THE GLOBAL IMPLEMENTATION OF BASEL II: PROSPECTS AND … · 2020. 9. 4. · The New Basel Capital Accord (BIS, April 2003) (henceforth CP3). 2 See FSI, “Implementation of the new

UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT

POLICY ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND COMMODITIES

STUDY SERIES No. 34

THE GLOBAL IMPLEMENTATION OF BASEL II: PROSPECTS AND OUTSTANDING PROBLEMS

by

Andrew Cornford

Research Fellow Financial Markets Center

UNITED NATIONS

New York and Geneva, 2006

ii

NOTE

The purpose of this series of studies is to analyse policy issues and to stimulate discussions in the area of international trade and development. This series includes studies by UNCTAD staff, as well as by distinguished researchers from academia. In keeping with the objective of the series, authors are encouraged to express their own views, which do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations.

The designations employed and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Material in this publication may be freely quoted or reprinted, but acknowledgement is requested, together with a reference to the document number. It would be appreciated if a copy of the publication containing the quotation or reprint were sent to the UNCTAD secretariat:

Chief Trade Analysis Branch

Division on International Trade in Goods and Services, and Commodities United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

Palais des Nations CH-1211 Geneva

Series Editor: Khalilur Rahman

Chief, Trade Analysis Branch DITC/UNCTAD

UNCTAD/ITCD/TAB/35

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION

ISSN 1607-8291

© Copyright United Nations 2006 All rights reserved

iii

ABSTRACT

Basel II may lead to far-reaching changes in the regulation and supervision of banks, risk management, and other aspects of banking practice; these changes may well be considered as one of the most important elements of the global financial system. This paper reviews prospects for the implementation of Basel II, risks due to the changes involved, and features which may affect international trade in banking services. The discussion on prospects summarizes data in a survey conducted by the Basel-based Financial Stability Institute (FSI) of supervisors in countries, which do not belong to the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS). More than 90 countries participating in this survey have decided that they will implement Basel II, although the challenge to supervisors will be great as nearly a quarter of them to upgrade their skills. The discussion also covers other less systematic information, related to the implementation in member, as well as non-member countries of the BCBS, such as surveys of banks in developed countries and the impact of Basel II on capital requirements in the EU. Additional problems for implementation may result from disagreements between supervisory authorities in different countries as to the way in which Basel II should be implemented for banks with cross-border operations.

Basel II may prove a source of macroeconomic risks in many emerging-market countries

owing to changes following its adoption in lender-borrower relations and in the way in which banks are supervised. Basel II incorporates the fundamental assumption that the relationship between a bank and its counterparties is conducted at arms-length. A different model of borrower-lender relations in many emerging-market countries, especially in parts of Asia, has involved practices such as policy or directed lending, relationship or name lending and collateral-based lending. In this model, loans are made on the basis of criteria different from those underlying Basel II and often resemble equity investments. Too rapid a change to the new model of banking practice of Basel II could undermine an economy's credit mechanism and could have adverse knock-on macroeconomic consequences.

Basel II coincides with the financial services negotiations, which form part of the WTO

Doha round. The paper reviews somewhat inconclusive evidence on the relation between foreign banks' presence in selected emerging-market countries and prospects for implementation. Nevertheless, Basel II's effects on banks' costs via its rules for both overall regulatory capital and different categories of exposure will be a significant influence on the economic opportunities of foreign banks, and are thus likely to influence negotiating positions in the WTO.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is indebted to Anthony Travis for comments but the views expressed and any remaining errors are his own.

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CONTENTS

A. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1

B. Increased flexibility of deadlines for implementation

and other features of Basel II.................................................................................. 2

C. Adoption and timetable for implementation ......................................................... 4

1. BCBS and other EU countries .......................................................................... 4

2. Non-BCBS countries ........................................................................................ 5

Non-BCBS Europe .................................................................................. 6

Africa....................................................................................................... 7

Asia.......................................................................................................... 8

Caribbean.............................................................................................. 10

Latin America........................................................................................ 11

Middle East ........................................................................................... 12

D. Forces affecting the pace of implementation....................................................... 15

Planning and resources......................................................................... 15

Cross-border supervisory cooperation ................................................. 17

Requirements for and choice of approaches ......................................... 18

The influence of foreign banks .............................................................. 19

Expected changes in capital requirements............................................ 22

Alternative models of banking practice ................................................ 25

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List of boxes

1. The alternative approaches and options of Basel II ................................................... 3

2. Basel II in China and India ........................................................................................ 9

3. The identity of selected countries having a significant impact

On implementation data in the FSI survey .............................................................. 13

4. The scale of the presence of foreign banks in Asian

and Latin American developing countries ............................................................... 21

5. Risk weights for retail and SME exposures in Basel II ........................................... 24

1

The rules of 1988 Basel Capital Ac-cord are now applied in more than 100 coun-tries, having progressively assumed the role ofa global standard. The agreement designed toreplace it, Basel II, is much more complex –indeed, so complex that problems posed byits implementation have been a major focusof attention during the long process, includ-ing three consultative papers (CPs), which hasled to its current version, International Conver-gence of Capital Measurement and Capital Stand-ards: a Revised Framework (henceforth RF).1

Thanks to a survey conducted by the Finan-cial Stability Institute (FSI) of non-BCBScountries there is now systematic informationconcerning the views of supervisors in thesecountries as to the extent, character andtimeframe of the implementation of Basel II,which can be combined with other informa-tion concerning likely implementation inBCBS member countries.2 This informationsuggests that a large share of banking assetsin most regions will be subject to the rules ofBasel II by the end of the current decade. A

complete account of the reasons for this rela-tively optimistic assessment is not available.However, the FSI survey contains a numberof pointers and less systematic informationfrom other sources furnishes the basis for afuller, though still incomplete, picture of thereasons.

The changes both in the regulation andsupervision of banks and in their r iskmanagement and other aspects of bankingpractice which wil l result from theimplementation of Basel II are potentially sofar-reaching that it may eventually beconsidered as one of the most importantconstituent elements of the global financialsystem. As a key standard it can be expectedto affect rules governing the entr y andoperations of foreign banks and thusinternational negotiations on financial servicessuch as those in the WTO. Theseconsequences mean that the prospects forimplementation have an interest whichtranscends their purely technical impact.

A. INTRODUCTION

1 The following earlier papers described in increasing detail the framework of the new rules as work proceeded:BCBS, A New Capital Adequacy Framework (Basel, 1999) (henceforth CP1); id., The New Basel Capital Accord (Basel,January 2001) (henceforth CP2), which was accompanied by seven specialized supporting documents; and Ibid.,The New Basel Capital Accord (BIS, April 2003) (henceforth CP3).

2 See FSI, “Implementation of the new capital adequacy framework in non-Basel Committee member countries”,Occasional Paper No. 4 (Basel: BIS, July 2004). (The FSI was created by the BIS and the BCBS in 1999 to assistfinancial supervisors through the provision of the latest information on financial products, practices and techniquesand through the organisation of seminars and workshops.)

2

The CP1 of 2001, the first paperproviding an overview of the main technicalbuilding blocks of Basel II, set the deadlinefor implementation as 2004. This qualifiedunder the IRB approach (see Box 1) to theextent that during a three-year transitionperiod starting at the end of 2004, banks wouldnot be required to meet the data requirementsfor estimating the probability of default (PD).

In the event this timetable was to provetoo demanding CP3 of April 2003 set a newdeadline for implementation of the end of2006 for a new accord finalized by the end of2003. The change in the deadline wasaccompanied by greater flexibility regardingapproaches and options. In CP2 banksmeeting the supervisory conditions foradoption of the IRB approach for some ofits exposures were expected to apply it to alltheir exposures over a short period of time.This requirement was now replaced by greaterflexibility, under which banks could adopt “aphased rollout of the IRB approach” by, forexample, adopting the IRB approach acrossasset classes within the same business unit oracross business units within the same bankinggroup, or moving from the foundation to theadvanced version only for some inputs to risk-weighted assets. This flexibility could beexpected to facilitate the adoption of the IRBapproach by less sophisticated banks and wasthus a feature that was likely to be applied inseveral developing countries. Similarly, underthe regulatory capital charge for operationalrisk (see Box 1) partial use of the AdvancedMeasurement approach was now allowed, i.e.adoption of the approach for some parts of

a bank’s operations and the simpler BasicIndicator or Standardised approach for therest. In CP2 there had been less flexibilityregarding use of the most advanced option.

