorality and eat things sacrificed toidols” (Revelation 2:19-20).

Since Thyatira was a religious center,and the home of powerful guilds demandingreligious participation of their workers intheir banquets, it was difficult for Christiansto resist falling into idolatry.

“The strong trade guilds in this city,”says Leon Morris, “would have made it verydifficult for any Christian to earn his livingwithout belonging to a guild. But member-ship involved attendance at guild banquets,and this in turn meant eating meat whichhad first been sacrificed to an idol. Whatwas a Christian to do? If he did not conformhe was out of a job . . .

“The teaching of Jezebel [probably a

symbolic name] apparently reasoned that an idol is of no consequence, and advisedChristians to eat such meals. That thesemeals all too readily degenerated into sexuallooseness made matters worse. But we canunderstand that some Christians would wel-come a heresy of this type. It enabled themto maintain a Christian profession whilecountenancing and even engaging inimmoral heathen revels” (Tyndale New Testament Commentaries, 1975, p. 71).

Christ reminds the Thyatiran brethrenthey must come out of that worldly society,no matter how enticing it appeared, and notcompromise with the truth. He promises tothose of Thyatira who remain faithful thatthey will be arrayed, not in Thyatiran pur-ple, a cloth used mainly by Roman royalty,but at His coming with the spiritual mantleof rulership over the nations.

He tells them that “he who overcomes,and keeps My works until the end, to him I will give power over the nations—‘Heshall rule them with a rod of iron; they shall be dashed to pieces like the potter’svessels’—as I also have received from MyFather” (Revelation 2:26-27).

Sardis: Warning to watch

Poised above the rich Hermus Valley,Sardis was 30 miles south of Thyatira. Thecity appeared as a gigantic watchtower andwas considered impregnable. Five roadsconverged below it and contributed to

Sardis’s status as a great commercial center.The wealth of the city—which had been the capital of the Lydian Empire under theopulent King Croesus—was legendary.

Christ exhorts this church, “Be watchful,and strengthen the things which remain, thatare ready to die, for I have not found yourworks perfect before God” (Revelation 3:2).

The Sardian brethren could readily iden-tify with a warning to be watchful. The onlytwo times Sardis had been conquered werewhen its citizens had become overconfidentand failed to watch.

Once, when King Cyrus of Persiabesieged the city, the Sardians, nestled intheir fortress high above, paid little atten-tion to the invader. Cyrus could not find away to get up to the citadel and evenoffered a reward to the soldier who discov-ered a pathway. Sometime later a vigilantPersian soldier spied a defender who hadaccidentally dropped his helmet fromabove. The careless soldier climbed down asecret pathway to retrieve it, and that nightthe Persians led their troops up the samepathway and to the top. To their surprise,the site was completely unguarded. Thewatchmen had gone home to sleep, think-ing there was no need to keep guard atnight—and so Sardis fell.

Incredibly, several centuries later thesame sequence of events occurred when a Greek general besieged the city. After ayear’s siege the Greeks appeared to lose allA

rtTo

day

Pergamos, Roman capital of Asia Minor, was the centerfor worship of the serpent god Asklepios Soter, whichsupposedly had great healing powers. This god’s massiveshrine, the Asklepieion (left), attracted visitors from all

over the known world. Such corrupt worship led John torefer to Pergamos as the city “where Satan’s throne is.”Like other major Roman cities, it erected temples foremperor worship, including the Trajaneum (right).

hope of conquering the city. Then one of the Sardian soldiers dropped a helmet andretrieved it. That night the Greeks led somemen up the steep cliff. When they reachedthe top, the place was again unguarded.Sardis’s inhabitants had forgotten their lesson, and their city fell again.

Christ uses this lesson to drive home a powerful spiritual point to His Church:“Therefore if you will not watch, I will comeupon you as a thief, and you will not knowwhat hour I will come upon you” (verse 3).

Faithfulness in Philadelphia

About 25 miles southeast of Sardis laythe city of Philadelphia, newest of the sevencities. An imperial road passed through itfrom Rome to the east, so it became knownas “the gateway to the East.”

Christ says to this church: “These thingssays He who is holy, He who is true . . .Behold, I am coming quickly! Hold fast whatyou have, that no one may take your crown.He who overcomes, I will make him a pillarin the temple of My God, and he shall go outno more” (Revelation 3:7, 11-12).

