Global Trends in the Seafood Sector

Dr Val Lindsay

July 2005

A Report prepared as part of the project entitled “Innovation in the Seafood Sector”,

funded by the Foundation for Science, Research and Technology

Global Trends in the Seafood Sector

1 Executive Summary

The global fisheries sector, in particular, the seafood sector, is undergoing significant

change as pressures converge from diminishing supply, increasing demand,

environmental changes and regulations, and geopolitical events. It is, therefore,

important that organisations in the seafood sector, especially those in the core

industries, are aware of the current situation of the sector globally, the changes taking

place, and the likely future developments. This report aims to bring together a review

of the current position of the global fisheries sector (including aquaculture), and the

main factors to which it is exposed. The following are key points noted in the report.

First, the sustainability of marine fisheries stocks is under threat, some commentators

noting this as impedingly severe. This is leading to a significant slow down in the

growth in production, having consequential impacts on areas like employment, fishing

fleet size and age, and prices and varieties of fish products. Aquaculture production is

the fastest growing primary sector at present, and growth is expected to continue –

maintaining growth in fisheries production overall, albeit it at a much slower rate.

Second, demand is continuing to grow, in both the developed and developing

countries. Since fish is a significant source of animal protein, the demand is expected

to continue, especially in those developing countries undergoing the largest

population increases. It is estimated that the potential loss of fish protein sources from

very severely diminished stocks would not be able to be replaced by equivalent

terrestrial sources, emphasising the importance of the fisheries sector on global

population health. The main markets experiencing growth for fish products are, and

will continue to be, the Asian markets; Japan is currently the largest importer, and

China is in the top five, and increasing at the fastest rate.

Third, because of this demand/supply situation, the price of fish will increase, and

there is already a trend towards the capture of lower-value species, as the higher value

stocks become depleted. Prices will, to some extent, regulate supply and demand, and

it is likely that high prices will drive out some minor players in the industry.

Fourth, while fisheries production will continue to grow, although at a much slower

rate than experienced to date, most of the growth will occur in Asia. Currently led by

China, growth will continue in this and other Asian countries, alongside demand in

this region. The growth is, and will continue to be, most significant in aquaculture

production, again, led by the Asian countries. Fish processing remains a major part of

the production chain, but high quality fresh and live fish will continue to carry the

greatest value overall.

Fifth, environmental impacts on, and of, the fisheries sector will increase. Key

concerns revolve around overfishing and the health of current fish stocks. In addition,

there have been other significant man-made impacts, for example, from activities

affecting water quality, which can have major impacts on aquaculture. Additional

environmental pressures on both the fisheries and aquaculture sectors arise from

natural causes, like climate change, fluctuating climate patterns, and natural disasters

like tsunami.

Sixth, and directly related to the former point, fisheries management is a major issue.

The need to instigate further international agreements on the management of fisheries

resources, both capture and aquaculture-based, is reportedly paramount. Policies such

as the individual transferable quota (ITQ) system for capture fish production, and the

use of licensing for aquaculture, appear to be relatively successful in monitoring and

controlling fish production and the impact of this on the environmental and societal

levels. These mechanisms are, however, not without their problems.

Seventh, the potential for technology to address many of these areas, is recognised,

with significant advances already made, for example, in monitoring of resource

utilisation. Fisheries is a primary industry, and historically one that has been relatively

low-tech, and innovation has tended to be acquired from outside, rather than within

the sector. Recent developments on the measurement of innovation in the industry

have been led by the OECD, and studies have been conducted to try to establish the

innovation and innovation potential in various parts of the sector. It is widely

recognised that innovation in the fisheries sector, in process technology, product and

marketing, is key to its survival.

This report has drawn heavily from studies conducted and reported by the Food and

Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), particularly the 2004 review

entitled, “The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture”, since this organisation is a

major repository of information and data on these sectors, itself drawing on key

research undertaken internationally.