In the RF (issued in June 2004 ratherthan at the end of 2003) there are furtherchanges in the direction of greater flexibility,including a relaxation of the timetable andmore explicit acknowledgement of theproblems confronting different nationalsupervisors vis-à-vis implementation and theimpact on the timetable for implementationof different countries’ supervisory priorities.Moreover, even the change in title from TheNew Basel Capital Accord of CP2 and CP3 toInternational Convergence of Capital Measurementand Capital Standards is unlikely to be fortuitous,suggesting as it does a shift in emphasis awayfrom the one-off act of signing up to acontroversial blockbuster international accordtowards a process likely to take considerabletime. The BCBS has recognized that in manycountries adoption procedures will requireadditional assessments of the impact of RF,as well as opportunities for comment byinterested parties and national legislativechanges. Nine countries from the G10,including Germany and the United States aswell as at least one non-BCBS country, SouthAfrica, have announced plans to conductfurther national Quantitative Impact Studies(QIS4s). The BCBS itself recently announcedthat it would conduct a further study of theimpact of the new rules on the capital ofbanks in 30 countries as a follow-up to its ownQIS3 (whose estimates are discussed in sectionD).3

B. INCREASED FLEXIBILITY OF DEADLINESFOR IMPLEMENTATION AND OTHER FEATURES OF BASEL II

3 See BCBS, “National impact studies and field tests in 2004 and 2005”, February 2005; and J. Croft and P.T.Larsen, “Regulators exact fifth review of Basel 2”, Financial Times, 14 March 2005.

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After a preliminary review of its QIS4regulators in the United States have announcedthat issuance of rules implementing Basel IIwill be delayed while they undertake furtheranalysis. Their concerns are due to the scaleof the reductions in regulatory capital shownby the exercise and to the dispersion of thechanges among banks and among portfoliotypes (major categories of lending and otherexposures or positions). The additionalanalysis will focus on the extent to which theseresults reflect genuine variations in risk andwill serve as a basis for deciding whetherfurther adjustments of Basel II are stillrequired.4

Conscious of the hurdles still to becleared, the BCBS has proposed that thefinalized version of the RF will be available atthe end of 2006 and accepts that the transitionperiod for implementation of the moreadvanced approaches of Basel II, during whichfurther impact studies of these approachesmay be conducted, should continue until theend of 2008. Moreover, since the adoptionof Basel II may not be the authorities’ firstpriority in many non-G10 countries, the BCBSalso accepts that timetables in several countrieswill differ from that envisaged in RF.

Box 1. The alternative approaches and options of Basel II

In Basel II regulatory capital requirements for credit risk are calculated according to twoalternative approaches, the Standardised and the Internal Ratings-Based (IRB). Under the Standardisedapproach the measurement of credit risk is based on external credit assessments provided by externalcredit assessment institutions (ECAIs), such as credit rating agencies or export credit agencies.Under the simplified Standardised approach RF assembles in one place the simplest options of theStandardised approach with the objective of simplifying choices for certain banks and supervisors.Under the IRB approach, subject to supervisory approval as to the satisfaction by the bank ofcertain conditions, banks would use their own internal rating systems to measure some or all of thedeterminants of credit risk. Under the foundation version banks calculate the probability of default(PD) on the basis of their own ratings but rely on their supervisors for measures of the otherdeterminants. Under the advanced version of the IRB approach banks provide their own measuresof all the determinants such as loss given default (LGD) and exposure at default (EAD).

For regulatory capital requirements for operational risk there are three options ofprogressively greater sophistication. Under the Basic Indicator approach the capital charge is apercentage of banks’ gross income. Under the Standardised approach the capital charge is the sumof percentages of banks’ gross income from eight business lines (or alternatively for two of thebusiness lines of percentages of loans and advances). Under the Advanced Measurement approach,subject to the satisfaction by the bank of more stringent supervisory criteria, the capital is estimatedby its own internal system for measuring operational risk.

4 See Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Office of theComptroller of the Currency, and Office of Thrift Supervision, “Banking agencies to perform additional analysisbefore issuing Notice of Proposed Rulemaking related to Basel II”, Joint Press Release, 29 April 2005.

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1. BCBS and other EU countries

By participating in the drafting of BaselII BCBS countries can be assumed to havesignalled their willingness to implement theagreement, though in some cases partially. Sofar only the United States is publicly holdingout against full implementation. BCBScountries which are members of the EU alongwith other EU countries will adopt regulatorycapital requirements which closely resemblethose of Basel II as part of new legislationproposed by the European Commission. Theremaining BCBS countries are Canada, Japanand Switzerland.

• Regulatory agencies in the United States areproposing that a core set of banks withforeign exposure above a thresholdamount be required to adopt Basel II andhave prescribed for this purpose the ad-vanced version of the IRB approach forcredit risk and the Advanced MeasurementApproach for operational risk. Thesebanks account for 99 per cent of the for-eign assets and two-thirds of all the as-sets of the country’s banks. It will also beopen to other banks to adopt Basel II onthe condition that they meet the condi-tions of eligibility for these two ap-proaches. In the near term several otherbanks with assets of more than $25 bil-lion are also expected to adopt Basel II.United States regulators consider thatmost of the country’s other banks havegenerally straightforward balance sheetswhich do not need the sophisticated in-frastructure of risk management requiredby Basel II. Moreover, such banks for themost part currently have capital signifi-cantly excess of the 8 per cent of risk-

weighted assets prescribed by the BaselAccord of 1988. This decision is not inconflict with the provisions of Basel II.Although the new accord is clearly de-signed for banks and banking systemsworldwide at several levels of sophistica-tion, the institutions actually specified aswithin the scope of application are inter-nationally active banks.

• Nine of EU member countries are repre-sented on the BCBS – Belgium, France,Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Nether-lands, Spain, Sweden and the United King-dom. Along with the 16 other membercountries, Austria, Czech Republic, Cy-prus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Greece,Hungary, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta,Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic andSlovenia, these countries will all adoptrules closely resembling those of Basel IIas part of the new framework of capitalrequirements for banks and investmentfirms proposed by the European Com-mission in July 2004. The new frameworkwill apply to all “credit institutions” (prin-cipally banks but also other institutionssuch as credit cooperatives which receivedeposits and other repayable funds fromthe public and make loans for their ownaccount) and investment firms. Specialadaptations of Basel II rules in the Euro-pean Commission’s new framework pro-vide for greater flexibility regarding theselection of more sophisticated ap-proaches and options, simpler rules forthe capital charges for operational risk forlow- and medium-risk investment firms,rules regarding the cross-border coordi-nation between supervisors where thereare disagreements concerning the valida-

C. ADOPTION AND TIMETABLEFOR IMPLEMENTATION

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tion of different approaches and options(discussed further below) and special pro-visions for venture capital.

However, except in the case of thebanks in the United States which will adoptBasel II in compliance with regulatoryinstructions, information regarding theapproaches and options which other banks willchoose is still fragmentary. A recent surveyconducted for Accenture, Mercer OliverWyman, and SAP (henceforth A-MOW-SAPsurvey) indicated that 57 per cent of Europeanbanks with assets of more than $100 billionwere intending to adopt the advanced versionof the IRB approach by 2007 and another 26per cent by 2010. Of banks with assets in therange of $25-100 billion 14 per cent weretargeting adoption of the advanced version ofthe IRB approach by 2007 and another 57 percent by 2010.5 This information broadlyconfirms the results of earlier surveys ofbanks in London, which indicated that up to90 per cent of them were expecting to adoptthe IRB approach, and that a large majorityof them expected to choose the advancedversion.6 The first of these surveys is lessdetailed regarding the choice of options forthe capital charge for operational risk: bankscovered mostly intend initially to adopt theStandardised or Advanced Measurementapproaches, and then shift increasinglytowards the latter by 2010, but a regionalbreakdown of the figures is not provided.

The FSI survey mentioned above7

includes non-BCBS EU countries. Asdiscussed in the next section, these point towidespread adoption of Basel II and thechoice of the IRB approach by banksaccounting for about 50 per cent of assets by

the end of the current decade. However, thequestionnaire does not make it possible tomake a distinction between EU and non-EUbanks in this group.

Miscellaneous information is alsoavailable as to the expectations of regulators(in addition to that discussed below for non-BCBS countries). In Germany, for example,as wide as possible adoption of the IRBapproach is likely to be encouraged.8 InSwitzerland banks other than the two largestare expected to adopt the Standardisedapproach.9 The challenge to regulators(discussed below for non-BCBS countries…)will be considerable. In the United Kingdom,for example, implementation of Basel II andthe new EU rules will require a huge amountof work if the deadlines of the end of 2006for the Standardised approach and thefoundation version of the IRB approach andof end of 2007 for the advanced version ofthe IRB approach are to be achieved.10

2. Non-BCBS countries11

The FSI questionnaire on theimplementation plans of Basel II was sent toauthorities in 115 jurisdictions, 93 per cent (or107) responded. Response rates for differentregions varied between 88 per cent for Africaand the Caribbean and 95 per cent for non-BCBS Europe. The survey was completedbefore the decision of the BCBS (discussedin section B) to extend the timetable forimplementation of the IRB approach from theend of 2006 to the end of 2007. The extensionwill have an effect on countries’ plans but sincethe main features of Basel II had been agreedat the time when the survey was undertaken,

5 See “Reality check on Basel II “, special supplement to The Banker, July 2004, pp. 154-1556 See “Basel II a new competitive landscape”, special supplement to The Banker, October 2003, pp. 8-9, and “BaselII - a risky business”, special report in Financial World, September 2003, p. 12.7 See note 2.8 See K.C.Engelen, “Why Schröder is ready to shoot down Basel II”, Central Banking, XII (33), 2002, p. 99.9 See J-C. Pernollet, “Les effets de Bâle II sur les banques suisses”, PricewaterhouseCoopers Flash Financial Services,décembre 2004, p. 4.10 See Institute of International Bankers, Global Survey 2004 (New York: IIB, September 2004), p. 147.11 Unless otherwise specified, the data in section C.2 is from FSI, op. cit. at note 2.

