THE FOURTH AMENDMENT ASPECTS OF COMPUTER SEARCHES … PRIMER.pdf · whose existence could be proved only by piecing together many bits of evidence. Like a jigsaw puzzle, the whole

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THE FOURTH AMENDMENT ASPECTS OF COMPUTER SEARCHES AND SEIZURES: A PERSPECTIVE AND A

PRIMER

Thomas K. Clancy* I. Introduction......................................................................195 II. The Nature of Computer Searches: Searches for Data ................................................................................196 A. Document Searches ..................................................196 B. Views Whether Computer Data are Documents .....197 1. Data Are Forms of Records/Container Analogy .................................................................197 2. Rejection of the Document Search and Container Analogy: A ASpecial Approach@ ...........202 3. Discussion of the Premises of the ASpecial Approach@..............................................................205 a. Should File Names or Types Limit the Scope of a Search?......................................................206 b. Do Technological Search Programs Make the File Cabinet Analogy Inadequate? .................210 c. Does the Nature or Amount of Material Make

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P r o f e s s o r , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s i s s i p p i S c h o o l o f L a w . I t h a n k D o n M a s o n a n d M a r c H a r r o l d f o r t h e i r c o m m e n t s o n a n e a r l i e r d r a f t o f t h i s a r t i c l e . T h e N a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r J u s t i c e a n d t h e R u l e o f L a w i s s u p p o r t e d b y G r a n t N o . 2 0 0 0 - D D - V X - 0 0 3 2 a w a r d e d b y t h e B u r e a u o f J u s t i c e A s s i s t a n c e . T h e B u r e a u o f J u s t i c e A s s i s t a n c e i s a c o m -p o n e n t o f t h e O f f i c e o f J u s t i c e P r o g r a m s , w h i c h i n c l u d e s t h e B u r e a u o f J u s t i c e S t a t i s t i c s , t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f J u s t i c e , t h e O f f i c e o f J u v e n i l e J u s t i c e a n d D e l i n q u e n c y P r e v e n t i o n , a n d t h e O f f i c e o f V i c t i m s o f C r i m e . P o i n t s o f v i e w o r o p i n i o n s i n t h i s a r t i c l e a r e t h o s e o f t h e a u t h o r a n d d o n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f J u s t i c e .

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1 9 4 M I S S I S S I P P I L A W J O U R N A L [ V o l . 7 5

Computers Different From Other Containers?......................................................216 d. Limitations Based on Search Execution Procedures in Warrants ..................................218 III. Selected Fourth Amendment Applicability Issues .........220 A. Expectation of Privacy Analysis ...............................220 1. In General.............................................................220 2. The Location of the ComputerCIn General .......221 3. Data on Work ComputersCGovernmental Employer..............................................................222 4. Data on Work ComputersCPrivate Employer ...224 5. Information Obtained from Third Parties .........225 6. Joint Users; Password Protected Files ..............227 B. Private Searches and Seizures .......................................228 1. In General...........................................................228 2. Government Agents............................................228 3. Replication and AContext@ Issues .......................233 IV. Selected Satisfaction Issues .........................................244 A. Probable Cause ........................................................244 B. Consent ....................................................................253 1. In General...........................................................253 2. Scope of Consent.................................................254 3. Third Party Consent...........................................256 C. Particularity Claims ................................................258 1. In General...........................................................258 2. Varieties of Computer Searches.........................259 a. Searches for Computer Equipment..............260 b. Searches for Data .........................................261 D. Plain View.................................................................262 E. Execution Issues .......................................................264 1. On-site/Off-site Searches; Intermingled Documents ...........................................................264 2. Use of Experts .....................................................269 3. Deleted Files........................................................269 V. Conclusion .......................................................................271

FILE:C:\WP51\75-1\CLANCY Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:57PM 2005] COMPUTER SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 195

I. INTRODUCTION

This article is called a Aprimer@ because it outlines the application of Fourth Amendment principles to the search and seizure of computers and the digital information that is stored in them. It does not purport to address every Fourth Amend-ment issue that may arise in the computer context because, for many issues, the mere fact that a computer is involved does not change the analysis. Instead, it focuses on situations that are influenced by the fact that the object to be searched and seized is a computer or the data stored on it. Like a traditional primer, this article reports how courts have addressed Fourth Amendment applicability and satisfaction issues in the computer context.

F I L E : C : \ W P 5 1 \ 7 5 - 1 \ C L A N C Y D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 : 5 7 P M 1 9 6 M I S S I S S I P P I L A W J O U R N A L [ V o l . 7 5

A primer is generally thought of as not espousing a point of view. This article, however, departs from that role in two important respects. First, in discussing the nature of computer and digital evidence searches and seizures, it rejects the view that those intrusions require a Aspecial approach,@ that is, that unique Fourth Amendment rules are needed to regulate them; instead, this article adopts the view that computers are con-tainers and the data they contain are mere forms of docu-ments. This is to say that the principles applicable to docu-ment searches have equal application to electronic data searches. Second, it rejects expansion of the private search doctrine, used by some courts, which permits government agents to open data files that had not been opened during a preceding private party search and still not be a search within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment based on the theory that the Acontext@ in which the file was found negated any reasonable expectation of privacy. Underlying both of these points of view is the perspective that a computer is a container of containers of documents, that is, each individual file is a separate containerBjust like each manila file in a filing cabinet is a containerBthat requires a separate opening to determine what is inside. This is to say that the mere fact that an item to be searched or seized is electronic evidence does not funda-mentally change the Fourth Amendment analytical structure that governs.

II. THE NATURE OF COMPUTER SEARCHES: SEARCHES FOR DATA

There are two principal approaches to searches involving electronic data stored on computers. One view asserts that a computer is a form of a container and that the data in elec-tronic storage are mere forms of documents. A second view maintains that searches for data require a Aspecial approach,@ requiring unique procedures and detailed justifications. This article concludes that the first view is correct: computers are containers. As with all containers, they have the ability to hold


physical evidence, including such items as wires, microchips, and hard drives. They also contain electronic evidence, that is, a series of digitally stored 0s and 1s that, when combined with a computer program, yield such items as images, words, and spreadsheets. Accordingly, the traditional standards of the Fourth Amendment regulate obtaining the evidence in containers that happen to be computers.

A. Document Searches In Andresen v. Maryland,1 the Supreme Court outlined the broad parameters of a permissible records search. In up-holding the search of an office for documents that sought evi-dence of the crime of false pretenses by an attorney involved in real estate settlement activity, the Court asserted:

U n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s a c o m p l e x r e a l e s t a t e s c h e m e w h o s e e x i s t e n c e c o u l d b e p r o v e d o n l y b y p i e c i n g t o g e t h e r m a n y b i t s o f e v i d e n c e . L i k e a j i g s a w p u z z l e , t h e w h o l e Ap i c t u r e @ o f p e t i t i o n e r ' s f a l s e - p r e t e n s e s c h e m e . . . c o u l d b e s h o w n o n l y b y p l a c i n g i n t h e p r o p e r p l a c e t h e m a n y p i e c e s o f e v i d e n c e t h a t , t a k e n s i n g l y , w o u l d s h o w c o m p a r a t i v e l y l i t t l e . T h e c o m p l e x i t y o f a n i l l e g a l s c h e m e m a y n o t b e u s e d a s a s h i e l d t o a v o i d d e t e c t i o n w h e n t h e S t a t e h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t a c r i m e h a s b e e n c o m m i t t e d a n d p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t e v i d e n c e o f t h i s c r i m e i s i n t h e s u s p e c t ' s p o s s e s s i o n .

Although authorizing a broad document search, the Court ob-served:

W e r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e r e a r e g r a v e d a n g e r s i n h e r e n t i n e x e c u t i n g a w a r r a n t a u t h o r i z i n g a s e a r c h a n d s e i z u r e o f a p e r s o n ' s p a p e r s t h a t a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p r e s e n t i n e x e c u t i n g a w a r r a n t t o s e a r c h f o r p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s w h o s e r e l e v a n c e i s m o r e e a s i l y a s c e r t a i n a b l e . I n s e a r c h e s f o r

1 4 2 7 U . S . 4 6 3 , 4 7 9 - 8 0 ( 1 9 7 6 ) . 2 I d . a t 4 8 0 n . 1 0 .


p a p e r s , i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t s o m e i n n o c u o u s d o c u m e n t s w i l l b e e x a m i n e d , a t l e a s t c u r s o r i l y , i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e y a r e , i n f a c t , a m o n g t h o s e p a p e r s a u t h o r i z e d t o b e s e i z e d . S i m i l a r d a n g e r s , o f c o u r s e , a r e p r e s e n t i n e x e c u t i n g a w a r r a n t f o r t h e As e i z u r e @ o f t e l e p h o n e c o n v e r s a t i o n s . I n b o t h k i n d s o f s e a r c h e s , r e s p o n s i b l e o f f i c i a l s , i n c l u d i n g j u d i c i a l o f f i c i a l s , m u s t t a k e c a r e t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e y a r e c o n d u c t e d i n a m a n n e r t h a t m i n i m i z e s u n w a r r a n t e d i n t r u -s i o n s u p o n p r i v a c y . 3

Several of the themes articulated by Andresen have been applied by lower courts to searches of computers for data. Those considerations include the complexity of the crime, whether innocuous files can be examined, and minimization procedures to reduce the intrusion upon the individual's protected inter-ests. Antecedent to those themes, however, is the debate whether Andresen's framework for document searches is applicable to computer searches.

