The Gilded Age of Poverty

A History of Evangelical Urban Missions in America from 1865-1920

John Dao

4/29/2011

This essay seeks to show that a heart for Urban Missions has always had a place at the core of Evangelical Christianity as it gives prime examples of a vast and rich tradition of Urban Missions in Post Civil War America at the turn of the 19th century.

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In the latter half of the 19th century going into the early 20th century, America found itself in the

midst of great social, moral, and economic change. It was a period known in American history as The

Gilded Age, roughly around 1865-1920. Some of the major technological advances of this period were

the invention of the automobile, the refining of petroleum, the harnessing of electricity, the telephone,

the production of steel and the laying of railways. The size and scope of the changes was immense. In

fact the entire world was undergoing transformation; France was undergoing large changes in

infrastructure under Napoleon; Britain was reaching the end of its own Industrial Revolution as was the

world’s leading superpower; Fledgling America was just emerging from the cloud of a bloody Civil war

with renewed hope in a bruised and broken land. And coupled with the great political and socio-

economic reforms of this age, God as well was enacting great Spiritual reform, pouring out his spirit in

what is now known as the Second Great Awakening. This is the backdrop of the era. All the world was

astir with ideals of progress and reform, but what was the result? Entire books could be written (and

have been written) on that subject, but what this paper endeavors to uncover is the rich impact these

revolutions held in Urban America and how God’s story unfolded in the heart of it all.

America undertook its own Industrial Revolution near the end of the 19th century and the entire

landscape experienced scores of political, social, economic, and spiritual revolutions, all of them

originating in the cities. From 1865 until about 1920, America saw an explosion in urban centers all

across America. In 1860, there were only nine cities with populations greater than one hundred

thousand people. In 1910, there were over fifty.1 Today over half of the world’s population now resides

in cities as a result of a process which began 200 years ago.2 There is no doubt about the impact and

importance that cities play both then and today in how we think, feel, and act. The first twelve

1 Cowan, Ruth Schwartz, A Social History of American Technology, New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Pg 1662 Dugger, Celia W. "Half the world's population will live in cities next year, UN report says." New York Times. June 27, 2007. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/27/world/asia/27iht-27city.6363039.html (accessed April 29, 2011).

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presidents of the United States of America were born into rural farming communities, but every

president from 1865 and 1920 was born in a city (from Andrew Jackson to Woodrow Wilson) and were a

reflection of America’s growing interest in business and urban development.

During this time, urban centers started to become centers for thought and development and the

heart and soul of America. However, these urban centers were hardly places someone wanted to live.

Immigration was at an all time high and brought about rapid urban growth3, expanding faster than the

cities could accommodate them. Everyone was coming to America and crowding into the cities with

hope for a brighter future, wanting to build for themselves a better life. They were all chasing the

American Dream. With the rise of factories and the industrialization of America, farm workers were

quickly replaced with more efficient machines. Homeless and unemployed, these ex-farm workers

would seek jobs working in factories in the cities out of necessity for survival. Blacks from the south,

having been freed from slavery, went up north into the cities, hoping to build for themselves a future

there. It was this unique combination of circumstances (the civil war, industrialization, and the

immigration boom resulting from things such as the Irish Potato Famine) that led to the explosion of

America’s urban cities.

Yet because of this, slum conditions arose quickly because the cities did not yet have adequate

sanitation, roads, sewers, housing, or water. The cities simply could not keep up with the growing

populations as the population out grew the cities’ resources. People lived in filth and in cramped

quarters, often working long and hard hours for minimal pay because there were not yet regulations on

factories on how they could treat employees. Urbanization and industrialization reinforced one another

causing one of the greatest social ills America has ever faced and is one that continues to this day.

Morison gives a vignette of a slum in this time period,

3 Gonzales, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: Volume Two - The Reformation to the Present Day. Vol. II. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2010.