Finally, given the scope of data and information on the fisheries and aquaculture

sectors, this report is not a comprehensive review. Rather, it aims to summarise the

key factors reflecting the current situation of fisheries and aquaculture production, and

the likely impacts and trends affecting the future of these sectors. Major sources of

information on the sectors is contained in Appendix A, categorised into some of the

key areas covered in this report. This provides a repository of information sources for

further reference.

2 The Global Seafood Industry – Introduction

The world seafood industry plays a significant role in the economic and social

wellbeing of nations, as well as in the feeding of a major part of the world’s

population. This section of the report provides information on the global seafood

industry, including capture fish production and aquaculture, considering general

background information, such as trends in production and consumption, and

international trade statistics; key influences on the industry; the contribution of

various categories of fisheries and aquaculture; and innovation in the industry.

Finally, the future outlook and challenges to the industry, including the role of

innovation, are discussed.

3 Background Information

The following section provides an overview of the fisheries industry, focusing on

capture (including inland and marine) and aquaculture sectors.

3.1 Production and Consumption Trends

The global fisheries industry is generally described in terms of two distinct categories:

capture and aquaculture. Capture includes inland and marine fisheries, with inland

representing approximately 10% of total fish capture. Aquaculture includes inland

and marine production, with approximately 60% arising from inland production.1 The

report is concerned with the seafood industry, which involves marine capture and all

aquaculture production. These will be discussed in more detail later in the report.

Global production of fish from total capture and aquaculture production amounted to

133 million tonnes in 2002, with marine capture production being 84.5 million tonnes.

Estimates for 2003 indicate a slight reduction in total production, although food fish

production suggests a slight increase. In 2003, aquaculture reached 39.6 million

tonnes, approximately 30% of total fish production.2

The largest fish producer is China, accounting for almost a third of total global

production from capture and aquaculture. China’s production has risen dramatically

since the late 1980s in both capture and aquaculture. The most productive marine

fishing areas are the Northwest and Southeast Pacific.3

3.1.1 Depletion of stocks

Despite differences in different regions of the world, evidence confirms that “the

global potential for marine capture fisheries has been reached, and more rigorous

plans are needed to rebuild depleted stock and prevent the decline of those being

exploited or close to their potential.”4 In contrast, global production from aquaculture

is continuing to grow, both in terms of volume, value, and its contribution to human

consumption.

Marine fisheries production showed a steady annual increase in the late 1990s to 2000

(87 million tonnes), but then decreased to 84 million tonnes in 2001 and 2002. Most

of the decline came from reduced catches in the Southeast Pacific and Northwest

Pacific regions. The New Zealand fishing fleet has almost halved since 1992.5

Since the mid 1970s, FAO research has shown that the percentage of overexploited

and depleted fish stocks has increased, from around 10% to 25% in the early 2000s,

and a further 44% of fish stocks are being fished at their biological limit.6

A 2004 FAO report notes: “The demand for fish as a human food may reach around

180 million tonnes by 2030 and then neither aquaculture nor any terrestrial food

production system could replace the protein production of the world marine

systems.”7 This has caused the Plan of the Implementation of the World Summit on

Sustainable Development to urge the need to “Maintain or restore stocks to levels that

can produce the maximum sustainable yield with the aim of achieving these goals for

depleted stocks on an urgent basis and where possible not later than 2015.”8

3.1.2 Employment

2002 figures for employment in fisheries and aquaculture are 38 million full-time

equivalents, increasing slightly from 2001 figures. Asia has the highest numbers of

workers in fishing and aquaculture, with China accounting for almost one-third of

total world employment.

Trends in employment are showing a decline in the workers in capture fisheries,

particularly in the most important fishing countries, with corresponding increases in

aquaculture employment. Overall, there has been a 2.6% increase per year between

1990 and 2002.9

75% of the total number of fisheries workers is in marine and inland capture fishing,

while the remaining 25% are employed in aquaculture. The global distribution of

fishery workers is as follows: Asia (87% of total); Africa (7%), Europe, North and

Central America and South America (approximately 2% each) and Oceania (0.2%).