3 I d . a t 4 8 2 n . 1 1 .


B. Views Whether Computer Data Are Documents

1. Data are Forms of Records/Container Analogy

Many courts view data in computer storage as a form of a document. Hence, a warrant that authorizes a search for Awrit-ings@ or Arecords@ permits a search of computer files.4 This is to say that the government need not know the exact Aform that records may take.@5 Indeed, this view asserts that there is Ano principled distinction between records kept electronically and those in paper form@6 and, hence, there is Ano justification for favoring those who are capable of storing their records on com-puter over those who keep hard copies of their records.@7 In both instances, consistent with Andresen, Ainnocuous documents may be scanned to ascertain their relevancy@8 in Arecognition of `the reality that few people keep documents of their criminal transactions in a folder marked `[crime] records.'@9

4 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H u n t e r , 1 3 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 7 4 , 5 8 1 ( D . V t . 1 9 9 8 ) ( w a r -r a n t a u t h o r i z i n g s e a r c h f o r Ar e c o r d s @ p e r m i t t e d s e a r c h o f Ac o m p u t e r s , d i s k s , a n d s i m i l a r p r o p e r t y @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M u s s o n , 6 5 0 F . S u p p . 5 2 5 , 5 3 1 ( D . C o l o . 1 9 8 6 ) ( s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r d i s k e t t e s a p p r o v e d u n d e r a w a r r a n t a u t h o r i z i n g t h e s e i z u r e o f Aa n y r e c o r d s o r w r i t i n g s o f w h a t s o e v e r n a t u r e s h o w i n g a n y b u s i n e s s o r f i n a n c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s @) ; F r a s i e r v . S t a t e , 7 9 4 N . E . 2 d 4 4 9 , 4 5 4 , 4 6 0 ( I n d . C t . A p p . 2 0 0 3 ) ( w a r r a n t t h a t a u t h o r i z e d s e a r c h o f An o t e s a n d o r r e c o r d s @ o f m a r i j u a n a s a l e s p e r m i t t e d p o l i c e t o e x a m i n e c o m p u t e r f i l e s ) ; P e o p l e v . G a l l , 3 0 P . 3 d 1 4 5 , 1 5 3 ( C o l o . 2 0 0 1 ) ( w h e n w a r r a n t a u t h o r i z e d s e i z u r e o f Aw r i t t e n a n d p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l @ i n d i c a t i n g a n i n t e n t t o d o p h y s i c a l h a r m t o a p e r s o n o r b u i l d i n g p u r s u a n t t o a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a c o n s p i r a c y t o m u r d e r a n d u s e e x p l o s i v e s a g a i n s t a f a c i l i t y , s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r s p e r m i s s i b l e b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e Ar e a s o n a b l y l i k e l y t o s e r v e a s ` c o n t a i n e r s ' f o r w r i t i n g s , o r t h e f u n c t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t o f ` w r i t t e n o r p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l ' @) ; P e o p l e v . L o o r i e , 6 3 0 N . Y . S . 2 d 4 8 3 , 4 8 6 ( C o u n t y C t . 1 9 9 5 ) ( w a r r a n t a u t h o r i z i n g s e a r c h f o r Ar e c o r d s @ p e r m i t t e d s e a r c h o f c o m p u t e r f i l e s ) ; c f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . T r i u m p h C a p i t a l G r o u p , I n c . , 2 1 1 F . R . D . 3 1 ( D . C o n n . 2 0 0 2 ) ( w a r r a n t a u t h o r i z i n g s e a r c h f o r Af i l e r e c o r d s @


Courts adopting this view have often analogized computers to filing cabinets or to containers:

[ T h e p o l i c e ] m a y s e a r c h t h e l o c a t i o n a u t h o r i z e d b y t h e w a r -r a n t , i n c l u d i n g a n y c o n t a i n e r s a t t h a t l o c a t i o n t h a t a r e r e a -s o n a b l y l i k e l y t o c o n t a i n i t e m s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e w a r r a n t . . . . T h i s c o n t a i n e r r a t i o n a l e i s e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o n o n t r a d i t i o n -a l , t e c h n o l o g i c a l Ac o n t a i n e r s @ t h a t a r e r e a s o n a b l y l i k e l y t o h o l d i n f o r m a t i o n i n l e s s t a n g i b l e f o r m s . S i m i l a r l y a w a r r a n t c a n n o t b e e x p e c t e d t o a n t i c i p a t e e v e r y f o r m a n i t e m o r r e -p o s i t o r y o f i n f o r m a t i o n m a y t a k e , a n d t h e r e f o r e c o u r t s h a v e a f f i r m e d t h e s e i z u r e o f t h i n g s t h a t a r e s i m i l a r t o , o r t h e Af u n c t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t @ o f , i t e m s e n u m e r a t e d i n a w a r r a n t , a s w e l l a s c o n t a i n e r s i n w h i c h t h e y a r e r e a s o n a b l y l i k e l y t o b e f o u n d . 1 0

Following this view, computers have been said to be Areason-ably likely to serve as `containers' for writings, or the functional

i n c l u d e d t e x t , r e m n a n t s , a n d f r a g m e n t s o f d e l e t e d f i l e s ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H a r d i n g , 2 7 3 F . S u p p . 2 d 4 1 1 , 4 2 5 ( S . D . N . Y . 2 0 0 3 ) ( b e c a u s e p h o t o g r a p h s m a y b e t a k e n b y d i g i t a l o r f i l m c a m e r a s a n d c a n b e s c a n n e d i f i n i t i a l l y c a p t u r e d b y f i l m , a w a r r a n t a u t h o r i z i n g t h e p o l i c e t o s e a r c h f o r Ap h o t o g r a p h s @ a l l o w e d a g e n t s t o o p e n a n d i n s p e c t g r a p h i c a l i m a g e f i l e s o n a z i p d i s k ) . 5 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G a w r y s i a k , 9 7 2 F . S u p p . 8 5 3 , 8 6 1 ( D . N . J . 1 9 9 7 ) ( a p p r o v i n g o f w a r r a n t t o s e a r c h b u s i n e s s o f f i c e f o r e v i d e n c e o f f r a u d ) , a f f ' d , 1 7 8 F . 3 d 1 2 8 1 ( 3 d C i r . 1 9 9 9 ) ; a c c o r d U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H e n s o n , 8 4 8 F . 2 d 1 3 7 4 , 1 3 8 3 ( 6 t h C i r . 1 9 8 8 ) . 6 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L i e v e r t z , 2 4 7 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 0 5 2 , 1 0 6 3 ( S . D . I n d . 2 0 0 2 ) . 7 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H u n t e r , 1 3 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 7 4 , 5 8 4 ( D . V t . 1 9 9 8 ) . 8 I d . a t 5 8 2 ; a c c o r d U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G r a y , 7 8 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 2 4 , 5 2 8 ( E . D . V a . 1 9 9 9 ) . 9 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H u n t e r , 1 3 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 7 4 , 5 8 2 ( D . V t . 1 9 9 8 ) ( q u o t i n g U n i t e d S t a t e s v . R i l e y , 9 0 6 F . 2 d 8 4 1 , 8 4 5 ( 2 d C i r . 1 9 9 0 ) ) ; a c c o r d U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M a a l i M . , 3 4 6 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 2 2 6 , 1 2 6 5 ( M . D . F l a . 2 0 0 4 ) . 1 0 P e o p l e v . G a l l , 3 0 P . 3 d 1 4 5 , 1 5 3 ( C o l o . 2 0 0 1 ) ( c i t a t i o n s o m i t t e d ) ; s e e a l s o U n i t e d S t a t e s v . A l - M a r r i , 2 3 0 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 3 5 , 5 4 1 ( S . D . N . Y . 2 0 0 2 ) ( a c o m p u t e r i s a f o r m o f a c o n t a i n e r ) ; P e o p l e v . L o o r i e , 6 3 0 N . Y . S . 2 d 4 8 3 , 4 8 6 ( C o u n -t y C t . 1 9 9 5 ) ( s a m e ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . B a r t h , 2 6 F . S u p p . 2 d 9 2 9 , 9 3 6 ( W . D . T e x . 1 9 9 8 ) ( s a m e ) .


equivalent of `written or printed material.'@11 This is despite the recognition that computer file searches present Aa heightened degree@ of intermingling of relevant and irrelevant material: A[t]oday computers and computer disks store most of the records and data belonging to businesses and attorneys.@12 Accepting this view does not mean that wholesale searches of data on computers are permitted.13 Instead, the courts look to traditional means to limit the scope of document searches, such as the nature of the criminal activity alleged14 or the nature of

1 1 P e o p l e v . G a l l , 3 0 P . 3 d 1 4 5 , 1 5 3 ( C o l o . 2 0 0 1 ) . 1 2 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H u n t e r , 1 3 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 7 4 , 5 8 1 , 5 8 3 ( D . V t . 1 9 9 8 ) . 1 3 T h e Ac o n t a i n e r , @ h o w e v e r , m u s t b e p r o p e r l y d e f i n e d . S e e i n f r a n o t e s 1 3 9 - 8 2 a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g t e x t . 1 4 S e e G u e s t v . L e i s , 2 5 5 F . 3 d 3 2 5 , 3 3 6 ( 6 t h C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) ( w a r r a n t s s e e k i n g s u b s c r i b e r i n f o r m a t i o n i n o b s c e n i t y i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e q u i r i n g t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d c o m p u t e r r e c o r d s p e r t a i n t o t h e l i s t e d o f f e n s e s w e r e a s p a r -t i c u l a r a s c i r c u m s t a n c e s p e r m i t t e d ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . K o w , 5 8 F . 3 d 4 2 3 , 4 2 7 ( 9 t h C i r . 1 9 9 5 ) ( o n e w a y t o m a k e w a r r a n t p a r t i c u l a r i s t o s p e c i f y s u s p e c t e d c r i m i n a l c o n d u c t b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d b u t w a r r a n t i n v a l i d w h e n i t a u t h o r i z e d At h e s e i z u r e o f v i r t u a l l y e v e r y d o c u m e n t a n d c o m p u t e r f i l e @ w i t h o u t i n d i c a t i n g h o w i t e m s r e l a t e d t o s u s p e c t e d c r i m e ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G e o r g e , 9 7 5 F . 2 d 7 2 , 7 6 ( 2 d C i r . 1 9 9 2 ) ( AM e r e r e f e r e n c e t o ` e v i d e n c e ' o f a v i o l a t i o n o f a b r o a d c r i m i n a l s t a t u t e o r g e n e r a l c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y p r o v i d e s n o r e a d i l y a s c e r t a i n a b l e g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e e x e c u t i n g o f f i c e r s a s t o w h a t i t e m s t o s e i z e . @) ; L a f a y e t t e A c a d e m y , I n c . v . U n i t e d S t a t e s , 6 1 0 F . 2 d 1 , 5 - 6 ( 5 t h C i r . 1 9 7 9 ) ( w a r r a n t t h a t r e s u l t e d i n r e m o v a l o f f o u r o r f i v e t r u c k l o a d s o f d o c u -m e n t s a n d c o m p u t e r - r e l a t e d m a t e r i a l s v i o l a t e d t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t w h e n , i n t e r a l i a , i t d i d n o t s p e c i f y t y p e o f f r a u d u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H u n t e r , 1 3 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 7 4 , 5 8 2 - 8 3 ( D . V t . 1 9 9 8 ) ( d i s c u s s i n g l i m i t a t i o n s o n s c o p e o f s e a r c h i n v o l v i n g m o n e y l a u n d e r i n g s c h e m e ) ; I n r e S e a r c h W a r r a n t f o r K - S p o r t s I m p o r t s , I n c . , 1 6 3 F . R . D . 5 9 4 , 5 9 7 - 9 8 ( C . D . C a l . 1 9 9 5 ) ( w a r r a n t f o r Aa l l c o m p u t e r r e c o r d s a n d d a t a , @ w i t h o u t l i m i t i n g t o c r i m e u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , v i o l a t e d p a r t i c u l a r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t ) ; S t a t e v . A s k h a m , 8 6 P . 3 d 1 2 2 4 , 1 2 2 7 ( W a s h . A p p . 2 0 0 4 ) ( w a r r a n t s u f f i c i e n t l y p a r t i c u l a r w h e n i t n a m e s c r i m e u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n o r w h e n i t d e s c r i b e s i n As o m e d e t a i l @ s u s p e c t e d c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y ; h e n c e , w h e n a c c u s e d s u s p e c t e d o f u s i n g c o m p u t e r t o m a k e t h r e a t s a n d f a l s e a c c u s a t i o n s a n d w a r r a n t d e t a i l s t h e t y p e o f t e x t f i l e s a n d w e b s i t e s t o b e s e a r c h e d t h a t c o u l d h a v e b e e n u s e d t o c o n d u c t t h a t a c t i v i t y , i t w a s s u f f i c i e n t ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L o n g o , 7 0 F . S u p p . 2 d 2 2 5 , 2 5 1 ( W . D . N . Y .