6

the overall picture in the survey probablystands, even though the dates of the differentstages of expected implementation may besubject to revisions.

The percentages above are weightedaverages of the percentages for the differentrespondent countries, the weights being their

banking assets. Owing to the possibility thatthe percentages under (a) may be skewed bythe percentages for respondents withparticularly large banking assets for each groupin the analysis which follows, the respondentwith the greatest banking assets is excludedunder (b) – for non-BCBS Europe with effectsthat do not point to a major distortion due to

12 The totals of the FIS survey differ, in some case substantially, between the Annex tables giving only theproportions of different regions banking assets expected to be subject to Basel II and those which also specify thedistribution of the totals by approaches to credit risk and options for operational risk. The data below are thosewhere distributions by approaches and options are also specified.

13 Under credit risk SA/SSA stands for Standardised or Simplified Standardised approach; IRBF for the foundationversion of the IRB approach; IRBA for the advanced version of the IRB approach. Under operational risk BIAstands for Basic Indicator approach; SA for both alternatives of the Standardised approach; and AMA for theAdvanced Measurement approach.

Non-BCBS Europe

Number of respondents: 37 of which 34 intend to adopt Basel II

Percentage of banking assets expected to be covered in total12 and by different approaches and optionsof Basel II 13 (a) for all respondents, and (b) excluding the country with the greatest banking assets:

Credit risk total of which SA/SSA IRBF IRBA

end-2006: (a) 72 26 36 9(b) 65 25 29 11

end-2009: (a) 82 30 39 14(b) 78 30 32 16

(Credit risk total of which SA/SSA IRBF IRBA)

end-2015: (a) 87 33 28 26(b) 84 35 27 22

Operational risk total of which BIA SA AMA

end-2006: (a) 71 36 33 2(b) 65 37 26 2

end-2009: (a) 82 40 36 6(b) 78 41 32 5

end-2015: (a) 87 39 39 9(b) 84 41 34 9

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the inclusion of this respondent. Fifteen ofthe respondents in this group are EU membersso that the remarks in section C.1 concerningimplementation under the new EU rules forthe capital of financial institutions apply tothem.

Two other points are noteworthy forthis group.

• Replies concerning implementation dif feredmarkedly according to whether the respondentbelonged to Group 1 (22 countries which aremembers of the EU, have announced plans toimplement Basel II at the end of 2006, or havetotal banking assets greater than $50 billion) orto Group 2 (the remaining 15). Of the Group1 respondents 80 per cent expected to

implement Basel II by the end of 2006,90 per cent by the end of 2009, and 94per cent by the end of 2015, whereas thecorresponding proportions for Group 2were 0, 73 and 74 per cent, respectively.The proportion of banking assets coveredby SA/SSA was significantly higher forGroup 2 than for Group 1 – more than45 per cent for Group 2 as against 30 percent for Group 1 at the end of 2009 –and of banking assets covered by IRBFsignificantly lower – 6 per cent as against39 per cent at the end of 2009.

• Much of the increase in banking assetscovered by IRBA in the period 2010-2015is attributable to shifts of banks fromIRBF.


end-2006: (a) 58 11 43 4(b) 21 18 3 0

end-2009: (a) 79 30 36 13(b) 61 55 5 1

end-2015: (a) 89 28 35 25(b) 79 51 25 3


end-2006: (a) 58 10 35 12(b) 21 17 3 0

end-2009: (a) 67 15 20 32(b) 39 27 11 0

end-2015: (a) 87 25 19 44(b) 76 46 27 3

Africa


Percentage of banking assets expected to be covered in total and by different approaches and optionsof Basel II (a) for all respondents, and (b) excluding the country with the greatest banking assets:

14 Two of the respondents were the Central African Banking Commission which consists of Cameroon, CentralAfrican Republic, Chad, Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon; and West African Economic and Monetary Unionwhich consists of Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo.

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Comparison of rows (a) and (b) showsthat the figures for all respondents are stronglyskewed by those countries with the largestbanking assets, which is not identified by namein the FSI survey but can be presumed to beSouth Africa (see Box 3). If this country isexcluded, not only are the banking assetsexpected to be subject to Basel II substantiallyreduced but so are those to which the IRB

approach and the more advanced options forthe capital charges for operational risk are tobe applied. Comparison of the figures forcredit and operational risk for the end of 2009indicates that implementation of the capitalcharges for credit risk is expected to be quickerduring the earlier years covered by the surveythan of those for operational risk.

Comparison of rows (a) and (b) againshows that the figures for all respondents arestrongly skewed by those of the country withthe largest banking assets, which is notidentified by name in the FSI survey but ispresumably China (see Box 3). If this countryis excluded, the banking assets expected to besubject to Basel II are substantially increased.China has declared that it will not apply Basel

II, a decision in which it was initially joined byIndia. More recently India announced a changein its policy (see Box 2).

The countries intending to implementBasel II fall into two groups. In the first,consisting of five countries, most bankingassets (90 per cent) are expected to be coveredby Basel II as early as the end of 2006, and

Asia




end-2006: (a) 30 15 9 7(b) 49 24 14 11

end-2009: (a) 62 22 32 8(b) 62 36 14 13

end-2015: (a) 62 20 34 8(b) 63 33 18 13


end-2006: (a) 30 7 12 11(b) 49 12 19 18

end-2009: (a) 62 39 11 12(b) 62 25 18 20

end-2015: (a) 62 39 11 12(b) 63 25 18 20

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the remainder by the end of 2009. In thesecond group which consists of 8 countrieswith the most important banks and almost 70per cent of total banking assets are expectedto be covered by the end of 2009 but nofurther extension of coverage is expected in2010-2015. The third group, presumably Chinaand four other countries with small bankingsectors, do not expect that a significantproportion of their banking assets will besubject to Basel II during the entire perioduntil 2015. The main change during 2010-2015in jurisdictions where Basel II is expected tobe widely applied is a shift in assets coveredby SA/SSA to IRBF.

Other information concerning recentregulatory developments noteworthy in thecontext of Basel II in the region includes thefollowing:15

• In Australia Basel II is to apply to allauthorized deposit-taking institutionsexcept branches of foreign banks towhich regulatory capital requirementsare not applied on a stand-alone basis.

• In the Philippines regulatory capitalrequirements for market risk based onthe 1996 amendment of the 1988 BaselCapital Accord16 have recently beenadopted.

• In Singapor e regulator y capitalrequirements for locally incorporatedbanks based on the 1988 Basel CapitalAccord have been lowered and someof the rules for their computationrevised.

Box 2. Basel II in China and India

China has announced that the capital requirements regime for its banks will continue to bethat of the 1988 Basel Capital Accord. A revised version of rules based on this Accord was announcedin February 2004 and is to be fully implemented by January 2007.17 Shifting to new rules soon afterthe implementation of this revised version would clearly impose considerable costs on both banksand supervisors. The high levels of non-performing loans (NPLs) among the assets of the Chinesebanks would also make application of Basel II complex, since the authorities would have to decideon a solution to the problem of these NPLs which did not involve too great an increase in interestrates due increased provisioning or a collapse of credit to particular sectors and firms.

After initially stating their intention to remain with the 1988 Basel Capital Accord the Indianauthorities have more recently stated that they would apply Basel II. In February 2005 the ReserveBank of India announced that all Indian banks would have to adopt the Standardised approach forthe capital requirements for credit risk and the Basic Indicator approach for the capital requirementsfor operational risk. Eventual migration to the IRB approach would be permitted as supervisors andbanks themselves developed adequate skills.18

15 See Institute of International Bankers, op. cit. at note 9, pp. 42, 110, and 129.16 See BCBS, Amendment of the Capital Accord to Incorporate market Risks (Basel, January 1996).17 See Institute of International Bankers, op. cit. at note 9, pp. 57-5818 Indian Express Newspapers (Bombay) Ltd., 15 February 2005.