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It is a weekday afternoon in January. The sun is shining with difficulty through the pall of smoke

and soot hanging over the great railway viaduct which stretches across the landscape. It has

been raining recently. The roads are thick with black mud, and little groups of ill-clothed, half-

starved children are playing in blissful ignorance of the physical and moral perils by which they

are surrounded. The streets, often narrow and torturous, are lined on both sides by rows of

dilapidated dwellings, which, however, frequently reveal a faint aspiration towards

respectability—a solitary flower pot in the window, a not too dirty curtain, a doorstep bearing

trace of a recent effort to set a good example amid discouraging surroundings… On all sides

there are the same signs of dilapidation and decay, the same starved, pinched faces, the same

cold look of resignation, and above the grim, gaunt railway arches looming in silent immensity

against a leaden sky.4

This is the urban mission field Christians entered. During this time frame, the Church was compelled to

come into the slums with a message of hope and the good news of Jesus Christ. Evangelicals, charged

with the Great Commission and the Greatest Commandment and armed with compassion, took to the

streets to wrestle with an industrialized society and economic system which had left so many destitute

and abandoned. Morison goes on to state,

[The Church] cannot grapple with the disease itself, which lies deeply rooted in a social system

which has created and will continue to create slum areas, so long as it is permitted to do so

uncontrolled by wise regulation applied in the sacred name of human brotherhood… How to

deal effectively with the several needs of each [of these populations] is the twentieth century’s

great challenge to a humanitarian civilization.5

4 Morison, Frank. J.H. Jowett: A Character Study. Boston: The Pilgrim Press, 1911. Pg 55-565 Morison. Pg 59,60.

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However, this did not stop the church from trying. Actually, God’s heart for the city was clearly shown

at this time as Christians faced what was the greatest problem of the era, systematic poverty and social

injustice. There is a rich tradition of God’s people reaching out into the slums to bring new life and

vitality into these poor and defeated areas, especially among the evangelical community. They brought

their message of salvation into the slums and had so much compassion for the people there that they

stayed in order that their presence as well as their message might be a gospel of salvation to everyone

they encountered. No other group has contributed as much or as greatly as the evangelicals to the

alleviation of the pains and sufferings of the urban poor, rather many Americans did not view the poor in

any such high regard and could have cared less for them.6 As Gibson writes, “For the church of the

Gilded Age, evangelism, social reform work, and missions were linked together as its central task…”7 The

aim of this study is to uncover the rich evangelical tradition’s powerful influence on the major social

reforms of the time period that so often go overlooked.

In 1865, a man named William Booth and his wife Catherine, discovered with great excitement

the future God had for them in the slums of England. God had so moved William’s heart as he was

preaching in the slums for the people there that God led him to start a movement.8 That movement

today is called The Salvation Army, an international evangelical Christian organization dedicated to the

salvation of the urban poor. In 1880, it spread from England over into America, quickly establishing

roots in St. Louis, New York, Newark, and Philadelphia. By 1887, in just seven years, grew in America to

over three hundred local corps and six hundred officers and by 1904 numbered over 900 local corps and

auxiliary institutions.9

6 Bremner, Robert. From the Depths: The Discovery of Poverty in the United States. New York: New York University Press, 1956. Pg 65-667 Gibson, Scott M. A.J. Gordon: American Premillenialist. Lanham: University Press of America, 2001. Pg 143.8 Magnuson, Norris. Salvation in the SLums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865-1920. Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, 1977. Pg 2.9 Magnuson. Pg 4-5.

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Throughout the entire 1865-1920 timeframe, the Salvation Army had never lost the great

evangelistic zeal that so drove its founder William Booth into the slums of East London. George Railton,

who was himself once homeless and jobless and was one of the Army’s leaders and second in command

to William Booth during this time frame stated, “This willingness to sever ourselves, if needs be, from

the whole world, in order to save somebody,” to “plunge down to the very depths of human contempt,”

was “the essence of the life of Jesus Christ.”10 This zeal is what led to the effectiveness of their ministry

to save souls. At the turn of the century, the Salvation Army boasted a little more than 300,000 converts

worldwide and 50,000 converts on their American front alone per year. They would continually pack

large churches and auditoriums and draw huge crowds to their events just to hear the Booths.11 In

everything, their zeal for Salvation is what fueled and necessitated their social work in the slums.