China has almost one-third of the total workers in fisheries, equating to 12.3 million

people. Reductions in employees in China and a number of other nations are starting

to be seen, however, as part of fleet-reduction programmes that aim to reduce

overfishing.10 Increased productivity, as a result of technical improvements, has also

contributed to reductions in employment in capture fishing. Employment in

aquaculture has increased approximately 8% per year since 1990, although a levelling

off is starting to occur in the developed countries.11

3.1.3 Fishing fleet

85% of the world’s fishing fleet is located in Asia. Many nations, however, have

stopped acquiring large vessels as part of capacity development programmes, and

evidence suggests that the fleet size of some of the major fishing nations has

decreased.12 The New Zealand fishing fleet has almost halved since 1992.13

The world fishing fleet expanded continuously until the early 1990s, but the number

has since remained static at around 1.3 million vessels.14 The gross tonnage, reaching

a peak of 15.6 million gross tonnage in 1992, but has since declined. As the fleet has

declined, so the average age of the fleet has increased, with 28% being over ten years

old (2003 data). Since safety is a key requitement in the fishing industry, the age of

the fishing fleet is a matter of concern in many nations.

Despite recent reductions, it is claimed that the current global fishing fleet is 30%

bigger than is required to fully harvest the available resource 15 “This overcapacity,

combined with powerful new technologies that have made each new boat more

effective at finding and landing fish, has provided a recipe for overexploitation.”16

3.2 Trade in Fisheries

The world trade of fish and fisheries products increased 45% between 1992 and 2002,

and 5% between 2000 and 2002 in terms of value, with the 2002 figure being

US$58.2 billion. Export volume, at 50 million tonnes in 2002, had grown 40.7% since

1992. However, export volumes decreased slightly (1%) between 2000 and 2002.

Given the increase in value, this indicates an increase in value per tonne over that

period.17 Estimates for 2003 and the short-term do not suggest any significant

increases in export volumes.

China is the largest exporter of fish and fish products, having overtaken exports from

Thailand in 2002. The growth of exports from Chian since the early 1990s has been

dramatic, particularly since 1999. During 1999-2002, average growth in exports from

China was 24%, resulting from increases in production as well as the development of

China’s fish processing industry. Re-exporting of imported processed fish also

contributes significantly to China’s fish production – fish imports increased by 94%

between 1999 and 2002.18 Japan, however, is the highest fish importer, with a 22%

share of world import value in 2002.

90% of internationally traded fish is in processed form, since fish is highly perishable.

However, recent improvements in logistics and technology have enabled fresh and

live fish to be exported more easily, resulting in increases, particularly in live fish

trade. Exports in frozen fish have also increased over the last decade.19 Overall, there

is a trend in both developed and developing countries to focus less on producing raw

fish for processing and more on high-value live fish, or value-added processed

products.

3.3 Challenges for international trade in fisheries

A 2004 FAO report highlighted a number of major issues for countries undertaking

international trade in fish products, particularly developing countries. These include:

“changes in quality and safety control measures in the main importing countries; the

introduction of new labelling requirements and the concept of traceability in major

markets in developed countries; chemical residues in aquaculture products; the

general public’s concern about overexploitation of certain fish stocks, especially

groundfish; the sustainable development of aquaculture, including its future feed

requirements; IUU fishing; international trade negotiations in the WTO; the expansion

of regional trade areas and the increasing number of new bilateral agreements (…with

strong relevance to fish trade).”20

4 Global and Regional Influences on the Seafood

Industry

A number of key influences on the fisheries industry impact on its performance and

sustainability. In addition, the industry influences various aspects of the environment,

which also contribute to the sustainability of the sector in the long-term.

4.1 Environmental Influences

A number of environmental influences impact on the sustainability of world fisheries.