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Comparison of rows (a) and (b) showsthat the percentage of total banking assets inthe Caribbean which will be subject to BaselII is sharply skewed by the absence amongimplementing countries of that with thelargest banking assets, which is not identifiedby the FSI but is presumably the CaymanIslands (see Box 3). The decisions of thecountries not expecting to implement BaselII do not appear definitive: in their replies tothe FSI they refer to the need for furtherstudies of the quantitative impact on boththeir banks and their supervisors.19

One possible explanation of theunwillingness of the Cayman Islands (andpossibly of the other non-implementingrespondent in the FSI survey) to commit itselfto implementing Basel II at this stage may bethe special features of the operations andsupervision of banks in offshore financialcentres. A substantial part of the business ofsuch banks consists of fiduciary services, thatis services where the bank acts as agent ratherthan as a principal for its customers under anar rangement similar to an investmentmanagement contract.20 A well known

19 Concerning consultations on Basel II between the Monetary Authority of Cayman Islands and the country’sBanker’s Association see also Institute of International Bankers, Global Survey 2003, p. 50.

20 Concerning fiduciary services see J. Hitchins, M. Hogg and D. Mallet, Banking: a Regulatory and Accounting Guide(London: Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, 2001), pp. 272, 526 and 546.

Caribbean




end-2006: (a) 0 0 0 0(b) 0 0 0 0

end-2009: (a) 23 21 0 2(b) 87 78 0 9

end-2015: (a) 24 21 0 2(b) 89 79 1 9


end-2006: (a) 0 0 0 0(b) 0 0 0 0

end-2009: (a) 23 21 2 0(b) 87 78 8 1

end-2015: (a) 24 21 2 0(b) 89 79 9 1

11

example of such services is the provision offiduciary deposits under which a bank lends acustomer’s money at the customer’s and notits own risk. Such services generally exposethe bank to very limited credit and market risk.However, they do involve the fiduciary riskthat the bank carries out the customer’sinstruction in a negligent or unprofessionalway, thus exposing the institution to claimsfor damages and loss of reputation. Fiduciaryrisk in turn is connected to operational riskwhich is due to failures of internal processes,staff or systems or to the impact of certain

external events (and which is covered by BaselII). Thus, many fiduciary services fit moreeasily into the new EU rules (which, as notedin section C.1, explicitly cover investmentfirms) than into Basel II. The importance oftheir fiduciary operations may also explain thepreference of banks in countries in this groupexpecting to implement Basel II for thesimpler approaches and options, since theconditions for using the IRB approach andthe more advanced options for setting thecapital charges for operational risk may bemore difficult to meet for such operations.

Latin America




end-2006: (a) 19 2 16 0(b) 36 4 31 0

end-2009: (a) 85 33 46 5(b) 71 26 34 10

end-2015: (a) 95 41 23 31(b) 90 42 35 13


end-2006: (a) 19 2 16 0(b) 36 4 31 0

end-2009: (a) 85 22 57 6(b) 71 6 53 11

end-2015: (a) 95 32 32 30(b) 90 25 54 12

Comparison of rows (a) and (b)indicates that both the percentage of bankingassets subject to Basel II and their coverageby different approaches and options aresignificantly affected by the inclusion orexclusion of the country with the largest

banking assets, which is not identified by theFSI, but is presumably Brazil (see Box 3).

Among Latin American countriesintending to implement Basel II the FSIdistinguishes three groups.

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• Group 1, consisting of 6 countries,expects that the percentage of bankingassets subject to Basel II will be 100per cent by the end of 2009. Almost60 per cent of banking assets will besubject to IRBF and most of the restto SA/SSA. During 2010-2015significant drift is expected from IRBFto IRBA.

• Group 2, consisting of 5 countries,expects that the effects of theimplementation of Basel II will bemostly evident in 2010-2015, and thepreferred approach to capital chargesfor credit risk will be SSA, although alittle than 20 per cent of banking assetswill be subject to IRBA.

• The remaining four countries in Group3 are currently undecided as to whether

to implement Basel II, this is eitherbecause of the limited involvement oftheir banks in cross-border activities orbecause they wish to carry out furtheranalysis of the impact of Basel II.

Argentina is presumably included inone of the two groups which have decided toimplement Basel II in view of the scale of itsbanks’ assets and the high proportion of assetswhich will eventually be subject to Basel IIamong Latin American respondents to the FSIsurvey. However, the country has recentlybeen undertaking a large-scale revision of itsregulations concerning the capital and riskmanagement of its banks in the aftermath ofmeasures taken in response to the financialcrisis and default of 2001; this revision mayaffect the speed with which it will implementBasel II.21

Middle East



21 On recent changes in Argentinean bank regulations see Institute of International Bankers, op. cit. at note 10,pp. 33-34.


end-2006: (a) 4 4 0 0(b) 6 6 0 0

end-2009: (a) 73 36 37 0(b) 63 50 13 0

end-2015: (a) 76 33 43 0(b) 67 45 21 0


end-2006: (a) 4 4 0 0(b) 6 6 0 0

end-2009: (a) 73 36 37 0(b) 63 50 13 0

end-2015: (a) 76 35 40 2(b) 67 48 17 2

13

Comparison of rows (a) and (b)indicates that exclusion of the country withthe largest banking assets, which is notidentified by the FSI but is presumably SaudiArabia (see Box 3) affects most importantlythe distribution of the coverage of bankingassets to be covered by Basel II among thealternative approaches and options for settingcapital charges for credit and operational risk,lowering the percentages for the more

advanced countries. The percentages forimplementation are broadly in accord withoptimism expressed in a 2002 survey in TheBanker as to the capacity of banks andsupervisors in the region to implement BaselII reasonably quickly.22 According to morespecific information for Bahrain theauthorities will commence in 2005 the workrequired for implementation from 2008onwards.23

Box 3. The identity of selected countries having a significant impacton implementation data in the FSI survey

Africa

Information on the assets of African banks available in The Banker indicates that those ofSouth African banks dwarf those of institutions from other countries in the region. All five of thelargest banks by value of assets in a 2003 survey of the top 100 banks of sub-Saharan Africa wereSouth African. Their assets ranged from $22 to $45.1 billion. The assets of the next largest bank(from Nigeria) were $3.2 billion, and all but 14 of the banks included in the survey had assets ofless than $1 billion.24 Two of the respondents to the FSI questionnaire, Egypt and Libya, were notrepresented in this survey of The Banker, but were included in a 2002 survey of the top 100 Arabbanks.25 One Egyptian bank had assets of a size ($22.6 billion) comparable to those of the fiveSouth African institutions, another had assets of more than $10 billion. The assets of the largestLibyan bank were estimated at $8.8 billion.

Asia

Information on the assets of Asian banks in The Banker indicate that those of Chinesebanks were the largest by a considerable margin.26 All four of the largest banks by value of assets ina 2004 survey of the top 200 banks in the region were Chinese; Chinese banks accounted for 39 percent of the aggregate assets of banks included (percentage close to that of banking assets notexpected to be covered by Basel II at the end of 2009 and of 2015. Australia was the country whosebanks accounted for the next largest share of aggregate assets – 14 per cent.

.../...

22 See The Banker, November 2002, p. 88.23 See Institute of International Bankers, op. cit. at note 9, p. 45.24 See The Banker, December 2003. Not all the offices of foreign banks with a presence in the region are representedin the survey but this omission would not change the picture regarding the relative size of South African institutions.25 See The Banker, November 2002.26 See The Banker, October 2004.

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Box 3. The identity of selected countries having a significant impacton implementation data in the FSI survey (concluded)

Caribbean

In the absence of reasonably comprehensive and comparable data for major offshore financialcentres in the Caribbean identification of the country with the largest banking assets is a little lessstraightforward. One approach is to use the data in BIS, International banking and financial marketdevelopments: BIS Quarterly Review on the unconsolidated liabilities to banks in Caribbean countries ofbanks reporting to the BIS (a figure which amounts to a large part of the cross-border assets ofCaribbean banks). Of the respondents to the FSI questionnaire only Bahamas, Barbados, CaymanIslands, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago are covered by the BIS-reporting banks, British VirginIslands and St. Kitts and Nevis are omitted from this list. As of March 2004 Cayman Islandsaccounted for 76 per cent of the liabilities of BIS-reporting banks, a percentage close to that forbanking assets of Caribbean respondents which will not be covered by Basel II.27

Latin America

Information on the assets of Latin American banks in The Banker indicate that those ofBrazilian banks were the largest.28 In a 2003 survey of the top 100 Latin American banks five banksfrom both Brazil and Mexico had assets in excess of $10 billion but the total assets of banks in thetop 100 amounted to $221 billion for the former and to $146 billion for the latter. The total assetsof banks in the top 100 from Argentina, another country mentioned in the text above, amounted to$64 billion.