Among all those doing social work in the inner cities, there were arguably no other organizations

who knew the depths of slums and the needs of its people as well as evangelical organizations like the

Salvation Army. Even among non-Christians, their reputation and knowledge were undeniable.12Their

knowledge came from experience, from being in close contact with the urban poor and from living

among them. They had an almost unequalled knowledge of the conditions of the lower classes and

because of this were a valuable resource for governments and other organizations looking to impact

change from within the city.13 Many of the members and leaders of these Christian movements came

from the communities themselves. As evangelistic minded organizations would make converts within

the city, those converts themselves would rise and be empowered to enact more change from within

the city they were already living in. These converted slum residents added to the depth of the pool of

knowledge of slums, having lived it themselves.

10 Magnuson Pg 611 Magnuson. Pg 712 Magnuson. xv13 Magnuson pg 32

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Men like Jeremiah McAuley and Samuel H. Hadley, converts from the slums and rampant

alcoholism, started the first rescue missions in America for men in similar situations. Having each

experienced personal and powerful conversions, they sought to draw other drunkards to the amazing

grace of God. A.T. Pierson commented that Hadley was the most successful “soul-winner” of his

generation, having led an estimated 75,000 person to saving faith in Christ Jesus.14 It was in 1886 that

Hadley took over the Water Street Mission started by McAuley in New York City in 1876. Many who

“graduated” from the mission became missionaries, his own brother even going on to plant more than

sixty rescue missions across the country.15 This movement helped fuel a cultural shift in attitude

towards drunkenness and alcohol leading to the Prohibition era and its subsequent repeal.

And while McAuley and Hadley were starting rescue missions for men, Sidney and Emma

Whittemore and Charles Crittenton started a rescue home for women in New York City in 1890 called

“Door of Hope”. Having been inspired by McAuley’s work and being moved in Spirit to assist “fallen”

women, they set out to provide food, clothing, and medical care but more importantly acceptance and

religious concern in an age where women were looked down upon and cast aside, especially poor, single

women. Their work inspired more than 60 other “Doors of Hope” at the turn of the century, being the

first to offer assistance, love, encouragement, and a fresh start to women with nowhere else to go.16

Mrs. Whittemore placed a primary emphasis on evangelism, saying “Without Him, nothing can be

accomplished.”17 Her experience working in the inner city informed how she responded to its physical

needs. She would dress just like the people of the slums, carrying around pails of gruel, soup, tea, and

packages of clothes. She would often just do simply things like sweep their houses, heating some tea, or

making their beds.18

14 Magnuson. Pg 12.15 Magnuson. Pg 12.16 Magnuson. Pg 21.17 Magnuson. Pg 22.18 Magnuson. Pg 33-34.

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It is because of this that the evangelical movement in the cities had such high views on the

worth of the poor. Magnuson puts it so very eloquently when he writes,

“It embraced disadvantaged persons of all types, including blacks, Orientals, and “new”

immigrants – classes the Social Gospelers and leaders of the larger progressive movement

appear to have neglected. Opposing restrictive immigration laws, they received the “new”

immigrant as much as the “old.” In a day when the plight of blacks was worsening, the Salvation

Army and kindred organizations defended them and welcomed them into rescue institutions for

assistance and as fellow-workers. Finally, these groups opened their highest offices to women,

using them to preach and administer in numbers and with numbers far in advance of most of

their clerical and secular contemporaries. For them there did seem to be little distinction of

persons, whether male or female, slave or free, rich or poor.”19

This was all well before women’s rights and women’s suffrage in the 1910’s leading up to the nineteenth

amendment in 1920, but laid an important groundwork for it. This is well before the Civil Rights Act in

the 1960’s, when blacks, even though free, were still treated (or rather mistreated) “separate but

equal”. These evangelical movements embodied the highest ideals of social equality well before the

present times and well before the world was ready for it. And it wasn’t just evangelical social

organizations who shared these convictions, but many prominent evangelical personalities of the era as

well. A few such persons whose names are closely tied with the spread of the urban gospel are Charles

Haddon Spurgeon, a popular and gifted preacher; John Henry Jowett, a pastor with great compassion for

the slums; Adoniram Judson Gordon, pastor of an inner city church in Boston; and Albert B. Simpson,

leader of the Christian and Missionary Alliance and the Gospel Tabernacle church in New York City.