Coastal development in urban areas and coastal runoff from farms in rural areas can

adversely affect water quality in marine farming and coastal fishing areas. According

to the FAO, this can result in the following effects: “reduction of the sustainable yield

of fish stocks; modification of the resource species composition, health and diversity,

and increase in ecosystem instability and variability and a reduction of seafood quality

and safety.”21

Climatic influences occur through such phenomena as El Nino, and can severely

affect fish stocks. For example, the Peruvian anchoveta in the Southeast Pacific

collapsed in the 1970s.22 Fish stocks are also known to fluctuate in response to

naturally occurring climatic cycles. When fishstocks are already low through

overfishing, they become more vulnerable to adverse natural influences. While the

impact of environment can have a significant influence on fisheries, it appears that the

assessment of ecosystem-fisheries interaction is still in its infancy, and requires much

more analysis before it is effectively understood.

4.2 Fisheries Management and Regulations

“The high seas – the open oceans that extend beyond the 200-mile Exclusive

Economic Zones claimed by coastal nations are still a common resource and have

suffered from a lack of international management controls.23

The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)

introduced some key international fisheries instruments aimed at improving fisheries

management regimes, which have been adopted internationally. These instruments

include the 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement, the 1993 FAO Compliance Agreement,

and the 1995 FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.24 As a result of these

agreements, the role of regional fishery bodies (RFBs) has increased in most fisheries

nations, taking responsibility for implementing these instruments. Often effected

collaboratively, these actions include the rebuilding of depleted stocks, prevention of

further decline and combating illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing.25

Measures have also been taken to ensure sustainable development in the aquaculture

industries. Strict standards and regulations have been introduced in the major

importing countries, “to ensure quality and safety and to reduce the social and

environmental impacts of production.”26 Technology developments are greatly

assisting the compliance of aquaculture producers to these standards and regulations,

and to the efforts to improve sustainability. Standards are also needed to protect

aquaculture production units from poor environmental practices in coastal regions,

where productive may be threatened by farm run-off, untreated sewerage etc. Many

countries have now introduced policies to deal with these issues, although policy

development in this area requires highest priority.27 One mechanism increasingly

used is the provision of licences for aquaculture development – allowing rights to

farmers to establish their operations, at the same time allowing the regulatory bodies

to ensure that the required standards are met.

Given the rate of growth of aquaculture production, and it’s real or potential

contribution to economic well-being of certain countries, a number of counties are

now establishing aquaculture policies as priorities, specifically to stimulate

development. In 1995, the FAO predicted that aquaculture production would need to

double by 2010, in order keep up with demand – and this would not be without

significant environmental and management consequences.28 A study noted in World

Resources 1996-97 suggests that, in order for fisheries to return to health and to a

sustainable harvest level, the intensity of fishing must be reduced by 30-50%.29

A mechanism to promote better management of fisheries resources adopted by many

countries is the use of individual transferable quotas (ITQs). These establish property

rights to the fisheries resource that is managed as a public good. The main

disadvantages include the risk of quota being accumulated by a single owner, or small

group of owners, creating a monopoly, and the incentives for fishers to ‘high-grade’

(discarding smaller fish to replace them with higher-value fish). Careful and

sophisticated monitoring procedures also need to be established to control the quota

and their use. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, the use of ITQs appears to be

successful in many countries.30

5 Categories in the Seafood Industry

The fisheries sector comprises two main categories: capture (inland and marine

fishing), and aquaculture.