Christ emphasizes His loyalty to His truefollowers and reminds them to be equallyfaithful to Him. If they persevere in HisWord, He will give them a crown that theymay rule with Him in His Kingdom.

We find a definite theme of brotherlyfidelity in this section. The Philadelphianbrethren could well identify with this admonition.

Philadelphia means “brotherly love.”The city was named after the love the kingwho founded the city held for his brother.The city was established by Attalus II (159-138 B.C.), who was called Philadelphus(“brother lover”) in honor of his loyal affec-tion toward his brother, King Eumenes II of Pergamos. During his brother’s lifetimeAttalus II was his most loyal assistant. Hesuccessfully commanded his brother’sforces in several wars and later became the trusted ambassador to their ally, Rome.There he won respect and admiration fromthe Romans for his brotherly fidelity.

The New Bible Dictionary comments:“As Philadelphus was renowned for hisloyalty to his brother, so the church, thetrue Philadelphia, inherits and fulfills his character by its steadfast loyalty to

Christ” (1982, “Philadelphia,” p. 926).

Laodicea: Warning to repent

The last city on the route was Laodicea,45 miles southeast of Philadelphia. Withthree main roads crossing it, the city wasone of the richest commercial centers in theworld. The Laodiceans were famous forproducing shiny, black wool clothing andboasted of an outstanding medical centerthat specialized in eye ointments. With thewealth amassed, it had also become thebanking center of the region.

Christ says to this church: “I know yourworks, that you are neither cold nor hot. I could wish you were cold or hot. So then,because you are lukewarm, and neither coldnor hot, I will vomit you out of My mouth.Because you say, ‘I am rich, have becomewealthy, and have need of nothing’—and donot know that you are wretched, miserable,poor, blind, and naked—I counsel you tobuy from Me gold refined in the fire, thatyou may be rich; and white garments, thatyou may be clothed, that the shame of yournakedness may not be revealed; and anointyour eyes with eye salve, that you may see”(verses 15-18).

Archaeologists have discovered the mainaqueduct going to Laodicea, and severalmiles of it can still be traced. The waterpiped in from the south had so many miner-als that the Roman engineers had coversinstalled so they could remove the mineraldeposits before the pipes clogged.

“For all its wealth, the city had poorwater,” says The Expositor’s Bible Commen-tary. “The water either came from the nearbyhot springs and was cooled to lukewarm or came from a cooler source and warmedup in the aqueduct on the way” (notes onRevelation 3, Zondervan software).

Christ uses the Laodiceans’ lukewarmand distasteful water to point out that theirpoor spiritual state is equally offensive toHim. He warns them that, if they do notrapidly improve their spiritual condition, Hewill reject them. He detests the Laodiceanattitude of compromising with God’s laws.By contrast, He later describes those whoare faithful to Him as “those who keep thecommandments of God and the faith ofJesus” (Revelation 14:12).

Further, even if their clothing were

world renowned, Christ tells them their“spiritual garments” were in pitiful condi-tion. He recommends they focus instead onbuying from Him the spiritual clothing oftrue righteousness that He later describes as “fine linen, clean and bright, for the finelinen is the righteous acts of the saints”(Revelation 19:8).

Jesus next tells those brethren, who wereblind to their true spiritual condition, that the“Phrygian powder” concocted in their med-ical center as an eye ointment was useless.Instead, He advised them to use His truespiritual eye salve so they can clearly see and repent of their compromising attitudes.

Lastly, Christ warns them not to put theirtrust in their physical wealth but in Him,who can develop the true gold that comesfrom overcoming trials and building righ-teous spiritual character. This solid advice isof lasting value to the entirety of the Church at any time in its history.

Conclusion

This concludes our archaeologicalreview of the last book of the Bible. Wehope this series has been a satisfying journey through the Bible and that it hasstrengthened your faith.

Throughout this series we have con-firmed what Paul wrote in 2 Timothy 3:16-17: “All Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, forreproof, for correction, for instruction inrighteousness, that the man of God may becomplete, thoroughly equipped for everygood work.” GN

22 The Good News

Recommended Reading

To learn moreabout the book ofRevelation andwhat it revealsabout the past,present andfuture, be sure to request yourfree copy of TheBook of Revelation Unveiled. Contactany of our offices listed on page 2, orrequest or download it from our Website at www.gnmagazine.org.