19 Magnuson. xvi

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Charles H. Spurgeon, though he remained in ministry in England all his life, greatly contributed

to shaping the ideals of the evangelical outreach into the slums through a news journal called “The

Christian Herald”. He would contribute sermons and financial support to the Herald through his large

inner city congregation in London as well as his own personal income.20 Mr. Spurgeon had an undying

heart for the impoverished in London, and especially for orphaned children. Russell Conwell writes in

his biography on C.H. Spurgeon that “His love for children was only exceeded by their love for him.”21 It

was in 1867 that a Boy’s Orphanage was erected and in 1879 that a Girl’s Orphanage was built.22 Being

from the Reformed Baptist tradition, he staunchly defended the church from encroaching Liberal and

pragmatic theologies. No one would question his identity as an Evangelical, and yet this same man was

dedicated to ministry in the inner city and to orphans nonetheless.

John H. Jowett is another such figure with great compassion for God’s people in the slums. For

years, Dr. Jowett had dreamed of opening up a great social Institute in the darkest part of inner city

Birmingham, England. On Thursday, January 16th, 1908, his dream became a reality; The Digbeth

Institute was opened to the public.23 It was one of the greatest social experiments to have been done

and was met with overwhelming success. “It was to meet at once the physical, mental, and spiritual

needs of a poverty stricken district.”24 What Jowett was doing was challenging the very system that

brought both prosperity and poverty to England. Morison writes,

“The price which mankind has paid for its civilization has too often to be measured in the broken

lives of thousands of their fellow men and women. The slums of Bowery, of Whitechapel, and of

20 Magnuson. Pg 26.21Conwell, Russel H. Life of Charles H. Spurgeon. Edgewood: Edgewood Publishing Co, 1892. Pg 406. 22 Conwell. Pg 413,41723 Morison. Pg 52.24 Morison. Pg 53.

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Digbeth, cry aloud in eloquent condemnation of the social system of which they are the direct

and inevitable consequence.”25

Mr. Jowett, though alone could not cure systemic poverty, at least did what he could to alleviate and

reverse some of its symptoms. What his Institution did was more than give the community access to a

top-notch facility for recreation (containing a billiard room with three full tables, a reading room, game

rooms for men and youth, a café, a large and well equipped gym, school rooms and meeting rooms, and

a wood chopping yard26), it provided a place for the community to get together for companionship and

fellowship. It gave them back their sense of dignity. It allowed them to feel human again. It is no

wonder then that J.H. Jowett received a call to become the Pastor at Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church

overseas in New York City where he led the church to an all time record high in attendance.

A.J. Gordon as well was a prominent urban Baptist preacher. The bulk of his ministry was spent

pasturing at Clarendon Street Baptist church in the heart of Boston, Massachusetts. He was a vital force

in 19th century social reform despite a jaded understanding of premillennialists of the day as being

“Cranks, misdirected fanatics, and colorful examples of human folly.”27 He, as one of the more

prominent evangelical voices of the time period, strongly held that it was a Christian’s duty to go into

social ministry.

This wasn’t the “social gospel” put forth by Rauschenbusch which put forth as its main emphasis

the redemption of permanent institutions of human society from their inherited guilt of oppression and

extortion.28 A.J. Gordon did not call for the repentance of collective sins but rather individual much like

his Calvinist contemporaries. Society was transformed in as much as the individual were converted.

25 Morison. Pg 54-5526 Morison. Pg 57.27 Gibson, Scott M. A.J. Gordon: American Premillenialist. Lanham: University Press of America, 2001. Pg 143.28 Dillenberger, John, and Claude Welch. Protestant Christianity: Interpreted Through It's Development. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1988. Pg248.

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Gordon bumped heads with liberal preachers on multiple occasions as he worked in the city of Boston.