5.1 Capture

The top ten nations for capture fisheries (inland and marine) have remained the same

since 1992. Together, they accounted for approximately 60% of the total world trade

in 2002, with China and Peru dominating.31 In order of productive, the top ten

countries are: Chian, Peru, United States, Indonesia, Japan, Chile, India, Russian

Federation, Thailand and Norway.32

The top ten marine capture species are: anchoveta, Alaska pollock, skipjack tuna,

capelin, Atlantic herring, Japanese anchovy, Chilean jack mackerel, blue whiting,

chub mackerel, and largehead hairtail.33

5.2 Aquaculture

Production from aquaculture grew 6.1% between 2000 and 2002, with a volume of

51.4 million tonnes, and value of US$60 billion. Asia accounted for 91.2% of the

production volume and 82% of value, with production and volume from China

representing 71% and 54.7% respectively.34

Aquaculture contribution to global supplies of fish, crustaceans and molluscs has

grown from 3.9% of total production by weight in 1970 to 29.9% in 2002. The

aquaculture sector is the fastest growing sector that all other animal food-producing

sectors, growing at an average rate of 8.9% since 1970, compared to 1.2% for capture

fisheries and 2.8% for land-based farmed meat production.35

The majority (57.7%) of aquaculture production for fish food is from freshwater, with

90.7% of production in 2002 coming from the developing countries. Growth has

continued in all continents except for Europe, which has remained relatively static

during the 2000-2002 period. China continues to have the highest growth in

aquaculture in both freshwater and marine, with approximately 11% increase in both,

since 1970, compared to approximately 6% in both types for the rest of the world.36

Production growth in other developing countries is also higher than that in the

developed countries; the annual growth in the developing countries (including China)

between 1970 and 2002 being 10.4%, compared with 4% for the developed

countries.37

The highest production from aquaculture in 2002 was in the following species groups

(in order): freshwater fish, molluscs, and aquatic plants; highest value comes from

freshwater fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants. This indicates that

crustaceans have the highest value/volume ratio.38

The top ten species collectively accounted for 92.5% of total aquaculture production

of fish, crustaceans and molluscs. These species are (by volume): carps and other

cyprinids; oysters; miscellaneous marine molluscs; clams, cockles, arkshells; salmons,

trouts, smelts; tilapias and other cichlids; mussels; miscellaneous marine molluscs;

shrimps, prawns; scallops, pectens.39 The individual species with the largest

production was the Pacific cupped oyster; three species of carp represented the next

largest production in 2002.40

6 Value-added Processing in the Seafood Industry

6.1 Food and non-food production

Not all fish production is used for human consumption: figures for 2002 show that

approximately 76% (100.7 million tonnes) was for human consumption, while the rest

was channelled into non-food product, like fishmeal and oil, the latter 5.8% below

2000 levels.41

6.2 Fish Utilization

The health of fish stocks is threatened not only by overfishing, but also by the high

level of discards. According to World Resources 1996-97, “some 25% of the annual

marine fish catch is simply discarded because it considered unusable.” Included as

discards are undersized fish, species of low value, and nontarget species. Although

fishing gear has improved, a large number of discards result from indiscriminate

catches with gear that lacks selectivity attributes. Discarded fish have a high

mortality rate, and the overall impacts on fish health, fish stocks, and economic losses

are considerable.42

6.3 Fish Processing

Of total world production in 2002, excluding China, 70% (62 million tonnes)

underwent some form of processing, with the majority prepared for human

consumption. Given that the price of fresh fish is generally not less than the price of

processed fish, fresh fish is still the most widely accepted form of fish product on the

market. The share of production of fresh or live fish increased from 20% to 30% (17

million tonnes to 26 million tonnes) between 1992 and 2002.43

The production of processed fish has been relatively stable over the same period, at

approximately 39 million tonnes. Freezing is the main method of processing of fish

for food, accounting for 53% of processed fish production. Frozen fish production is

highest in developed countries, while fresh fish production is highest in developing

countries.44

The high nutritional value of fish, particularly its protein content, means that it is a

valuable part of the diet in many countries. It represents approximately 16% of share

of protein from total world animal protein supply.45

6.4 Value-adding through the value chain

While progress has been made on improving the value component of fish production,

largely through technology, there is still considerable scope for some nations to add

value through marketing, and other elements of the value chain. As noted by the

FAO, “Experience has shown that the key to success lies in strong customer

partnerships, sound market research, excellent quality of the product, reliability in

supply, a constant drive for improvement, price competitiveness and attractive

packaging.”46

7 Innovation in the Seafood Industry

Innovation in the fisheries and aquaculture sector is seen as critically important for its

future development. Technology innovation is already starting to impact on

productivity, safety and health in the industry and marketing innovation will be

increasingly important as competition increases, and demand becomes more

discerning. The following sections outline the role of innovation in each of

technology and marketing.