the objects sought.15 For example, searches of computers for evidence of child pornography and other sexual exploitation of children make up a shockingly large percentage of the decided cases; in response to particularity challenges in these cases, courts focus on the sufficiency of the allegations of criminal con-duct16 or the description of the objects17 sought. 1 9 9 9 ) ( w a r r a n t t h a t a u t h o r i z e d s e a r c h o f h a r d d r i v e a n d a n y d a t a d i s k s f o r At w o d o c u m e n t s , o n e a p r o m i s s o r y n o t e , e n t i t l e d T G L - 0 0 3 , c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e d i r e c t o r y l a b e l e d M I S C , a n d a p u r c h a s e a g r e e m e n t e n t i t l e d 9 1 1 , c o n t a i n e d i n t h e d i r e c t o r y e n t i t l e d I M F @ s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d a r e a t o b e s e a r c h e d ) ; S t a t e v . N u c k o l l s , 6 1 7 S o . 2 d 7 2 4 , 7 2 6 ( F l a . A p p . 1 9 9 3 ) ( w a r r a n t s e e k i n g r e c o r d s o f u s e d c a r b u s i n e s s c h a r g e d w i t h f o r g e r y , o d o m e t e r t a m p e r i n g , a n d o t h e r c r i m i n a l v i o l a t i o n s s u f f i c i e n t w h e n i t a u t h o r i z e d s e i z u r e o f A[ d ] a t a s t o r e d o n c o m p u t e r , i n c l u d i n g , b u t n o t l i m i t e d t o , m a g n e t i c m e d i a o r a n y o t h e r e l e c t r o n i c f o r m , h a r d d i s k s , c a s s e t t e s , d i s k e t t e s , p h o t o o p t i c a l d e v i c e s a n d f i l e s e r v e r m a g n e t i c b a c k u p t a p e s @ b e c a u s e i t l e f t n o t h i n g t o d i s c r e t i o n o f o f f i c e r s e x e c u t i n g w a r r a n t ) . 1 5 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . T h o r n , 3 7 5 F . 3 d 6 7 9 , 6 8 4 - 8 5 ( 8 t h C i r . 2 0 0 4 ) ( w a r r a n t t h a t a u t h o r i z e d s e a r c h a n d s e i z u r e o f e l e c t r o n i c s t o r a g e m e d i a c o n t a i n i n g i m a g e s o f m i n o r s e n g a g e d i n s e x u a l a c t s a l l o w e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f c o n t e n t s o f v a r i o u s c o m p u t e r - r e l a t e d m e d i a ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . W o n g , 3 3 4 F . 3 d 8 3 1 , 8 3 7 - 3 8 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 3 ) ( w a r r a n t a u t h o r i z i n g s e a r c h o f c o m p u t e r t o Ao b t a i n d a t a a s i t r e l a t e s t o t h i s c a s e @ s u f f i c i e n t l y p a r t i c u l a r w h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h w a r r a n t ' s l i s t o f i t e m s s o u g h t i n h o u s e ) ; S t a t e v . O n e P i o n e e r C D - R O M C h a n g e r , 8 9 1 P . 2 d 6 0 0 , 6 0 4 ( O k l a . C t . A p p . 1 9 9 5 ) ( s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r s y s t e m p e r m i s s i b l e u n d e r w a r r a n t a u t h o r i z i n g s e i z u r e o f Ae q u i p m e n t . . . p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o r d i s p l a y o f p o r n o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l i n v i o l a t i o n o f s t a t e o b s c e n i t y l a w s @) ; S c h a l k v . S t a t e , 8 2 3 S . W . 2 d 6 3 3 , 6 4 4 ( T e x . C r i m . 1 9 9 1 ) ( i n t h e f t o f t r a d e s e c r e t s p r o s e c u t i o n , Am a g n e t i c t a p e s @ t h a t c o n t a i n e d o r w e r e r e a s o n a b l y b e l i e v e d t o c o n t a i n s t o l e n d a t a a n d / o r f i l e s s u f f i c i e n t l y d e s c r i b e d i t e m s t o b e s e i z e d ) . 1 6 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M e e k , 3 6 6 F . 3 d 7 0 5 , 7 1 4 - 1 5 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 4 ) ( w a r r a n t s u f f i c i e n t t o s e a r c h f o r c r i m e i n v o l v i n g u s e o f I n t e r n e t w h e n i t l i s t e d n u m e r o u s i t e m s r e l a t i n g t o s e d u c t i o n a n d s e x u a l e x p l o i t a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n : s e x u a l l y e x p l i c i t m a t e r i a l o r p a r a p h e r n a l i a u s e d t o l o w e r i n h i b i t i o n o f c h i l d r e n , s e x t o y s , p h o t o g r a p h y e q u i p m e n t , c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y , a s w e l l a s m a t e r i a l r e l a t e d t o p a s t m o l e s t a t i o n s u c h a s p h o t o g r a p h s , a d d r e s s l e d g e r s i n c l u d i n g n a m e s o f o t h e r p e d o p h i l e s , j o u r n a l s o f s e x u a l e n c o u n t e r s w i t h c h i l d r e n , c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t , i n -f o r m a t i o n o n d i g i t a l a n d m a g n e t i c s t o r a g e d e v i c e s , c o m p u t e r p r i n t o u t s , c o m p u t e r s o f t w a r e a n d m a n u a l s , a n d d o c u m e n t a t i o n r e g a r d i n g c o m p u t e r u s e ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H a y , 2 3 1 F . 3 d 6 3 0 , 6 3 7 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 0 ) ( u p h o l d i n g v a l i d i t y o f s e a r c h o f c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t a n d f i l e s b e c a u s e w a r r a n t l i m i t e d s e a r c h t o e v i d e n c e o f c r i m e s i n v o l v i n g