Middle East

Information on the assets of Arab banks in The Banker indicate that among the respondentsin the Middle East in the FSI survey banks in Saudi Arabia had the largest assets.29 In a 2002 surveyof the top 100 Arab banks the assets of those of Saudi Arabia ($124 billion) were more than twicethose of Bahrain ($60 billion) and of United Arab Emirates ($54 billion).

27 See, for example, BIS, International banking and financial market developments: BIS Quarterly Review, September 2004,tables 6A and 6B.28 See The Banker, August 2003.29 See The Banker, November 2002.

15

The data from the FSI survey indicatethat within less than a decade the regulatoryauthorities of the countries responsible formost global banking activity expect toimplement Basel II. This timetable accordswith the spirit of the greater flexibilityregarding the timetable for implementationnow accepted by the BCBS itself, as describedin section B. In view of the far-reachingcharacter of Basel II the factors driving orslowing its implementation are inevitably ofgreat interest. Here, no doubt as a result ofthe mandate which determined its contents,the FSI survey, while useful , providesinformation on only a few of these factors.To achieve a fuller but still preliminary pictureof these factors there is no alternative but tofall back on more fragmentary material, whoseinterpretation sometimes requires guesswork.But consideration of such material has theadvantage of drawing attention to problemswhich may be especially important to somedeveloping countries or regions.

Planning and resources

The pace of implementation of BaselII will be crucially affected by the planningundertaken and by resource constraints amongsupervisors and banks themselves. Theseprocesses are mutually dependent in severalways. The planning process, for example, willbe affected by the scale of the resourcesdevoted to it and the plans themselves musttake account of the resources available fortheir implementation. Similarly, the state ofbanks’ preparedness will determine not onlytheir capacity to implement Basel II but alsotheir supervisors’ validation of their plans andtheir choices on the approaches and optionsfor setting capital charges for credit andoperational risk.

The FSI survey has information onplanning processes and resource requirements,but for supervisory authorities and not forbanks. On planning processes its findingsinclude the following:

• Of respondents from non-BCBSEurope 50 per cent had developedinternal plans for the implementationof Basel II.

• Of African respondents 13 of 22 hadnot yet developed internal plans for theimplementation.

• The majority of Asian respondentshad already developed plans forimplementation.

• Only 2 of the 7 Caribbean respondentshad formulated plans forimplementation.

• Eighty per cent of Latin Americanrespondents had not yet developedplans for implementation. However, ofthe countries expecting 100 per centof their banking assets to be subjectto Basel II by 2009 (Group 1 – seesection C.2) 50 per cent had formulatedsuch plans, whilst none of thoseexpecting most of the implementationof Basel to take place during 2010-2015(Group 2) had such plans.

• Six of the 7 respondents in the MiddleEast expecting to implement Basel IIhad developed plans forimplementation.

Respondents to the survey in all of theregions acknowledged the formidable

D. FORCES AFFECTING THE PACE OF IMPLEMENTATION

16

challenge posed by Basel II with respect tothe upgrading of the skills of supervisory staff.This is evident in their expectations as to thenumber of supervisory staff requiring trainingon topics related to Basel II. Such training wasto be provided to 9,366 (24 per cent) of 38,529 totalsupervisory staff in the countries covered. However,the percentages varied by region and with thetotal number of supervisory staff: in Africa,Caribbean, Latin America and the Middle Eastthe percentages of supervisory staff expectedBasel II-related training were in the range of60-80 per cent, while in Asia, where two-thirdof supervisors in respondent countries arelocated, only 14 per cent was expected toreceive Basel II-related training. Highestpriority for assistance in such training wasattributed to the setting of capital charges forcredit risk (both the Standardised and IRBapproaches) and to supervisor y reviewintended to ensure that banks had adequatecapital and sound techniques of r iskmanagement.

Implementation of Basel II will alsoinvolve extensive planning and a largecommitment of resources by banks.

• An A-MOW-SAP survey (mentionedin section C.1) indicates that a largemajority of banks with assets of morethan $25 billion in Europe intend toimplement the advanced version of theIRB approach by 2010.30 Similarly, ahigh proportion of banks with assetsof this size have the same intentionsin Canada and Australia, and even inthe United States (where the largestbanks are expected by the regulatoryauthorities to adopt this approach by2007) more than 50 per cent also expectto follow suit by 2010. Only in Japanwas a much smaller proportion of

banks (9 per cent) expecting to adoptthe advanced version of the IRBapproach by 2010.

• Of banks with assets greater than $100billion 60 per cent expect to spend 50million Euros on meeting Basel IIrequirements and one-third more than100 million Euros. Most banks withassets in the range $25-100 millionexpect to spend less than 50 millionEuros.

• European banks are furthest advancedin their planning for Basel II: almost80 per cent of European banks coveredby the survey had completed strategicassessments of the impact of Basel II,while the corresponding proportion inNorth America was less than half ofthis.31

A substantial proportion of the costsof implementing Basel II (40-80 per cent forthe majority of banks covered by the survey)is due to information technology. These costsare being incurred at the same time as thosedue to other major changes in banks’regulatory environment such as the newrequirements for corporate governance andinternal controls mandated by the UnitedStates Sarbanes-Oxley Act and revisedInternational Financial Reporting Standards.

According to the A-MOW-SAP survey75-80 per cent of banks with assets greaterthan $25 billion in Asia (other than Japan) andin Brazil and South Africa intend to adopt theadvanced version of the IRB approach by2010. These proportions are markedly higherthan those for the same regions in the FSIsurvey discussed in section C. This no doubtreflects differences in the coverage of the two

30 See op. cit. at note 5.31 Significant progress in preparations for Basel II is not limited to the banks of EU countries. According to theCroatian National Bank, for example, 88 per cent of the country’s larger banks (with assets of more than $868million) have already started preparations and are expected to comply fully with Basel II requirements by 2010.See “Croatia – on the accession path”, The Banker, March 2005, p.98.

17

questionnaires: that of the FSI was directedto supervisors and was not restricted toinstitutions above a certain size, whereas thoseof A-MOW-SAP were directed at seniorexecutives responsible for implementing BaselII in banks with assets above $25 billion.Moreover, it is not clear whether the A-MOW-SAP survey includes China, the country in theregion with the largest number of banks withassets greater $25 billion according to thesurvey cited in Box 3, which is not currentlyintending to adopt Basel II.

Cross-border supervisory cooperation

The framework of consolidatedsupervision through which Basel II is to beapplied is a potential source of difficulties for,and thus may slow, implementation. This couldbe the case if the supervisor of aninternational bank in its parent country andthat of a subsidiary or branch in a host countryapply different rules. The parent supervisormight approve the bank’s adoption of the IRBapproach, while the host supervisor mightprescribe the Standardised approach for bankssubject to its supervision owing to limitationson its supervisor y capacity. In thesecircumstances, owing to fears about adversecompetitive effects on domestic banks due thelower capital requirements and thus the lowercosts associated with the IRB approach, itmight well be unwilling to allow the foreignentity to use this approach (and thus also toentrust supervision of its capital to the parentsupervisor).

The Basel Concordat of 1983, whichis intended to provide guidelines forcooperation between national supervisors inthe application of Basel II, prescribes adifferent distribution of supervisor yresponsibilities for a cross-border bankingsubsidiary, on the one hand, and for a cross-border branch, on the other. In the case ofthe subsidiary (a wholly or majority-ownedlegally independent institution incorporated inthe host country) the host supervisor would

be acting in accordance with its rights underthe Concordat if i t insisted on theStandardised approach even when thesupervisor of the parent bank had authorizedits use of the IRB approach. However, itsinsistence would impose on the parent bankand the supervisor in its parent country theburden (and additional cost) of integrating thesubsidiary’s use of different approaches indifferent countries into the consolidatedmanagement and accounting framework of itsoperations. In the case of a branch (an entitywhich is an integral part of its foreign parentand does not have separate legal status)primary responsibility for the supervision ofsolvency (which includes capital) is attributedto the parent supervisor. This guideline doesnot accommodate the case in which a bank’sparent supervisor has accepted its use of theIRB approach but the host supervisor in thecountry of one of its branches has decidedthat banking entities in its jurisdiction shoulduse the Standardised approach, so that cross-border disagreements would have to resolveon another basis.

Although dif ferences betweensupervisors are thus capable of complicatingimplementation of Basel II and of increasingit costs, it is difficult to predict how importantthese differences will prove to be.

• In the EU the principles of mutualrecognition and home country controlaccord primary authority to the parentsupervisor in the case of branches, andthe application process for its newframework of capital rules – includingauthorization of different approachesand options – will be carried out by the“consolidating supervisor”, i.e. thesuper visor with the primaryresponsibility for supervision of across-border banking group. Thus,within the EU the rules themselves arenot a source of difficulties, althoughthis does not guarantee that they willnecessarily be straightforward to apply.