Studies on R&D and innovation tend to be based on the knowledge and high-tech

industries, with innovation being measured principally by official patents, copyrightrs

etc. These measures are not readily applicable to agro-industries, such as seafoods and

seafood processing.47 As noted by Le Floc’h and Fuchs, “Older industries, i.e. the

fishing industry, or more comprehensively, the food industry, are imitative. They

transfer and adapt technological change implemented in high-tech industries that are

more advanced in the production and purchasing of scientific and technological

knowledge than are traditional sectors. For this reason, companies in the fisheries

sector are mainly users and rarely producers of innovations… . However, there are a

few small to medium sized enterprises focused on fishing and processing activities

with R&D capacity. (Le Floc’h and Fuchs, 2001).”48 The OECD has developed a

number of survey instruments to measure R&D and innovation in the biotechnology

sectors49, and these and others have been adapted for use in the study of seafood

innovation.50 This is an area that will require significantly more work in order to

assist the fisheries and aquaculture industries develop appropriate strategies for the

future.

7.1 Technology

Significant advances have been made in the fishing industry through the development

and application of technology. Important areas of new technology application include:

improvements in fishing gear and boats, enabling more efficient capture; innovations

in processing equipment, enabling better utilisation improved quality of raw fish;

improvements in improvements in logistics and transportation technology, enabling

increased trade in fresh and live fish.

7.2 Marketing

The application of marketing techniques and the exploitation of the benefits of

globalisation have enabled more effective marketing and wider reach into untapped

markets for fish producers. With demand expected to shift more to developing

countries, and species of fish products sold change, in response to fluctuations in

supply, producers will need to adapt their marketing focus to meet these changes.

8 Challenges and Key Trends

The FAO recently reported the results of an analysis of future developments in the

fisheries industries, highlighting key associated challenges. For the short term (from

2000-2010), the analysis noted the following factors as key determinants of future

trends: demand for fish, access to natural resources; aquatic resources, governance

and specific sector policies, adaptations to obstacles and opportunities in capture

fisheries, and adaptations to opportunities and obstacles in aquaculture. Two studies

contributed to the projections for the medium-long term, one considering changes to

2015, and the other to 2020. Although they differed in respect to projected volumes of

demand and supply, the proportion of capture vs. aquaculture fish production, and the

price trend for fish, they both essentially projected a similar future for fisheries in

both capture and aquaculture. The main conclusions of the studies are as follows.51

8.1 Supply and demand for fish

The projections suggest a global shortage of fish in the medium-long term, although

the severity of they will be different across countries. The shortage will result in

higher prices – predicted at 3.0% and 3.2 % by the years 2010 and 2015, respectively.

As a further result of the shortage, growth in global production will be reduced to

2.1% (down from 2.9% per year for the last two decades) in developed and

developing countries, by 2015. Growth in capture fisheries will be virtually stagnant,

implying that growth will come predominantly from aquaculture.

Consumption will continue to increase, although at a decreasing rate. Demand will be

highest in developing countries (projected at 1.3% per year), with little growth in

developed countries (0.2% per year).

Fish production is expected to increase globally by 40% to 130 million tonnes, with

production being dominated by the developing countries (particularly Asian

countries). Fish stock will continue to fish more heavily.

Aquaculture will increase its share of total food fish supply to 41%, and will show the

strongest growth relative to capture fish.

8.2 Trade

Trade between the developing counties (south-south trade) will increase, as the

middle classes increase.