s e x u a l e x p l o i t a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G l e i c h , 2 9 3 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 0 8 2 , 1 0 8 8 ( D . N . D . 2 0 0 3 ) ( w a r r a n t a u t h o r i z i n g s e a r c h o f c o m p u t e r f o r p h o t o g r a p h s , p i c t u r e s , v i s u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , o r v i d e o s t h a t i n c l u d e d s e x u a l c o n d u c t b y m i n o r , a s d e f i n e d b y N o r t h D a k o t a s t a t u t e , m e t p a r t i c u l a r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t ) , a f f ' d , 3 9 7 F . 3 d 6 0 8 ( 8 t h C i r . 2 0 0 5 ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H a l l , 1 4 2 F . 3 d 9 8 8 , 9 9 6 - 9 7 ( 7 t h C i r . 1 9 9 8 ) ( w h e n i t e m s l i s t e d i n w a r r a n t q u a l i f i e d b y p h r a s e s t h a t i t e m s s o u g h t w e r e r e l a t e d t o c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y , p a r t i c u l a r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s a t i s f i e d ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C l o u g h , 2 4 6 F . S u p p . 2 d 8 4 , 8 7 - 8 8 ( D . M e . 2 0 0 3 ) ( w a r r a n t i n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c a s e a u -t h o r i z i n g s e a r c h o f At e x t d o c u m e n t s @ a n d Ad i g i t a l i m a g e s @ v i o l a t e d p a r t i c u l a r i t y r e -q u i r e m e n t w h e n t h e r e w e r e An o r e s t r i c t i o n s o n t h e s e a r c h , n o r e f e r e n c e s t o s t a t -u t e s , a n d n o r e f e r e n c e s t o c r i m e s o r i l l e g a l i t y @) ; S t a t e v . W i b l e , 5 1 P . 3 d 8 3 0 , 8 3 7 ( W a s h A p p . 2 0 0 2 ) ( w a r r a n t p a r t i c u l a r w h e n i t l i m i t e d s e a r c h t o i m a g e s o f c h i l d r e n e n g a g e d i n s e x u a l l y e x p l i c i t a c t i v i t y a s d e f i n e d b y c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y s t a t u t e ) ; c f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M a x w e l l , 4 5 M . J . 4 0 6 , 4 2 0 ( C . A . A . F . 1 9 9 6 ) ( r e j e c t i n g c h a l l e n g e t o w a r r a n t t h a t i n c l u d e d p e r s o n s w h o c o u l d h a v e u n k n o w i n g l y r e c e i v e d c h i l d p o r n o g -r a p h y i n t h e i r e m a i l m a i l b o x e s b e c a u s e t o n a r r o w t h e f i e l d t o o n l y t h o s e w h o h a d k n o w i n g l y r e c e i v e d i m a g e s w o u l d h a v e r e q u i r e d a d v a n c e s e a r c h o f m a i l b o x e s t o a s c e r t a i n i f f i l e s h a d b e e n o p e n e d ) . 1 7 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G l e i c h , 3 9 7 F . 3 d 6 0 8 , 6 1 2 ( 8 t h C i r . 2 0 0 5 ) ( w a r r a n t a u t h o r i z i n g s e a r c h o f h o m e a n d p e r s o n a l c o m p u t e r f o r Ap h o t o g r a p h s , p i c -t u r e s , v i s u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o r v i d e o s i n a n y f o r m t h a t i n c l u d e s e x u a l c o n d u c t b y a m i n o r @ p e r m i t t e d s e a r c h o f a l l t h r e e c o m p u t e r s i n h o u s e ) ; T h o r n , 3 7 5 F . 3 d a t 6 8 5 ( w a r r a n t t h a t a u t h o r i z e d s e a r c h a n d s e i z u r e o f e l e c t r o n i c s t o r a g e m e d i a c o n t a i n i n g i m a g e s o f m i n o r s e n g a g e d i n s e x u a l a c t s s u f f i c e d t o p r o v i d e a u t h o r i t y t o e x a m i n e c o n t e n t s o f v a r i o u s c o m p u t e r - r e l a t e d m e d i a ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C a m p o s , 2 2 1 F . 3 d 1 1 4 3 , 1 1 4 7 - 4 8 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 2 0 0 0 ) ( w a r r a n t p a r t i c u l a r w h e n i t a u t h o r i z e d , i n t e r a l i a , s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t t h a t m a y b e u s e d t o d e p i c t o r d i s t r i b u t e c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . U p h a m , 1 6 8 F . 3 d 5 3 2 , 5 3 5 ( 1 s t C i r . 1 9 9 9 ) , c e r t . d e n i e d , 5 2 7 U . S . 1 0 1 1 ( 1 9 9 9 ) ( u p h o l d i n g w a r r a n t i s s u e d f o r A[ a ] n y a n d a l l c o m p u t e r s o f t w a r e a n d h a r d w a r e , . . . c o m p u t e r d i s k s , d i s k d r i v e s @ i n h o u s e o f w o m a n s u s -p e c t e d o f s e n d i n g a n d r e c e i v i n g c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y o v e r I n t e r n e t ) ; D a v i s v . G r a c e y , 1 1 1 F . 3 d 1 4 7 2 , 1 4 7 9 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 1 9 9 7 ) ( Ae q u i p m e n t . . . p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e d i s t r i -b u t i o n o r d i s p l a y o f p o r n o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l @ w a s s u f f i c i e n t l y p r e c i s e t o l i m i t s e a r c h t o c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h a t c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . A l b e r t , 1 9 5 F . S u p p . 2 d 2 6 7 , 2 7 5 - 7 6 ( D . M a s s . 2 0 0 2 ) ( w a r r a n t p a r t i c u l a r w h e n i t a u t h o r i z e d s e a r c h a n d s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r , d i s k s , s o f t w a r e , a n d s t o r a g e d e v i c e s w h e n t h e r e w a s p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e c o m p u t e r c o n t a i n e d m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 0 i m a g e s o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y , g i v e n t h a t t h e As e a r c h a n d s e i z u r e o f t h e c o m p u t e r a n d i t s r e l a t e d s t o r a g e e q u i p m e n t w a s t h e o n l y p r a c t i c a l w a y t o o b t a i n t h e


2. Rejection of the Document Search and Container Analogy: A

ASpecial Approach@ Some authorities reject the container analogy and view searches for data on a computer much differently than paper document searches.18 The leading case, United States v. Carey,19 espouses the view that law enforcement officers must take a Aspecial approach@20 to the search of data contained on computers and that the Afile cabinet analogy may be inade-quate.@21 This position is premised on the fact that Aelectronic storage is likely to contain a greater quantity and variety of information than any previous storage method.@22 As one judge has argued:

i m a g e s @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . A l l e n , 5 3 M . J . 4 0 2 , 4 0 7 - 0 8 ( C . A . A . F . 2 0 0 0 ) ( w a r r a n t p a r t i c u l a r w h e n i t a u t h o r i z e d s e a r c h f o r c o m p u t e r f i l e s r e l a t i n g t o n u d e p h o t o g r a p h s o f j u v e n i l e s , I n t e r n e t l o c a t i o n s o f s u c h m a t e r i a l , o r l i s t s o f s u c h f i l e s ) ; S t a t e v . W i b l e , 5 1 P . 3 d 8 3 0 , 8 3 6 - 3 7 ( W a s h . A p p . 2 0 0 2 ) ( w a r r a n t f o r c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y s a t i s f i e s p a r t i c u l a r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t i f i t l i m i t s s e i z a b l e i t e m s b y s p e c i f y i n g t y p e o f m a t e r i a l t h a t q u a l i f i e s a s c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y ) ; S t a t e v . M a x w e l l , 8 2 5 A . 2 d 1 2 2 4 , 1 2 3 4 ( N . J . S u p e r . 2 0 0 1 ) ( i n c a s e i n v o l v i n g u s e o f t e l e p h o n e t o c a l l c h i l d v i c t i m s o f s e x u a l a s s a u l t , w a r r a n t t h a t a u t h o r i z e d s e a r c h o f c o m p u t e r f o r Ac o m p u t e r a d d r e s s b o o k s @ v a l i d ) ; S t a t e v . P a t s c h e c k , 6 P . 3 d 4 9 8 , 5 0 0 - 0 1 ( N . M . A p p . 2 0 0 0 ) ( i n p r o s e c u t i o n f o r s e x u a l o f f e n s e s a g a i n s t c h i l d r e n , w a r r a n t t h a t s p e c i f i e d c o m p u t e r t o b e s e a r c h e d f o r Ap o r n o g r a p h i c m o v i e s @ v a l i d ) ; S t a t e v . L e h m a n , 7 3 6 A . 2 d 2 5 6 , 2 6 0 - 6 1 ( M e . 1 9 9 9 ) ( w a r r a n t n o t o v e r b r o a d w h e n i t a u t h o r i z e d s e i z u r e o f a l l c o m p u t e r - r e l a t e d e q u i p m e n t i n s u s p e c t ' s h o u s e w h e n p o l i c e k n e w o n l y t h a t t h e i m a g e s o f s e x u a l l y e x p l o i t e d g i r l s w e r e t a k e n b y a d i g i t a l c a m e r a a n d d o w n l o a d e d t o a c o m p u t e r ) ; c f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L a m b , 9 4 5 F . S u p p . 4 4 1 , 4 5 7 - 5 9 ( N . D . N . Y . 1 9 9 6 ) ( w a r r a n t s a t i s -f i e d p a r t i c u l a r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t i n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c a s e s e e k i n g s u b s c r i b e r i n f o r m a t i o n a n d e l e c t r o n i c m a i l m e s s a g e s s e n t t o a n d r e c e i v e d b y 7 8 i n d i v i d u a l s f r o m I n t e r n e t s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r w h e n m e s s a g e s w e r e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s o f c r i m e u s e d b y c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y t r a f f i c k e r s t o l o c a t e a n d c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h p e r s o n s o f l i k e m i n d ) . 1 8 S e e R a p h a e l W i n i c k , S e a r c h e s a n d S e i z u r e s o f C o m p u t e r s a n d C o m p u t e r D a t a , 8 H . J . L . & T E C H . 7 5 , 1 1 0 ( 1 9 9 4 ) ( AA n a n a l o g y b e t w e e n a c o m p u t e r a n d a c o n t a i n e r o v e r s i m p l i f i e s a c o m p l e x a r e a o f F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t d o c t r i n e a n d i g n o r e s t h e r e a l i t i e s o f m a s s i v e m o d e r n c o m p u t e r s t o r a g e . @) ; s e e a l s o S u s a n W . B r e n n e r & B a r b a r a A . F r e d e r i k s e n , C o m p u t e r S e a r c h e s a n d S e i z u r e s :


A c o m p u t e r i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m a w r i t i n g , o r a c o n t a i n e r o f w r i t i n g s , b e c a u s e o f i t s c a p a c i t y t o h o l d a v a s t a r r a y o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n m a n y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s , t o s o r t , p r o c e s s , a n d t r a n s f e r i n f o r m a t i o n i n a d a t a b a s e , t o p r o v i d e a m e a n s f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n v i a e - m a i l , a n d t o c o n n e c t a n y g i v e n u s e r t o t h e i n t e r n e t . A c o m p u t e r m a y b e c o m p r i s e d o f a w i d e v a r i e t y o f p e r s o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g b u t n o t l i m i t e d t o w o r d p r o c e s s i n g d o c u m e n t s , f i n a n c i a l r e c o r d s , b u s i n e s s r e c o r d s , e l e c t r o n i c m a i l , i n t e r n e t a c c e s s p a t h s , a n d p r e v i o u s l y d e l e t e d m a t e r i a l s . B e c a u s e o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e s e i z u r e o f a c o m p u t e r r a i s e s m a n y i s s u e s b e y o n d t h o s e t h a t m i g h t p e r t a i n t o m e r e w r i t i n g s . . . . A Aw r i t i n g @ i s s i m p l y n o t p a r t i c u l a r e n o u g h t o w a r r a n t a r e a -s o n a b l e p e r s o n t o c o n c l u d e t h a t i t i n c l u d e s a c o m p u t e r b e -c a u s e a w r i t i n g a n d a c o m p u t e r a r e t w o f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s , b o t h i n d e g r e e a n d i n k i n d . . . . M o r e o v e r , F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t a n a l y s i s r e g a r d i n g t h e s e a r c h a n d s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r s m u s t b e a p p r o a c h e d c a u t i o u s l y a n d n a r r o w l y b e c a u s e o f t h e i m p o r t a n t p r i v a c y c o n c e r n s i n h e r e n t i n t h e n a t u r e o f c o m p u t e r s , a n d b e c a u s e t h e t e c h n o l o g y i n t h i s a r e a i s r a p i d l y g r o w i n g a n d c h a n g i n g . 2 3