18

• The difficulties due to the rules of the1983 Basel Concordat as to thedistribution of supervisoryresponsibilities for foreign branchesmay be attenuated up to a point.Subsidiaries are the form mostcommonly found for foreign banksundertaking the retail operations forwhich fears as to the adversecompetitive effects on domestic banksare most likely to weigh more heavily.As already noted, for subsidiariesinsistence by host supervisors on theStandardised approach would be inaccordance with Concordat ’sdistribution of responsibil i t ies.Branches are the form more commonlyused for foreign institutionsundertaking wholesale banking forwhich fears about competition tend tobe less important, so that difficultiesregarding the cross-border applicationof Basel II may be easier to resolve.But this leaves the problem of theadditional costs which may result fromdifferent ways in which parent and hostsupervisors decide to apply Basel II inthe case of subsidiaries. Availableevidence indicates that in manycountries the norm is equal applicabilityof prudential standards to domesticand foreign banks.32 Thus difficultiesregarding the implementation of BaselII which are due to divergencesbetween supervisor y regimes andconsequent cross-borderdisagreements will disappear only asthese divergences become less frequentwith expansion of the use of IRBapproach.

Requirements for and choice ofapproaches

While adoption of Basel II per serequires that a bank has to fulfil minimumsupervisory requirements on such matters andinternal controls and risk measurement, thechoice of its more advanced approaches andoptions depends on its ability to meet morestringent conditions. A notable feature of theFSI survey is the expectation that the mostwidely used approach for setting capitalcharges for credit risk for non-BCBS countrieswill not be the simplest Standardised approachbut the foundation version of the IRBapproach. This conclusion holds at theaggregate level where, for example, 32-33percent of bank assets are expected to becovered by this approach by 2009 incomparison with a little more than 25 per centfor the Standardised or simplified Standardisedapproaches and less than 10 per cent for theadvanced version of the IRB approach. At theregional level a similar expectation as to thedifferent approaches holds for Asia and LatinAmerica, though the coverage of bank assetsby the foundation version of the IRBapproach is lower elsewhere. This outcomemust reflect reasonable expectations as toeligibility and the weighing of the incentivesof the IRB approach in terms of lowerregulatory capital requirements (discussedbelow) against the additional costs involved.33

Eligibility for the IRB approach underBasel II is determined by several differentdimensions of a bank’s management andinternal controls. But particularly interestingin the context of the choice of approach to

32 See, for example, the survey of equal applicability of prudential standards to domestic and foreign banks in I.Song, “Foreign bank supervision and challenges to emerging market supervisors”. IMF Working Paper WP/04/82,May 2004, Appendix VI, that covers 24 of the countries in the FSI survey in only 3 of which is there any questionas to the equal applicability of prudential standards to domestic and foreign banks.

33 Interpretation of these figures is complicated by the absence of information as to how coverage by differentapproaches is classified. For example, if a bank uses a version of the IRB approach for some but not all of itscategories of exposure, are all of its assets treated as being covered by that approach or only the categories inquestion?

19

setting capital charges for credit risk are thequantitative requirements as to the bank’srating system and the availability of certaindata and its usability for estimating LGD andEAD (see Box 1).

• The bank must have been using a ratingsystem broadly in l ine with therequirements of the RF for at leastthree years prior to qualifying for theIRB approach.

• The length of the observation periodfor the data used for the bank’sestimation of PD must be at least fiveyears.

• The length of the observation periodfor the data used to estimate LGD andEAD must be at least seven years,except for retail exposures for whichthe period is five years.

The replies in the FSI survey do notspecify the categories of business which wouldbe covered by the different approaches. But itis possible to hazard a guess as to reason whyso many countries expect the foundationversion of the IRB approach to be the mostwidely used. Intuitively one would expect thatdata availability would be greatest for PD, andthat benchmarking, the comparison a bank’sinternal ratings with external information suchas that provided by rating agencies, would alsomost likely to be feasible for PD.34 Thisargument may apply a fortiori to data on retailexposures.

Likewise, i t seems a reasonableconjecture that both data availability and

internal estimation are likely to pose greaterproblems for LGD and EAD, components ofthe formula for the estimates of risk-weightedassets to be undertaken by the bank in theadvanced version of the IRB approach. Thedevelopment of LGD estimation methods isstill at an early stage and empirical researchhas been largely limited to the bonds of UnitedStates corporations.35 Reliable procedures forinternal estimates of LGD also require cleardefinitions of default and clear rules forvaluing collateral . Neither of theserequirements will be met if insolvency regimesare antiquated or especially favourable todebtors, as is often true of those in developingcountries. Lack of relevant experience is alsoa source of problems for internal estimatesof EAD.36 One of problems here concernsestimates of the future use or draw-downs ofunused credit or other facilities, which, forexample, include the difficulty of forecastinghow the relationship between the bank andits customers wil l evolve in adversecircumstances.37

The influence of foreign banks

The FSI survey draws special attentionto the role of foreign banks in theimplementation of Basel II, going so far as tocharacterize them as “major drivers” of theprocess in several regions.38 In view of theattention paid to the presence of foreign banksin the context of financial liberalization andof the negotiations on financial services in theWTO this point is worth examining in greaterdetail. The FSI percentages of total banking

34 Concerning the use of benchmarking see V. Oung, “Benchmarking”, in BCBS, Studies on the Validation of InternalRating Systems, Working Paper No. 14 (Basel: BIS, February 2005).35 See R.L. Bennett, E. Catarineu and G. Moral, “Loss given default validation”, in ibid.36 See J.W.B.Bos, “Exposure at default validation”, in ibid.37 Contingent liabilities may amount to substantial proportions of assets on banks’ balance sheets. Data from theannual reports of banks in 15 Asian countries in 1996 show that they amounted to 53-116 per cent for Indonesia,Malaysia, Pakistan and Taiwan Province of China, to 25-46 per cent for Bangladesh, China, Hong Kong (China),India, Nepal, Republic of Korea, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Thailand, and less than 10 per cent only for Viet Namand Macau. See P.F. Delhaise, Asia in Crisis: the Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems (Singapore, etc.: JohnWiley, 1998), pp. 68-72.38 See FSI, op. cit. at note 2, p. 6.

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assets in December 2009 for the regions insection C.2 are as follows.39

• Non-BCBS Europe: 32 per cent areexpected to be covered by Basel II andbelong to foreign (foreign-controlledor foreign-incorporated) banks.

• Africa: 11 per cent are expected to becovered by Basel II and belong toforeign banks; the figures changes to12 per cent if the country with thegreatest banking assets (presumablySouth Africa – see Box 3 above) isexcluded.

• Asia: 21 per cent are expected to becovered by Basel II and belong toforeign banks; the figure rises to 35 percent if the country with the greatestbanking assets (presumably China – seeBox 3) is excluded.

• Caribbean: 24 per cent are expected tobe covered by Basel II and belong toforeign banks; the figure rises to 92 percent if the country with the greatestbanking assets (presumably CaymanIslands – see Box 3) is excluded.

• Latin America: 29 per cent are expectedto be covered by Basel II and belongto foreign banks; the figure rises to 43per cent if the country with the greatestbanking assets (presumably Brazil – seeBox 3) is excluded.

• Middle East: 26 per cent are expectedto be covered by Basel II and belongto foreign banks; the figure rises to 36per cent if the country with the greatestbanking assets (presumably SaudiArabia – see Box 3) is excluded.

The FSI’s emphasis on “the role offoreign players” in the implementation ofBasel II in the Caribbean should apply onlyto countries, other than the Cayman Islands,which are apparently not currently expectingto implement Basel II but whose bankingsector consists overwhelmingly of foreigninstitutions.40 Elsewhere the term, “majordrivers”, can be interpreted in different ways.It may refer to disproportionaterepresentation of foreign banks among thoseexpected to implement Basel II or tocompetitive emulation among domestic banksin response to the adoption by foreign banksof Basel II or to both. If comparable figuresby region were available for the proportionof total banking assets belonging to foreignbanks, the validity of the first of these possiblecharacterizations could be scrutinized moreclosely (subject to the qualification that thisproportion is susceptible to change betweennow or the recent past and 2009).41 Butunfortunately this is possible – and even sohighly approximately – only for Asia and LatinAmerica.

If the shares of banking assets underforeign control in the groups of countries forwhich data are given in Box 4 are

39 In the absence of a generally accepted definition for foreign-controlled banks the FSI questionnaire left it tosupervisory authorities to provide information according to their own rules and definitions with the result that thefigures in the text do not have a uniform basis. See ibid.

40 There are over 600 banks and trust companies registered in the Cayman Islands. For relevant features of theterritory’s legal and tax regime see B. Spitz, International Tax Havens Guide: Offshore Tax Strategies (New York: PanelPublishers, 2001), chapter 34.