The producers in developed countries will gradually leave the fisheries sector, and

government policies will encourage imports.

Fish will become a more high-value commodity, driven by increasing prices. The

associated shift from frozen to high value-added products will continue, in order to

meet this trend.

8.3 Environment

Developed counties will see sustainability concerns increases, environmental

controversy continue, and increased environmental policy and regulation. Developing

countries will follow.

Overfishing will continue, and the use of particular fish species will become

important policy issues.

Consumers and governments will become concerned about pollution and food safety

in regard to the fisheries sector.

8.4 Technology

Technology developments in the capture and aquaculture fisheries globally will

address new challenges arising in the sectors.

The following areas will be addressed by technology: feedstock for aquaculture;

environmental impacts, food safety; compliance to regulations; information

technology and fisheries management.

8.5 Institutional Development

Institutional development for fisheries and aquaculture development will be necessary

for reducing poverty, and for improving environmental sustainability and food safety.

9 Information Sources

Most of the information contained in this report has been derived from the 2004 FAO

publication: “The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture”52, since this captures the

majority of research and analysis on these sectors. Other information sources are also

potentially of value, and Appendix 1 provides the results of an extensive review of the

available literature on the status of the global fisheries and aquaculture sectors, and

future trends. These are organised according to topic, and a brief summary is provided

alongside the most significant sources.

Endnotes 1 FAO Report (2004): The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, p 6 2 Ibid cit 1 3 Ibid cit 1 p8 4 Ibid cit 1 5 Ibid cit 1 p28 6 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), (1995), The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, FAO, Rome (Cited in World Research Institute: http://pubs.wri.org/pubs_content_print.cfm?ContentID=978) 7 Ibid cit 1 p86 8 Ibid cit 7 9 Ibid cit p18 10 Ibid cit 1 p20 11 Ibid cit 1 p22 12 Ibid cit 1 p7 13 Ibid cit 1 p26 14 Ibid cit 1 p24 15 World Resources 1996-97: The urban environment (1996), World Resources Institute, United Nations Environment Programme, United Nations Development Programme, and the World Bank. (Cited in World Research Institute: http://pubs.wri.org/pubs_content_print.cfm?ContentID=978) 16 Ibid cit 15 17 Ibid cit 1 p6 18 Ibid cit 1 p43 19 Ibid cit 1 p51 20 Ibid cit 1 p54 21 Ibid cit 1 p35 22 Ibid cit 21

23 Garcia, S and Newton, C, (1994), Current situation, trends, and prospects in world capture fisheries, Paper presented at the Conference on Fisheries Management: Global Aspects, Seattle, Washington, June. (Cited in World Research Institute: http://pubs.wri.org/pubs_content_print.cfm?ContentID=978) 24 Ibid cit 1 p59 25 Ibid cit 1 p7 26 Ibid cit 1 p61 27 Ibid cit 1 p64 28 Ibid cit 6 29 Ibid cit 6 30 Ibid cit 27 31 Ibid cit 12 32 Ibid cit 1 p8 33 Ibid cit 1 p9 34 Ibid cit 1 p14 35 Ibid cit 34 36 Ibid cit 1 p17 37 Ibid cit 1 p18 38 Ibid cit 1 p7 39 Ibid cit 38 40 Ibid cit 1 p17 41 Ibid cit 1 p37 42 Ibid cit 15 43 Ibid cit 1 p37 44 Ibid cit 1 p38 45 Ibid cit 44 46 Ibid cit 1 p54 47 Le Floc’h, P and Le Roux, J (2002), Measuring R&D and innovation capacity in seafood processing industry – A survey methodology applied to the French case, Paper submitted to the EAFE 2002 Conference, Faro, Portugal, March 25-27. 48 Ibid cit 47 p4 49 Van Beuzekom, B (2000), Biotechnology statistics in OECD countries, OECD. 50 Ibid cit 47 51 Ibid cit 1 p140-154 52 Ibid cit 1