S o m e U n r e s o l v e d I s s u e s , 8 M I C H . T E L E C O M M . T E C H . L . R E V . 3 9 , 6 0 - 6 3 , 8 1 - 8 2 ( 2 0 0 2 ) ( s e t t i n g f o r t h s o m e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n s e a r c h e s o f Ap a p e r d o c u m e n t s a n d c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d e v i d e n c e @ a n d m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t c o u r t s s h o u l d i m p o s e r e -s t r i c t i o n s o n c o m p u t e r s e a r c h e s s u c h a s l i m i t i n g t h e s e a r c h b y f i l e t y p e s , b y r e q u i r i n g a s e c o n d w a r r a n t f o r i n t e r m i n g l e d f i l e s , a n d b y i m p o s i n g t i m e f r a m e s f o r c o n d u c t i n g t h e s e a r c h ) . 1 9 1 7 2 F . 3 d 1 2 6 8 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 1 9 9 9 ) . 2 0 I d . a t 1 2 7 5 n . 7 ; s e e a l s o P e o p l e v . G a l l , 3 0 P . 3 d 1 4 5 , 1 6 0 ( C o l o . 2 0 0 1 ) ( M a r t i n e z , J . , d i s s e n t i n g ) ( AB e c a u s e c o m p u t e r s p r o c e s s p e r s o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n a n d e f f e c t s , t h e y r e q u i r e h e i g h t e n e d p r o t e c t i o n u n d e r t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t a g a i n s t u n r e a s o n a b l e s e a r c h e s o r s e i z u r e s . @) . 2 1 C a r e y , 1 7 2 F . 3 d a t 1 2 7 5 . 2 2 W i n i c k , s u p r a n o t e 1 8 , a t 1 0 5 ; s e e a l s o I n r e S e a r c h o f 3 8 1 7 W . W e s t E n d , 3 2 1 F . S u p p . 2 d 9 5 3 , 9 5 8 - 5 9 ( N . D . I l l . 2 0 0 4 ) ( a s s e r t i n g t h a t s e a r c h e s o f c o m p u t e r s r e q u i r e Ac a r e f u l s c r u t i n y o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t @ b e c a u s e , i n t e r a l i a , o f t h e Ae x t r a o r d i n a r y v o l u m e o f i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t m a y b e s t o r e d @) . 2 3 P e o p l e v . G a l l , 3 0 P . 3 d 1 4 5 , 1 6 2 - 6 5 ( C o l o . 2 0 0 1 ) ( M a r t i n e z , J . ,


Other arguments that searches of computers are different include the assertion that computers Apresent the tools to refine searches in ways that cannot be done with hard copy files. When confronting a file cabinet full of papers, there may be no way to determine what to seize without doing some level of review of everything in the cabinet@; in contrast, computer technology affords a variety of methods by which the govern-ment may tailor a search to focus on documents that evidence the alleged criminal activity.24 Those methods, it has been as-serted, include limiting searches by date range, doing key word searches, limiting searches by file type, and Afocusing on certain software programs.@25 Under this Aspecial approach,@ courts have imposed several unique requirements: a search warrant seeking to seize com-puters or computer equipment must specify that it covers such items and the warrant must Ainclude measures to direct the subsequent search of a computer.@26 Police officers may also have to limit the search by Aobserving files types and titles listed on the directory, doing a key word search for relevant terms, or reading portions of each file stored in the memory.@27 d i s s e n t i n g ) . 2 4 I n r e S e a r c h o f 3 8 1 7 W . W e s t E n d , 3 2 1 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 9 5 9 . 2 5 I d . 2 6 P e o p l e v . G a l l , 3 0 P . 3 d 1 4 5 , 1 6 4 - 6 5 ( C o l o . 2 0 0 1 ) ( M a r t i n e z , J . , d i s s e n t i n g ) ; s e e a l s o I n r e S e a r c h o f 3 8 1 7 W . W e s t E n d , 3 2 1 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 9 5 7 ( m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t a n i s s u i n g m a g i s t r a t e h a d a u t h o r i t y t o r e q u i r e g o v e r n m e n t t o f o l l o w As e a r c h p r o t o c o l t h a t a t t e m p t s t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e s e a r c h w i l l n o t e x c e e d c o n s t i t u -t i o n a l b o u n d s @) . 2 7 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C a r e y , 1 7 2 F . 3 d 1 2 6 8 , 1 2 7 6 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 1 9 9 9 ) ; s e e a l s o P e o p l e v . C a r r a t u , 7 5 5 N . Y . S . 2 d 8 0 0 , 8 0 7 - 0 9 ( N . Y . S u p . C t . 2 0 0 3 ) ( s t a t i n g t h a t p o l i c e d i d o r d i d n o t h a v e r i g h t u n d e r w a r r a n t t o o p e n c o m p u t e r f i l e f o l d e r s b a s e d o n n a m e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h a t f o l d e r ) ; I n r e G r a n d J u r y S u b p o e n a D u -c e s T e c u m D a t e d N o v e m b e r 1 5 , 1 9 9 3 , 8 4 6 F . S u p p . 1 1 , 1 3 ( S . D . N . Y . 1 9 9 4 ) ( b a s e d o n g o v e r n m e n t ' s c o n c e s s i o n , a s s e r t i n g t h a t k e y w o r d s e a r c h o f i n f o r m a t i o n s t o r e d o n c o m p u t e r w o u l d r e v e a l i n f o r m a t i o n l i k e l y t o b e r e l e v a n t t o g r a n d j u r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n ) ; P e o p l e v . G a l l , 3 0 P . 3 d 1 4 5 , 1 6 6 ( C o l o . 2 0 0 1 ) ( M a r t i n e z , J . , d i s -s e n t i n g ) ( A[ S ] e a r c h e s m a y b e l i m i t e d t o a v o i d s e a r c h i n g f i l e s n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e


To restrict the scope of a search of a computer that contains intermingled documents, those rejecting the premise that com-puter searches are just another form of a document search maintain that merely obtaining a warrant to search for speci-fied items is insufficient.28 Instead,

[ L ] a w e n f o r c e m e n t m u s t e n g a g e i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p o f s o r t i n g v a r i o u s t y p e s o f d o c u m e n t s a n d t h e n o n l y s e a r c h t h e o n e s s p e c i f i e d i n a w a r r a n t . W h e r e o f f i c e r s c o m e a c r o s s r e l e v a n t d o c u m e n t s s o i n t e r m i n g l e d w i t h i r r e l e v a n t d o c u m e n t s t h a t t h e y c a n n o t f e a s i b l y b e s o r t e d a t t h e s i t e , t h e o f f i c e r s m a y s e a l o r h o l d t h e d o c u m e n t s p e n d i n g a p p r o v a l b y a m a g i s t r a t e o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s a n d l i m i t a t i o n s o n a f u r t h e r s e a r c h t h r o u g h t h e d o c u m e n t s . T h e m a g i s t r a t e s h o u l d t h e n r e q u i r e o f f i c e r s t o s p e c i f y i n a w a r r a n t w h i c h t y p e o f f i l e s a r e s o u g h t . 2 9

w a r r a n t b y ` o b s e r v i n g f i l e s t y p e s a n d t i t l e s l i s t e d i n t h e d i r e c t o r y , d o i n g a k e y w o r d s e a r c h f o r r e l e v a n t t e r m s , o r r e a d i n g p o r t i o n s o f e a c h f i l e s t o r e d i n t h e m e m o r y @) ; W i n i c k , s u p r a n o t e 1 8 , a t 1 0 7 ( AO n c e o f f i c e r s s e i z e l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f c o m p u t e r m e m o r y , t h e y h a v e t h r e e m e t h o d s o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g r e l e v a n t f r o m i r r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a -t i o n . O f f i c e r s c a n e i t h e r r e a d t h r o u g h p o r t i o n s o f e a c h f i l e s t o r e d i n t h e m e m o r y , c o n d u c t a k e y w o r d s e a r c h o f t h e d a t a s t o r e d o n t h e d i s k s , o r p r i n t o u t a d i r e c t o r y o f t h e t i t l e a n d f i l e t y p e f o r e a c h f i l e o n t h e d i s k . @) . 2 8 T h e o r i g i n o f t h e i n t e r m i n g l e d d o c u m e n t d o c t r i n e c a n b e t r a c e d t o a n o n - c o m p u t e r c a s e , w h i c h i n v o l v e d a l a r g e v o l u m e o f m a t e r i a l . S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . T a m u r a , 6 9 4 F . 2 d 5 9 1 , 5 9 5 - 9 7 ( 9 t h C i r . 1 9 8 2 ) ( g o v e r n m e n t c a n a v o i d v i o l a t i n g F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t r i g h t s b y s e a l i n g d o c u m e n t s p e n d i n g i s s u a n c e o f s e a r c h w a r r a n t d e t a i l i n g f u r t h e r s e a r c h ) ; s e e a l s o U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S h i l l i n g , 8 2 6 F . 2 d 1 3 6 5 , 1 3 6 9 ( 4 t h C i r . 1 9 8 7 ) ( r e g a r d i n g f i l e c a b i n e t s , g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d a d o p t p r o c e d u r e o u t l i n e d i n T a m u r a a n d r e q u i r e s u b s e q u e n t s e a r c h w a r r a n t ) . B u t s e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H i l l , 3 2 2 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 0 8 1 , 1 0 9 0 ( C . D . C a l . 2 0 0 4 ) ( r e j e c t i n g T a m u r a a s a p p l i c a b l e p r e c e d e n t b e c a u s e w a r r a n t p e r m i t t e d s e i z u r e o f a l l s t o r a g e m e d i a ) ; D a v i d J . S . Z i f f , N o t e , F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t L i m i t a t i o n s o n t h e E x e c u t i o n o f C o m p u t e r S e a r c h e s C o n -d u c t e d P u r s u a n t t o a W a r r a n t , 1 0 5 C O L U M . L . R E V . 8 4 1 , 8 5 8 - 6 1 ( 2 0 0 5 ) ( a r g u i n g i n a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f T a m u r a t o c o m p u t e r s e a r c h e s ) . 2 9 C a r e y , 1 7 2 F . 3 d a t 1 2 7 5 ( f o o t n o t e o m i t t e d ) ; a c c o r d U n i t e d S t a t e s v . W a l s e r , 2 7 5 F . 3 d 9 8 1 , 9 8 6 - 8 7 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C a m p o s , 2 2 1 F . 3 d 1 1 4 3 , 1 1 4 8 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 2 0 0 0 ) ; W i n i c k , s u p r a n o t e 1 8 , a t 1 0 5 - 0 7 .