41 Cross-border mergers and acquisitions have on occasion substantially changed the shares of total banking assetssubject to foreign control during short periods. For example, 19 per cent of total banking assets in Mexico weresubject to foreign control in December 1999 according to an IMF study (International Capital Markets: Developments,Prospects, and Key Policy Issues, World Economic and Financial Surveys (Washington, D.C.: IMF, September 2000),pp. 153-156); however, by 2002 this figure had increased to more than 80 per cent, four of the countries’ fivelargest banks now being under foreign ownership.

21

representative of the overall position in theAsian and Latin American respondents to theFSI questionnaire, the first of the twocharacterizations – the disproportionaterepresentation of foreign banks among thoseexpected to implement Basel II – does notreceive strong support from a comparison ofthe percentages above for the percentages ofbanking assets expected to be covered by BaselII with the estimates of the share of such

assets under foreign control in either the groupof Asian countries (14 per cent or 27 per centex-China) or of Latin American countries (47per cent). This suggests that in these tworegions the role of foreign banks in drivingimplementation of Basel II is associated ratherwith the competitive pressures on domesticbanks expected to be generated by theiradoption of the new rules for regulation.

42 Committee on the Global Financial System, Foreign Direct Investment in the Financial Sector of Emerging MarketEconomies, Report submitted by a Working Group established by the Committee on the Global Financial System(Basel: BIS, March 2004), pp. 7-10.

43 The figures refer to 1999 in the case of China.

Box 4. The scale of the presence of foreign banks in Asianand Latin American developing countries

Data are available in a recent study of the Committee on the Global Financial System on thepercentage of total banking assets attributable to foreign banks (foreign control being defined asownership of at least 50 per cent of outstanding equity) for the groups of countries in Asia andLatin America shown below.42 These percentages can then be weighted by the shares of institutionsin the different countries in the total banking assets of banks from countries in the two groupsgiven in the regional surveys in The Banker cited in Box 3. These calculations lead to an estimate of14 per cent for foreign ownership of banking assets in the Asian group including China, a figurewhich rises to 27 per cent, if China is excluded, and an estimate of 47 per cent for such ownershipin the Latin American group.

Share of the assets of banking systems under foreign control in selected Asianand Latin American countries in 200243 (per cent)

Asia Asia (cont’d) Latin America

China 2 Philippines 18 Argentina 48Hong Kong (China) 72 Singapore 76 Brazil 27Indonesia 13 Thailand 18 Chile 42India 8 Mexico 82Rep. of Korea 8 Peru 46Malaysia 18 Venezuela 34

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Expected changes in capitalrequirements

The third major considerationaffecting banks’ choice of approaches underBasel II (in addition to resource costs andcapacity to fulfil conditions of eligibility) willbe the incentives associated with the resultingchange in capital requirements (and thus incosts) overall and by exposure class. The fullestanalysis so far undertaken of the likely effectsof Basel II is the third Quantitative ImpactStudy (QIS3)44 undertaken under thesupervision of the BCBS in October 2002, butincorporating the rules in the April 2003version of the proposals, The New Basel CapitalAccord (CP3).45 The study involved 188 banksfrom G10 countries and 177 from othercountries and territories, including 24 outsidethe G10 and the EU (classified as othercountries), the great majority of which wouldbe classified as emerging market or developingcountries.46 Further analysis of the QIS3 datafor the EU-15 countries has been publishedin a study of PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC)carried out for the European Commissionwhile revising the rules for the capital of EUfinancial institutions.47 Although its countrycoverage is more limited than that of the QIS3document and does not include any emerging-market or developing economy, this study isof special interest owing to its greater detailon the changes due to Basel II at the level ofexposure class, country and type of financialinstitution.

Banks taking part in QIS3 were splitinto Groups 1 and 2: the first consists of large,diversified and internationally active banks; andthe second of smaller, frequently morespecialized entities. Banks were invited to carry

out the exercise for all three major approachesto setting capital charges for credit risk andfor the Standardised approach to operationalrisk (see Box 1). The size of the reportingsamples decreased with the degree ofsophistication of the approach. For example,less than 25 per cent of banks from outsidethe G10 and the EU, which completedestimates for the Standardized approach alsocompleted those for the foundation versionof the IRB approach, and only a subset ofthose banks, which completed estimates forthe foundation version of the IRB approachalso did so for the advanced version as well.Indeed, so small was the number of Group 2banks from G10 and EU countries and ofbanks belonging to Groups 1 and 2 from othercountries, which completed returns for theadvanced version of the IRB approach thatthe results were not included in the publishedQIS3 results.

Major features of these results include:

• Capital requirements increased forGroup 1 and Group 2 banks in all threecountry groupings for banks using theStandardised approach. However, forG10 and EU banks the increases weredue to the new capital charge foroperational risk. For banks in othercountr ies most o f the r i se in capi talrequirements was also due to the charge foroperational risk.

• Capital requirements decreased forGroup 2 banks in the G10 and forGroup 1 and Group 2 banks in the EUusing the foundation version of theIRB approach. Small r ises wererecorded for Group 1 banks in the G10

44 See BCBS, Quantitative Impact Study 3 – Overview of Global Results (BIS, 5 May 2003).45 See BCBS, The New Basel Capital Accord (BIS, April 2003).46 The countries and territories in this grouping are Australia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Chile, China, HongKong (China), Hungary, India, Indonesia, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Malta, Norway, Philippines, Poland, Russia,Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Slovakia, South Africa, Tanzania, Thailand and Turkey.47 See PwC, Study on the financial and macroeconomic consequences of the draft proposed new capital requirements for banks andinvestment firms in the EU, Final ReportMARKT/2003/02/F, April 2004.

23

and for banks in other countries, thosein the latter resulting from the combinationof a fall in the charge (3 per cent) for creditrisk offset by a rise in that for operationalrisk (7 per cent). The capital requirementsdecreased for Group 1 banks in boththe G10 and the EU using the advancedversion of the IRB approach, but noresults are reported for Group 2 banksor other countries.

• For both Groups and all the countrygroupings there were decreases in thecapital requirements for retai lexposures for banks using theStandardised and both versions of theIRB approach. Similarly, there weredecreases in the capital requirementsfor exposures to SMEs except forbanks in other countries using thefoundation version of the IRBapproach for which there was amarginal increase of 1 per cent.

More fleshed-out, but similar results,are available for EU-15 countries in the PwCstudy based on the same data.

• For the nine countries for which dataare reported increases in capitalrequirements were expected in only twoand decreases in the other seven.

• A marginal increase in capitalrequirements (1.9 per cent) wasexpected for banks using theStandardised approach, and decreasesfor banks using the foundation andadvanced versions of the IRB approach(6.9 and 8.7 per cent respectively).

• Substantial decreases in capitalrequirements were recorded for bothretail and SME exposures. In the caseof retail exposures the decreases were8.3 per cent for banks using the

Standardised approach, 12.2 per centfor those using the foundation versionof the IRB approach and 10.9 for thoseusing the advanced version of the IRBapproach. The figures include SMEexposures treated as retail because theirsize was below a specified ceiling (seeBox 5). In the case of exposures toSMEs treated as corporates thedecreases were 2.1 per cent for banksusing the Standardised approach, 3.5per cent for those using the foundationversion of the IRB approach and 6 percent for those using the advancedversion of the IRB approach. For theEU banks covered by the PwC studyretail exposures (other than those toSMEs) accounted for 24.5 per cent ofbanks’ total assets, and exposures toSMEs for 15.5 per cent (9.6 for SMEexposures classified as corporates and6 per cent for those classified as retail),and one of the study’s conclusions is thatfinancial institutions specializing in thesecategories of lending such as retail banks andbuilding societies can be expected to receiveespecially large benefits in terms of reducedcapital requirements from the new rules.48

While these figures apply to the EU,they also point to the possibility of significantincentives elsewhere for the adoption of themore advanced approaches to credit risk underBasel II. As in the overall data for QIS3, underthe Standardised approach reductions in thecapital charge for credit risk are rather morethan offset by the new charge for operationalrisk, but under the IRB approach there aresignificant reductions in overall capital charges.The response in a particular country to theseincentives will depend on the actions andcapacity of various institutions and groups,and on the willingness of regulators to permituse of the more advanced approaches whichis likely to reflect their capacity to carry outthe required supervision.