On one such occasion, preaching from the pulpit of Clarendon Street Baptist, he said

Go into the liberal churches where they boast so loudly of their ethical preaching, and their high

morality, and their strict integrity; and ask them how many drunkards they picked up from the

gutter last year, changing them into sober men who can pray and sing praises to God. They

cannot show you one; I find they are condemned by this test. 29

And neither was he afraid of rebuking fellow evangelicals from retreating into the nicer parts of town

and ignoring the needs of the poor. He called them instead to take the gospel to them wherever they

might live as well as considering the accumulation of wealth as selfish and unchristian.30 This was indeed

a man who understood the needs of the city and who not only preached but lived to promote social

justice in Boston. He also, interestingly enough, opposed many forms of entertainment such as the

theater, novels, dancing, card playing, and gambling for the simple reason that it prevented people from

seeing the “human tragedy” and allowed them an opportunity to not face the reality of their own

situations and deepest needs.31

Gordon found himself involved in a wide range of urban ministries. He was involved with rescue

missions32and building homeless shelters33. He was also a huge proponent to the temperance

movement, a purity crusade to rid America of the corruptive influence of alcohol. Gordon himself saw

the work of alcohol in those he worked with on a daily basis and how it destroyed the lives of those

living in the city. His was a pragmatic stance, viewing as many others did at the time that alcohol was

the root cause of crime, poverty, and prostitution.34 He held with great conviction that “No man who is

29 Gibson. Pg 147.30 Gibson. Pg 148.31 Gibson. Pg 152.32 Gibson. pg 151.33 Gibson. pg 153.34 Gibson. pg 157.

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under the influence of the spirit of alcohol can be led by the Spirit of God” and disallowed church

leaders to partake in drinking.35 He was very much a part of the movement stirring in America leading to

prohibition in the 1920’s.

Moreover, Gordon promoted the role of women in the church. He strived for gender equality in

reform work and in the pulpit. He accepted women into ministry positions with open arms, believing

that since the end times and Christ’s second coming were nearing, they would need all the workers they

could get.36 The common misconception is that egalitarianism has only been recently developed after

the women’s suffrage movement and the social reforms of the 1960’s, but indeed it has a rich tradition

in the evangelical church and had its role to play in women’s rights in late 1910’s and early 1920’s.

Gordon, with his wife Maria at his side, took seriously the call for both men and women to enter into

social ministry in the city and to work with the oppressed in order to affect their salvation.37

Albert B. Simpson was yet another evangelical concerned for the good of the urban poor. He

was the New York City pastor of the “Gospel Tabernacle” in the late 19th century. This was a

congregation that was the mother of a large scale movement reaching into many cities around America

and into mission fields all around the world.38 This movement would eventually be known as the

Christian and Missionary alliance in 1897 which sent out more than three hundred missionaries

compared to twenty in 1890.39 They had more missionaries signing up than they could send.

Not only was the Gospel Tabernacle engaged worldwide, but they were also engaged locally in

the heart of New York City. “An aggressive program of social work paralleled this evangelistic and

spiritual activity of the Gospel Tabernacle and the Alliance during their early decades. The network of

35 Gibson. pg 159.36 Gibson. pg 161.37 Gibson. pg 162.38 Magnuson. Pg 14.39 Magnuson. Pg 16.

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departments and agencies included a rescue home for women (1882), a home for ‘rest and healing’

(1883), a training college for missionaries, evangelists, and rescue workers (1883), and orphanage

(1886), work with immigrants from Germany (1887), and several rescue missions” as well as “services in

jails, hospitals, on shipboard… and many other places.”40 Everything A.B. Simpson did through the

Gospel Tabernacle was for the saving of souls.

And to promote this work, he would hold annual conventions attracting the biggest names in

evangelicalism of the day as speakers: Andrew Murray, F.B. Meyer, A. J. Gordon, A. T. Pierson, R. A.

Torrey, D. L. Moody, J. Wilbur Chapman, S. H. Hadley, Frances Willard, and Robert E. Speer. 41 These

individual men not only cared for social justice within the urban centers of America individually, but kept

in close contact with each other as well. They would preach in each other’s churches and constantly

exchange ideas and share stories and be encouragements to each other in the hard mission field that

was the American slums. Social concern and self sacrifice lay at the heart of both conversion and

sanctification of urban communities and in turn the United States of America. As A. B. Simpson wrote,

“The law of Christ is the bearing of others’ burdens, the sharing of others’ griefs, sacrificing yourself for

another…[This is] the law of Christianity… [and] of the saint. It is the only way to be saved. From the

beginning it has always been so.”42 Salvation was the name of the game and social concern and

compassion was the means for evangelical men and women during this time.