3. Discussion of the Premises of the ASpecial Approach@

As this section explains, I believe the Aspecial approach@ is misguided. It has no foundation in Fourth Amendment juris-prudence, even by analogy, given its essential postulate that computer technology is so fundamentally different from any-thing in the past. This postulate has been articulated to include several premises. First, technology not only creates a vastly different system of storage, information, and privacy concerns, it also affords ways to minimize intrusions. Because such meth-ods are available, so the reasoning goes, they must be used. Second, computer abilities are fundamentally different than anything previously known to humankind, mandating rejection of the document and container doctrines that the Supreme Court has articulated to regulate those other types of searches. Third, because of the other premises, computer searches and seizures require the courts to create special search execution rules. Each of these premises and the underlying postulate, I believe, are flawed. Instead, the proper view is that computer and electronic data searches are properly governed by tradi-tional Fourth Amendment rules regulating containers and document searches.

a. Should File Names or Types Limit the Scope of a Search?

An essential premise of the Aspecial approach@ is that file name labels or suffixes accurately indicate what the file contains.30 As one commentator has asserted: 3 0 S e e C a r e y , 1 7 2 F . 3 d a t 1 2 7 5 ( AT h i s i s n o t a c a s e i n w h i c h a m b i g u -o u s l y l a b e l e d f i l e s w e r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e h a r d d r i v e d i r e c t o r y . I t i s n o t a c a s e i n w h i c h t h e o f f i c e r s h a d t o o p e n e a c h f i l e d r a w e r b e f o r e d i s c o v e r i n g i t s c o n t e n t s . @) ; P e o p l e v . C a r r a t u , 7 5 5 N . Y . S . 2 d 8 0 0 , 8 0 7 ( N . Y . S u p . C t . 2 0 0 3 ) ( A[ A ] w a r r a n t a u t h o r i z i n g a s e a r c h o f t h e t e x t f i l e s o f a c o m p u t e r f o r d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e p e r t a i n i n g t o a s p e c i f i c c r i m e w i l l n o t a u t h o r i z e a s e a r c h o f i m a g e f i l e s c o n t a i n i n g e v i d e n c e o f o t h e r c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y . @) ; A m y B a r o n - E v a n s , W h e n t h e G o v e r n m e n t S e i z e s a n d S e a r c h e s Y o u r C l i e n t ' s C o m p u t e r , 2 7 C H A M P I O N 1 8 ( 2 0 0 3 ) ( AF o r t u n a t e l y , t h e t e c h n i c a l m e a n s


C o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s s t o r e i n f o r m a t i o n i n a w i d e v a r i e t y o f f o r m a t s . F o r e x a m p l e , m o s t f i n a n c i a l s p r e a d s h e e t s s t o r e i n f o r m a t i o n i n a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t f o r m a t t h a n d o w o r d p r o c e s s i n g p r o g r a m s . S i m i l a r l y , a n i n v e s t i g a t o r r e a s o n a b l y f a m i l i a r w i t h c o m p u t e r s s h o u l d b e a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h d a t a b a s e p r o g r a m s , e l e c t r o n i c m a i l f i l e s , t e l e p h o n e l i s t s a n d s t o r e d v i s u a l o r a u d i o f i l e s f r o m e a c h o t h e r . W h e r e a s e a r c h w a r r a n t s e e k s o n l y f i n a n c i a l r e c o r d s , l a w e n f o r c e m e n t o f f i c e r s s h o u l d n o t b e a l l o w e d t o s e a r c h t h r o u g h t e l e p h o n e l i s t s o r w o r d p r o c e s s i n g f i l e s a b s e n t a s h o w i n g o f s o m e r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s e f i l e s c o n t a i n t h e f i n a n c i a l r e c o r d s s o u g h t . 3 1

In Carey, the principal case espousing this Aspecial approach,@ the police had a warrant allowing them to search computer files for Anames, telephone numbers, ledger receipts, addresses, and other documentary evidence pertaining to the sale and distribu-tion of controlled substances.@32 During the course of the search, Detective Lewis came across files with sexually suggestive titles and the suffix Ajpg.@33 Upon opening one of those files, Lewis observed child pornography. He subsequently downloaded numerous other Ajpg@ files and opened some of them, revealing additional child pornography. The Ajpg@ files featured sexually suggestive or obscene names, many including the word Ateen@ or Ayoung.@34 Lewis testified that, until he

e x i s t t o s e a r c h c o m p u t e r s f o r p a r t i c u l a r i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h o u t r u m m a g i n g t h r o u g h p r i v a t e i n f o r m a t i o n n o t d e s c r i b e d i n a w a r r a n t . F o r e x a m p l e , i n a t y p i c a l w h i t e c o l l a r c a s e , r e l e v a n t f i l e s c a n b e i s o l a t e d a n d i r r e l e v a n t o n e s a v o i d e d t h r o u g h k e y w o r d s e a r c h e s . I n a c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c a s e , t h e g o v e r n m e n t c a n s e a r c h f o r p i c t u r e f i l e s w i t h o u t t h e n e e d t o l o o k a t a n y t e x t f i l e . @) . C f . C o m m o n w e a l t h v . H i n d s , 7 6 8 N . E . 2 d 1 0 6 7 , 1 0 7 3 ( M a s s . 2 0 0 2 ) ( s u g g e s t i v e f i l e n a m e s c a n c r e a t e p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o s e a r c h c o m p u t e r f o r c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y ) . 3 1 S e e W i n i c k , s u p r a n o t e 1 8 , a t 1 0 8 . 3 2 C a r e y , 1 7 2 F . 3 d a t 1 2 7 0 . 3 3 I d . 3 4 I d . a t 1 2 7 1 n . 3 .


opened each file, he really did not know its contents.35 He claimed: AI wasn't conducting a search for child pornography, that happened to be what these turned out to be.@36 Although the trial court denied the motion without making any findings of fact, the appellate court reversed, imposing its own view of the evidence:

[ T ] h e c a s e t u r n s u p o n t h e f a c t t h a t e a c h o f t h e f i l e s c o n t a i n -i n g p o r n o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l w a s l a b e l e d AJ P G @ a n d m o s t f e a -t u r e d a s e x u a l l y s u g g e s t i v e t i t l e . C e r t a i n l y a f t e r o p e n i n g t h e f i r s t f i l e a n d s e e i n g a n i m a g e o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y , t h e s e a r c h i n g o f f i c e r w a s a w a r e C i n a d v a n c e o f o p e n i n g t h e r e -m a i n i n g f i l e s C w h a t t h e l a b e l m e a n t . W h e n h e o p e n e d t h e s u b s e q u e n t f i l e s , h e k n e w h e w a s n o t g o i n g t o f i n d i t e m s r e l a t e d t o d r u g a c t i v i t y a s s p e c i f i e d i n t h e w a r r a n t [ . ] 3 7

Putting aside the appellate court's disregard of its limited role in fact-finding, there are significant reasons to reject its position that a search be restricted by file names or file types. Professional investigators recognize that computer users at-tempt to conceal criminal evidence by storing it Ain random order with deceptive file names,@ thus requiring a search of all the stored data to determine whether it is included in the war-rant.38 Indeed, others have asserted that Ait is impossible to tell 3 5 I d . a t 1 2 7 1 . L e w i s s t a t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t i m a g e f i l e s c o u l d c o n t a i n e v i d e n c e p e r t i n e n t t o a d r u g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s u c h a s p i c t u r e s o f Aa h y d r o p o n i c g r o w t h s y s t e m a n d h o w i t ' s s e t u p t o o p e r a t e @ a n d t h a t d r u g d e a l e r s o f t e n o b s c u r e o r d i s g u i s e e v i d e n c e o f t h e i r d r u g a c t i v i t y . I d . a t 1 2 7 0 n . 2 . 3 6 I d . a t 1 2 7 1 . 3 7 I d . a t 1 2 7 4 . 3 8 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C a m p o s , 2 2 1 F . 3 d 1 1 4 3 , 1 1 4 7 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 2 0 0 0 ) ( q u o t i n g a f f i d a v i t ) ; s e e a l s o U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M a a l i M . , 3 4 6 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 2 2 6 , 1 2 6 5 ( M . D . F l a . 2 0 0 4 ) ( e x p e r t e x p l a i n e d t h a t h e c o u l d n o t r e l y o n f i l e n a m e s t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t w a s r e s p o n s i v e t o w a r r a n t ) ; E O G H A N C A S E Y , D I G I T A L E V I D E N C E A N D C O M P U T E R

C R I M E ( 2 d e d . 2 0 0 4 ) ( d e s c r i b i n g a m e t h o d i c a l d a t a f i l t e r i n g p r o c e s s t h a t i n c l u d e s s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t t o o l s , i d . a t 6 3 2 - 4 3 , a n d o b s e r v i n g t h a t d i g i t a l e v i d e n c e a n a l y s i s r e q u i r e s e x a m i n e r s t o e m p l o y f i l t e r i n g p r o c e d u r e s t o f i n d p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l d a t a a n d t h a t A[ l ] e s s m e t h o d i c a l d a t a r e d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , s u c h a s s e a r c h i n g f o r s p e c i f i c k e y w o r d s o r e x t r a c t i n g o n l y c e r t a i n f i l e t y p e s , m a y n o t o n l y m i s s i m p o r t a n t c l u e s b u t


what a computer storage medium contains just by looking at it. Rather, one has to examine it electronically, using a computer that is running the appropriate operating system, hardware and software.@39 As one court has maintained:

[ D e f e n d a n t ] c l a i m s t h a t t h e s e a r c h s h o u l d h a v e b e e n l i m i t e d t o c e r t a i n f i l e s t h a t a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y , s u c h a s t h o s e w i t h a A. j p g @ s u f f i x ( w h i c h u s u a l l y i d e n t i f i e s f i l e s c o n t a i n i n g i m a g e s ) o r t h o s e c o n t a i n i n g t h e w o r d As e x @ o r o t h e r k e y w o r d s . D e f e n d a n t ' s p r o p o s e d s e a r c h m e t h o d o l o g y i s u n r e a s o n -a b l e . AC o m p u t e r r e c o r d s a r e e x t r e m e l y s u s c e p t i b l e t o t a m p e r i n g , h i d i n g , o r d e s t r u c t i o n , w h e t h e r d e l i b e r a t e o r i n a d v e r t e n t . @ I m a g e s c a n b e h i d d e n i n a l l m a n n e r o f f i l e s , e v e n w o r d p r o c e s s i n g d o c u m e n t s a n d s p r e a d s h e e t s . C r i m i n a l s w i l l d o a l l t h e y c a n t o c o n c e a l c o n t r a b a n d , i n c l u d i n g t h e s i m p l e e x p e d i e n t o f c h a n g i n g t h e n a m e s a n d e x t e n s i o n s o f f i l e s t o d i s g u i s e t h e i r c o n t e n t f r o m t h e c a s u a l o b s e r v e r . F o r c i n g p o l i c e t o l i m i t t h e i r s e a r c h e s t o f i l e s t h a t t h e s u s p e c t h a s l a b e l e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r w a y w o u l d b e m u c h l i k e s a y i n g p o l i c e m a y n o t s e i z e a p l a s t i c b a g c o n t a i n i n g a p o w -d e r y w h i t e s u b s t a n c e i f i t i s l a b e l e d Af l o u r @ o r At a l c u m p o w -d e r . @ T h e r e i s n o w a y t o k n o w w h a t i s i n a f i l e w i t h o u t e x a m -i n i n g i t s c o n t e n t s , j u s t a s t h e r e i s n o s u r e w a y o f s e p a r a t i n g t a l c u m f r o m c o c a i n e e x c e p t b y t e s t i n g i t . T h e e a s e w i t h w h i c h c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y i m a g e s c a n b e d i s g u i s e d C w h e t h e r b y r e n a m i n g s e x y t e e n y b o p p e r s x x x . j p g a s s u n d a y s c h o o l l e s s o n . d o c , o r s o m e t h i n g m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d C f o r e c l o s e s d e f e n d a n t ' s p r o p o s e d s e a r c h

c a n s t i l l l e a v e t h e e x a m i n e r s f l o u n d e r i n g i n a s e a o f s u p e r f l u o u s d a t a @, i d . a t 2 3 0 ) ; M i c h a e l G . N o b l e t t , M a r k M . P o l l i t t , & L a w r e n c e A . P r e s l e y , R e c o v e r i n g a n d E x a m -i n i n g C o m p u t e r F o r e n s i c E v i d e n c e , 2 F O R E N S I C S C I E N C E C O M M U N I C A T I O N S 7 ( 2 0 0 0 ) a t w w w . f b i . g o v / h p / l a b / f s c / b a c k i s s u e / o c t 2 0 0 0 / c o m p u t e r . h t m ( o b s e r v i n g t h a t t h e r e i s An o s u c h t h i n g a s g e n e r i c c o m p u t e r s c i e n c e p r o c e d u r e s @ a n d t h a t Ae v i d e n c e i s l i k e -l y t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t e v e r y t i m e a s u b m i s s i o n i s r e c e i v e d b y t h e l a b o r a t o r y a n d w i l l l i k e l y r e q u i r e a n e x a m i n a t i o n p l a n t a i l o r e d t o t h a t p a r t i c u l a r e v i d e n c e @) . 3 9 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H i l l , 3 2 2 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 0 8 1 , 1 0 8 8 ( C . D . C a l . 2 0 0 4 ) .


m e t h o d o l o g y . 4 0 Similarly, in United States v. Gray,41 the court rejected the argument that an agent could not search files tagged with the Ajpg@ suffix, even though none of the materials covered by the warrant were believed to be pictures. The court reasoned:

W h i l e t h e A. j p g @ s u f f i x g e n e r a l l y d e n o t e s a p i c t u r e f i l e , t h e r e i s n o r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t i t d o s o , a n d , a s a r e s u l t , A g e n t E h u a n c o u l d n o t b e c e r t a i n t h a t f i l e s w i t h t h e A. j p g @ s u f f i x d i d n o t c o n t a i n t h e m a t e r i a l s f o r w h i c h h e w a s a u t h o r i z e d t o s e a r c h . I n d e e d , A g e n t E h u a n w o u l d h a v e b e e n r e m i s s n o t t o s e a r c h f i l e s w i t h a A. j p g @ s u f f i x s i m p l y b e c a u s e s u c h f i l e s a r e g e n e r a l l y p i c t u r e s f i l e s , a n d h e b e l i e v e d t h e N L M d o c u m e n t s a n d h a c k e r m a t e r i a l s w e r e m o r e l i k e l y t o b e t e x t f i l e s . H e k n e w f r o m h i s e x p e r i e n c e t h a t c o m p u t e r h a c k e r s o f t e n i n t e n t i o n a l l y m i s l a b e l f i l e s , o r a t t e m p t t o b u r y i n c r i m i n a t i n g f i l e s w i t h i n i n n o c u o u s l y n a m e d d i r e c t o r i e s . I n d e e d , i n t h e c o u r s e o f h i s s e a r c h o f d e f e n d a n t ' s c o m p u t e r f i l e s , A g e n t E h u a n f o u n d s o m e t e x t f i l e s m i x e d i n w i t h p i c t u r e f i l e s . T h i s s e r v e s t o u n d e r s c o r e t h e s o u n d n e s s o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t A g e n t E h u a n w a s n o t r e q u i r e d t o a c c e p t a s a c c u r a t e a n y f i l e n a m e o r s u f f i x a n d l i m i t h i s s e a r c h a c c o r d i n g l y . D e f e n d a n t f u r t h e r a r g u e s t h a t A g e n t E h u a n , h a v i n g b e e n a l e r t e d b y t h e n a m e s o f t h e AT e e n @ a n d AT i n y T e e n @ s u b d i r e c -t o r i e s , w a s l o o k i n g f o r c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y w h e n h e o p e n e d t h e t w o s u b d i r e c t o r i e s . A g e n t E h u a n t e s t i f i e d p e r s u a s i v e l y t o t h e c o n t r a r y ; h e s t a t e d t h a t , w h i l e t h e n a m e s o f t h e s u b d i r e c t o r i e s w e r e s u s p i c i o u s t o h i m , h e o p e n e d t h e AT e e n @ a n d AT i n y T e e n @ s u b d i r e c t o r i e s i n t h e c o u r s e o f a s y s t e m a t i c s e a r c h o f t h e B B S d i r e c t o r y . I n o t h e r w o r d s , A g e n t E h u a n d i d n o t t a r g e t t h o s e p a r t i c u l a r s u b d i r e c t o r i e s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r n a m e s , a n d , a t a l l t i m e s , h e w a s s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e m a t e r i a l s t h a t w e r e t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e s e a r c h w a r r a n t . 4 2

4 0 I d . a t 1 0 9 0 - 9 1 . 4 1 7 8 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 2 4 ( E . D . V a . 1 9 9 9 ) . 4 2 I d . a t 5 2 9 - 3 0 ; s e e a l s o G u e s t v . L e i s , 2 5 5 F . 3 d 3 2 5 , 3 3 5 ( 6 t h C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) ( a g e n t s c o u l d l e g i t i m a t e l y c h e c k c o n t e n t s o f d i r e c t o r i e s t o s e e i f c o n t e n t s c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h l a b e l s p l a c e d o n d i r e c t o r i e s ; s u s p e c t s Aw o u l d o t h e r w i s e b e a b l e t o s h i e l d e v i d e n c e f r o m a s e a r c h s i m p l y b y ` m i s f i l i n g ' i t i n d i r e c t o r y l a b e l e d ` e - m a i l ' @) ;


These authorities support the conclusion that Carey's limi-tations on search authority based on file names or types do not comport with the ability of computer users to hide data in in-nocuously labeled files. Instead, the more sound approach, consistent with Andresen, is that Ainnocuous [computer files] may be scanned to ascertain their relevancy@43 in Arecognition of `the reality that few people keep documents of their criminal transactions in a [computer file] folder marked `[crime] re-cords.'@44

b. Do Technological Search Programs Make the File Cabinet Analogy Inadequate?

Another premise of authorities rejecting the file cabinet analogy is that technological searches can be employed by the government to scan data held in electronic storage to reliably sort relevant information from information for which the gov-ernment does not have probable cause to search. This is a technical question and not a legal one. There are a variety of software programs that government investigators now routinely employ when searching for elec-tronic evidence.45 It has been recognized that Aautomated S t a t e v . S c h r o e d e r , 6 1 3 N . W . 2 d 9 1 1 , 9 1 6 ( W i s . A p p . 2 0 0 0 ) ( r e j e c t i n g l i m i t a t i o n s o n s e a r c h b a s e d o n f i l e n a m e s a n d c o n c l u d i n g t h a t , d u r i n g s y s t e m a t i c s e a r c h o f a l l u s e r - c r e a t e d f i l e s i n e x e c u t i n g s e a r c h w a r r a n t f o r e v i d e n c e o f o n l i n e h a r a s s m e n t a n d d i s o r d e r l y c o n d u c t , o p e n i n g f i l e c o n t a i n i n g c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y i n p l a i n v i e w ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . A b b e l l , 9 6 3 F . S u p p . 1 1 7 8 , 1 2 0 1 ( S . D . F l a . 1 9 9 7 ) ( u p h o l d i n g s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r d i s k s d e s p i t e f a c t t h a t t h e y d i d n o t c o n t a i n r e s p o n s i v e n a m e b e c a u s e s e i z i n g a g e n t s Aw e r e n o t r e q u i r e d t o a c c e p t l a b e l s a s i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e d i s k s ' c o n -t e n t s @) . 4 3 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H u n t e r , 1 3 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 7 4 , 5 8 3 ( D . V t . 1 9 9 8 ) ; a c c o r d U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G r a y , 7 8 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 2 4 , 5 2 8 ( E . D . V a . 1 9 9 9 ) . 4 4 H u n t e r , 1 3 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 5 8 2 ( q u o t i n g U n i t e d S t a t e s v . R i l e y , 9 0 6 F . 2 d 8 4 1 , 8 4 5 ( 2 d C i r . 1 9 9 0 ) ) . 4 5 O n e c o m m o n l y u s e d t o o l i s E n c a s e , d e s i g n e d b y G u i d a n c e S o f t w a r e . S e e w w w . g u i d a n c e s o f t w a r e . c o m .