48 See ibid., p.57.

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A not necessarily exhaustive list ofthese institutions and groups would include:(a) large domestic banks (often partly orwholly state-owned), which will generally beinvolved in retail lending and lending to SMEson a substantial scale, but which may not bewell placed to adopt either version of the IRBapproach owing to factors such as sheer sizeand relatively backward systems ofinformation technology; (b) other banksoffering a wide range of services (includingforeign banks or banks with a substantialforeign equity interest), which have identified

the potential competitive benefits of adoptingthe IRB approach for retail and SME lendingand believe that they are capable of fulfillingthe conditions for eligibility regardingtechnology, data and internal controls; (c)smaller and more special ized financialinstitutions involved in retail and SME lending,some of which may be potential candidatesfor the adoption of the IRB approach, butothers of which are not owing to inability tofulfil the eligibility conditions; and (d) peoplewith banking skills, sometimes acquiredabroad, who may be prepared to purchase or

Box 5. Risk weights for retail and SME exposures in Basel II

Owing to the high level of risk diversification possible for loans, which are small in relationto the size of a bank’s portfolio low weights for credit risk under Basel II are attributed to retailexposures, including those involving residential mortgages, and to exposures to SMEs.

Under the Standardised approach, to be included in the regulatory category of retail portfolio aclaim must meet a series of conditions: (a) an orientation criterion which specifies that it must becomefrom an individual person or persons or on a small business; (b) a product criterion which specifieseligible categories of loans and overdraft facilities (and which excludes securities such as bonds andequities); (c) a granularity criterion which requires satisfying the bank’s supervisor that the regulatoryretail portfolio is sufficiently diversified; and (d) a value threshold of 1 million Euros for the exposureto counterparties. Claims meeting these conditions qualify for a risk weight of 75 per cent. Claimssecured by mortgages on residential property occupied by the borrower or rented qualify for a riskweight of 35 per cent.

Under the IRB approach three different categories of retail exposure are distinguished: residentialmortgage loans; qualifying revolving retail exposures (QRREs) (revolving, unsecured exposures toindividuals with a value up to 100,000 Euros, which would include much credit-card business); andother retail exposures (which include loans to individuals and to SMEs up to a ceiling of 1 millionEuros). The different formulae used to calculate risk-weighted assets for each of three categoriesapply to pools of exposures, not to individual loans. These formulae are adjusted downwards bymeans of their correlation terms to reflect greater risk diversification than for corporate, sovereignand bank exposures, and the resulting risk weights are below 100 per cent for PD below thresholdvalues which vary with the category of retail exposure.

Under the IRB approach for claims on SMEs, which do not qualify as retail exposures butwhere the sales of the borrower are below a threshold of 50 million Euros, there is an alternativedownward adjustment to the correlation term. To illustrate the impact of this adjustment on the riskweights of SMEs the RF provides a numerical simulation for a claim with a maturity of 2.5 years ona firm with a turnover of 5 million Euros for different levels of PD, which shows a reduction of therisk weight by 20-25 per cent for PD, in the range of 0.03 per cent to 20 per cent.49

49 See RF, Annex 3.

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establish f inancial institutions to takeadvantage of the benefits of the IRBapproach. In developing countries there willbe considerable variation in the weight whichshould be attributed to these differentinstitutions and groups. Nevertheless, thefigures for the expected coverage of bankingassets by the foundation version of the IRBapproach in section C.2 suggest the substantialscale of those who have identified itscommercial advantages in countries wheresupervisors are willing to accommodate its use.

Alternative models of banking practice

Basel II incorporates underlyingassumptions about the nature of therelationship between a bank and itscounterparties which, although increasinglyaccepted as the model to be followed, are notuniversally applied. In Basel II this relationshipis managed at arms-length, and decisions aboutlending and the provision of other bankingservices are based on reasoned analysis of thecounterparty’s capacity to meet interestobligations and of other dimensions ofcreditworthiness. Where banking practicesfollow a different model, implementation ofBasel II is likely to be slowed to allow for therequired changes in such practices to beadopted or to provide time for regulatoryreconciliation of the Basel II model withalternative principles. Ongoing examples ofthe latter are the initiatives under way toreconcile Islamic banking, which does notpermit interest and is based on differentprinciples regarding the sharing of riskbetween the sources and users of bankfinance, and prudential rules inc ludingregulatory capital requirements incorporatingthe logic of the Basel capital rules.50

Of quantitatively greater importance,and possibly a source of greater controversy,as to the universal appropriateness of the BaselII model are lending practices, which go bynames as policy or directed lending,relationship or name lending and collateral-based lending. In such lending loans are madeon the basis of analysis incorporating differentcriteria from those of the credit analysis ofthe Basel II model or on the basis of rules inwhich credit analysis plays little or no role, andthe assumptions about risk sharing between abank and its borrowers involve a relationshipthat is less arms-length and in some cases ismore like an equity investment.

Although there is overlapping inpractice between these different lendingcategories, an attempt at classifying some oftheir characteristics may be helpful.51

• Policy lending is lending in furtheranceof government purposes, such asagricultural or industrial development,in accordance with criteria which arenot exclusively commercial . It istypically associated with an explicit orimplicit promise that the government’sfinancial support will be forthcomingto meet certain losses, a promise thatconf l icts with the rationale ofprudential capital which is intended toserve as the bank’s own, independentcushion for losses. Policy lendingover laps with dir ec ted l ending , theprincipal distinction being that in thelatter the official directives leave lessroom for discretion. Both types oflending are frequently carried outthrough institutions that are partly orwholly state-owned.

50 For more information on these initiatives see, for example, A. Cornford, “The banking capital of Basel II innon-standard contexts”, available at the web site of the Financial Markets Center, http://www.fmcenter.org

51 This classification follows closely that of J. Golin, The Bank Credit Analysis Handbook: A Guide for Analysts,Bankers and Investors (Singapore: John Wiley & Sons (Asia), 2001), pp. 185-199 and Appendix D.

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• Name or relationship lending is lending,which may be based on a closeunderstanding of a borrower’sbusiness, but in which a major orpreponderant role is also played by theborrower’s economic standing or thepersonal relationship between theborrower and senior bank officials.

• Collateral-based lending, which sometimesgoes by the less complimentary nameof pawnshop lending, is lending where thelender gives priority to the collateralfurnished by a borrower over analysisof creditworthiness.

These types of lending have beenpervasive in Asian countries which haveachieved exceptionally high rates of economicgrowth in the recent historical period.Assessment of their role is difficult becausetheir good and bad effects cannot beabstracted from their historical context anddifferent country environments. At oneextreme is the Japanese banking system as itfunctioned between the end of World War 2and the 1980s. This system involved policy anddirected lending, as well as emphasis on theimportance of long-ter m rela tionshipsbetween lenders and borrowers andconfidence in the willingness of the differentactors in the system to provide mutual supportwhen needed. Administrative guidance as tosectors of national importance played a largerole in the direction of lending, and closerelationships between the constituent businessentit ies ( including banks) of businesscombines (keiretsu) were the norm. The systemis widely regarded as having been a positiveforce in the country’s development until banksdecisions began to be distorted by the dramaticeffects on asset values of the property andstock-market booms of the 1980s. The success

of the system undoubtedly had an influenceon Japan’s neighbours, particularly because ofthe compatibility of many of its features withpre-existing local banking practices.

Elsewhere lending practices deviatingfrom the model underlying Basel II have hadmore mixed results than those of pre-1980sJapan. Relationship lending easily shaded intoconnected or r elated-party lending, lending toborrowers associated with a bank’sshareholders and into other forms ofcronyism. Moreover, lending practices whichattributed l itt le importance to ownsidefinancial risks left banking sectors vulnerableto the shocks associated with the financialcrisis of 1997. But some more beneficialeffects of these practices were also present,and in their more benign manifestations theywill not easily be replaced as financial motorsfor economic development.52

Serious thinking has hardly begun onhow to accommodate the potentially beneficialfeatures of alternative models of developmentfinancing within the framework of prudentialrules appropriate to the banking model ofBasel II. However, there is arguably a moreimmediate problem related to plans forimplementation. While some of the moreharmful Asian banking practices are now inretreat as a result of reforms undertaken inresponse to financial crisis of 1997, bankingmodels and their associated behavioural andtechnical norms will require considerable timefor more comprehensive change. Attempts toimpose such change too quickly could lead todeclines in lending, whose consequences mighttranscend particular actors or sectors and haveadverse macroeconomic effects. Thus, slowimplementation of Basel II owing to requiredshifts in banking practice may often actuallybe desirable, as well as unavoidable.

52 A veteran observer of Asian banking sums up the strengths and weaknesses of what he calls “the business/bank/politicians triangle” as follows: “Is collusion a bad thing? It is conceptually undignified. It leads to excesses...But at the same time, when collusion remains within decent bounds, the system hastens development and on thewhole economies prosper... In those matters, the difficulty is for governments to maintain a decent balance betweengood and evil.” See Delhaise, op. cit. at note 37, p. 25.

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THE GLOBAL IMPLEMENTATION OF BASEL II: PROSPECTS AND … · 2020. 9. 4. · The New Basel Capital Accord (BIS, April 2003) (henceforth CP3). 2 See FSI, “Implementation of the new