And yet, despite the so many great achievements of Evangelicals towards the advancement of

social reform in the Gilded Age, the evangelical reputation today is seen as distant and closed off from

social issues plaguing our cities. This is due in large part to the increasing tensions between evangelical

and liberal theologies, culminating in Fundamentalist-Modernist controversy in the 1920’s. Magnuson

writes, “The bitterness of that controversy, together with the conscious withdrawal of twentieth-century

40 Magnuson. Pg 17.41 Magnuson. Pg 1842 Magnuson. Pg 39.

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religious conservatives from an emphasis on social welfare, have greatly obscured the larger Evangelical

contribution to human welfare.”43 This withdrawal from social concerns within the slums is what many

historians call “the Great Reversal”.

One of many factors leading up to the Great Reversal has been the large number of deviants

from orthodox Christianity due in large part to Liberal Theology, German Higher Criticism and Modernist

philosophy. Evangelicals everywhere were panicked by the exodus of faithful, having grown accustomed

to revivals and awakenings that propelled their efforts in social reform.44 They were so concerned

about preserving their faith that they sought to barricade themselves and hold to the “fundamentals” of

Christianity. Thus American Fundamentalism was born out of an inward turn of preserving what was

had from reaching out to seek and save the lost. However, in trying to preserve their faith, they gave up

their highest ideals of social reform and abandoned the urban missions that so marked the Gilded Age of

evangelicalism. Because social concern became more and more identified with Liberal Modernism

(because of the Social Gospel which emphasized social concern in a way that marginalized the message

of eternal salvation as simply a motivator among many to do good works45), any and all progressive

social concern became suspect among revivalist evangelicals.46 By the 1920’s, evangelical social

concerns had altogether disappeared.47

It has only been within the latter part of the twentieth century that evangelicals have started to

turn back to the faith that has been at its roots the entire time, although obscured. Evangelical

organizations such as the Christian Community Development Association (CCDA) and InterVarsity

(through their institutes such as the Fresno Institute for Urban Leadership which trains college students

to be well equipped for inner city ministry) have picked up the banner of social reform that was once

43 Magnuson. Pg xi.44Marsden, George M. Fundamentalism and American Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980. Pg 12. 45 Marsden. Pg 92.46 Marsden. Pg 86.47 Marsden. Pg 85.

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dropped by Fundamentalists in their retreat from the “secular” culture. They are leading the charge

back into the slums to reclaim God’s people who have long since been abandoned and forgotten.

Holiness/Pentecostal movements are exploding in urban areas all around the world, reaching out to the

poor, the lost, and the addicts just like their predecessors did a century ago. Curiously enough,

evangelicalism is returning to its roots naturally as God continues to pour out his spirit in the slums and

into the hearts of those who will go for him. Slowly but surely, God is turning the hearts of these New

Evangelicals back to where he needs them the most and is reversing the Great Reversal. Social reform

has and always will be at the core of Evangelical Christianity just as both loving God and loving your

neighbor will always at the center of the gospel. Going forward into the 21st century, we must be careful

not to repeat the same mistakes of the past and to never again neglect the work set out for us in the

slums. Our salvation depends upon it.

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BibliographyBremner, Robert. From the Depths: The Discovery of Poverty in the United States. New York: New York University Press, 1956.

Conwell, Russel H. Life of Charles H. Spurgeon. Edgewood: Edgewood Publishing Co, 1892.

Cowan, Ruth Schwartz. A Social History of American Technology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Dillenberger, John, and Claude Welch. Protestant Christianity: Interpreted Through It's Development. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1988.

Dugger, Celia W. "Half the world's population will live in cities next year, UN report says." New York Times. June 27, 2007. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/27/world/asia/27iht-27city.6363039.html (accessed April 29, 2011).

Gibson, Scott M. A.J. Gordon: American Premillenialist. Lanham: University Press of America, 2001.

Gonzales, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: Volume Two - The Reformation to the Present Day. Vol. II. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2010.

Magnuson, Norris. Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865-1920. Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, 1977.

Marsden, George M. Fundamentalism and American Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980.

Morison, Frank. J.H. Jowett: A Character Study. Boston: The Pilgrim Press, 1911.