search techniques have inherent strengths and weaknesses:@

T h e u s e f u l n e s s [ o f a u t o m a t e d k e y w o r d s e a r c h e s ] i s l i m i t e d t o s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e r e i s s o m e p r e c i s e t e x t u a l i d e n t i f i e r t h a t c a n b e u s e d a s t h e s e a r c h a r g u m e n t . K e y w o r d s e a r c h e s a r e c o n t e x t i n s e n s i t i v e , a n d c a n n o t e m p l o y t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n u s e d b y a h u m a n i n v e s t i g a t o r . I f e i t h e r t h e d a t a e n c o d i n g o r t h e a l l e g e d c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y i s c o m p l e x i n n a t u r e , h u m a n j u d g m e n t w i l l b e r e q u i r e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e v i d e n t i a r y v a l u e o f s p e c i f i c e l e c t r o n i c d o c u m e n t s a n d w h e t h e r t h e d o c u m e n t s f a l l w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f t h e w a r r a n t . T h e b e n e f i t s o f e l e c t r o n i c s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s a r e t h a t t h e y a r e f a s t , a c c u r a t e , a n d w i t h i n t h e n a r r o w s c o p e o f t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s . I f t h e o f f i c e r s a r e s e a r c h i n g f o r v e r y s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n a n d k n o w o n e o r t w o e x a c t p h r a s e s o r w o r d s t o s e a r c h f o r , a c o m p r e h e n s i v e e l e c t r o n i c s e a r c h c a n b e c o n d u c t e d i n a m a t t e r o f h o u r s . F o r e x a m p l e , i f t h e o f f i c e r s w e r e s e a r c h i n g f o r a c o p y o f s p e c i f i c i n s u r a n c e c l a i m s o r a c c o u n t i n g r e c o r d s , a n d t h e o f f i c e r s k n e w w i t h c e r t a i n t y t h a t t h e s e r e c o r d s w o u l d c o n t a i n s p e c i f i c p h r a s e s , n u m b e r s , o r n a m e s , t h e s e r e c o r d s c o u l d b e l o c a t e d v e r y q u i c k l y . O n c e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e e l e c t r o n i c r e c o r d s w e r e l o c a t e d , t h e y c o u l d b e c o p i e d o n a f i l e - b y - f i l e b a s i s , i n e f f e c t a l l o w i n g s e i z u r e o f o n l y t h e f i l e s t h a t f a l l w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f t h e w a r r a n t . B y c o n t r a s t , i f t h e o f f i c e r s c o n d u c t i n g t h e s e a r c h d o n o t h a v e s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n ( n a m e s , n u m b e r s , p h r a s e s ) s u f f i -c i e n t t o a l l o w a n a c c u r a t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a l l r e l e v a n t d o c u -m e n t s , e l e c t r o n i c s e a r c h e s a r e f a r l e s s u s e f u l . T h e u s e o f c o m m o n w o r d s o r p h r a s e s a s k e y w o r d s m a y s t i l l h e l p l o c a t e r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e , b u t s u c h s e a r c h e s y i e l d a h i g h n u m b e r o f f a l s e h i t s . F a l s e h i t s a r e d o c u m e n t s t h a t c o n t a i n t h e s e a r c h e d C f o r t e r m , b u t h a v e n o e v i d e n t i a r y v a l u e a n d a r e b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h e w a r r a n t . T h e u s e f u l n e s s o f k e y w o r d s e a r c h e s i s f u r t h e r d i m i n i s h e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t s u c h s e a r c h e s a r e c o n t e x t i n s e n s i t i v e . C o m -p u t e r d a t a i s e n c o d e d . M a n y c o m p u t e r i z e d d o c u m e n t s r e q u i r e s p e c i a l i z e d s o f t w a r e t o r e a d o r r e n d e r t h e i r c o n t e n t s c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . S u c h s o f t w a r e p r o v i d e s t h e c o n t e x t r e q u i r e d t o i n t e r p r e t e l e c t r o n i c d a t a . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e m e d i c a l r e c o r d s , a c c o u n t i n g d a t a , a n d m e d i c a l a p p o i n t -m e n t l o g s i n o u r h y p o t h e t i c a l w o u l d m o s t p r o b a b l y c o n t a i n


m a n y a b b r e v i a t i o n s o r c o d e d v a l u e s r e p r e s e n t i n g v a r i o u s m e d i c a l p r o c e d u r e s a n d a s s o c i a t e d c h a r g e s . A r e c o r d c o n -t a i n i n g a p a t i e n t ' s n a m e , a n u m e r i c v a l u e o f 1 , a p r o c e d u r e c o d e o f 3 4 6 a n d a c h a r g e o f 7 4 0 0 0 0 m i g h t n o t s e e m s u s p i c i o u s . B u t i f t h e n u m e r i c v a l u e 1 i s a c o d e t h a t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p a t i e n t i s a m a l e , a n d t h e m e d i c a l p r o c e -d u r e c o d e o f 3 4 6 i d e n t i f i e s t h e o p e r a t i o n a s a h y s t e r -e c t o m y , t h e n t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e $ 7 4 0 0 . 0 0 c h a r g e i s s u s p e c t . W i t h o u t k n o w i n g t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e n u m b e r s 1 , 3 4 6 , a n d 7 4 0 0 0 0 , t h e d a t a r e p r e s e n t e d c a n n o t b e e v a l u -a t e d f o r r e l e v a n c e . T h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h c o m p u t e r d a t a i s r e p r e s e n t e d a l s o l i m i t s t h e e f f e c t i v e s c o p e o f a u t o m a t e d s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s . M a n y a u t o m a t e d s e a r c h t o o l s a r e b a s e d o n t h e d e t e c t i o n o f t e x t u a l c h a r a c t e r s t r i n g s e m b e d d e d i n d o c u m e n t s . T h e s e t e c h n i q u e s c a n o n l y b e a p p l i e d t o t e x t u a l d a t a , a n d n o t f o r p i c t u r e s , d i a g r a m s , o r s c a n n e d i m a g e s . F o r e x a m p l e , a s e a r c h f o r t h e w o r d As u b m a r i n e @ w o u l d l o c a t e t e x t t h a t c o n t a i n e d t h o s e c h a r a c t e r s , b u t i t w o u l d f a i l t o l o c a t e t h e s c a n n e d i m a g e o f a s u b m a r i n e , a d i g i t a l p h o t o o f t h e c o n t r o l t o w e r , o r e v e n a s c a n n e d i m a g e o r p h o t o o f t h e o r i g i n a l d o c u m e n t . T h e t e x t u a l s e a r c h w o u l d a l s o f a i l t o l o c a t e t h e d e s i r e d d o c u m e n t i f i t h a d b e e n c o m p r e s s e d , e n c r y p t e d , o r p a s s w o r d p r o t e c t e d . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e s o f t w a r e u s e d f o r t h e s e a r c h , i t m i g h t o r m i g h t n o t d e t e c t t h e w o r d As u b m a r i n e @ i n f i l e s t h a t h a d b e e n d e l e t e d . O t h e r t y p e s o f s e a r c h e s d e p e n d o n p r o p e r l y i d e n t i f y i n g d o c u m e n t s b y e i t h e r d o c u m e n t t y p e o r b y f i l e n a m e . S e a r c h e s b y f i l e n a m e a r e u n r e l i a b l e b e c a u s e a u s e r i s f r e e t o n a m e ( o r r e n a m e ) f i l e s w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o t h e i r c o n t e n t . S e a r c h e s b y f i l e t y p e , c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d u s i n g s p e c i a l i z e d t o o l s t h a t i d e n t i f y f i l e s b a s e d o n t h e As i g n a t u r e @ a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p r o g r a m u s e d t o c r e a t e t h e f i l e . T h i s t e c h n i q u e c a n b e u s e d t o i d e n t i f y o r g r o u p f i l e s b a s e d o n h o w d a t a i s r e p r e s e n t e d . T h e s e t o o l s c a n i d e n t i f y f i l e f o r m a t , b u t a r e n o t a b l e t o s e a r c h c o n t e n t . S e a r c h e s b a s e d o n f i l e t y p e a r e n o t n o r m a l l y e f f e c t i v e a g a i n s t f i l e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n e n c r y p t e d , c o m p r e s s e d , o r p a s s w o r d p r o t e c t e d . 4 6

4 6 B r e n n e r & F r e d e r i k s e n , s u p r a n o t e 1 8 , a t 6 0 - 6 2 ; s e e a l s o


This passage merely describes the current state of competition between criminal minds and government investigators. The ability to hide evidence in electronic storage constantly evolves and the government must keep pace or catch up.47 There will always be a considerable amount of uncertainty at any given time whether any one search technique identifies with an acceptable degree of accuracy what a file contains without opening it. A second question is a legal one: does the Fourth Amendment

S E A R C H I N G A N D S E I Z I N G C O M P U T E R S A N D O B T A I N I N G E L E C T R O N I C E V I D E N C E I N C R I M I N A L

I N V E S T I G A T I O N S 5 9 ( r e v . e d . 2 0 0 2 ) , a t h t t p : / / w w w . p u r l . a c c e s s . g p o . g o v / G P O / c p s 1 1 3 6 1 [ h e r e i n a f t e r C C I P S M a n u a l ] ( AE v e n w h e r e a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t i s k n o w n a b o u t a s y s t e m , t h e a g e n t s a n d t e c h n i -c i a n s c o n d u c t i n g a r e v i e w o f d a t a o f t e n h a v e t o u s e a n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t t e c h n i q u e s i n o r d e r t o t h o r o u g h l y s e a r c h a c o m p u t e r a n d i t s s t o r a g e m e d i a . S o m e t i m e s , s e e m i n g l y c o m m o n p l a c e d a t a o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s c a n n o t b e c o p i e d , r e v i e w e d o r a n a l y z e d b y o n e s e a r c h p r o g r a m o r p r o t o c o l , s o a n o t h e r B o r s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t o n e s B m u s t b e t r i e d . K e y w o r d s e a r c h e s m a y n o t b e p o s s i b l e u n t i l a c a r e f u l r e v i e w o f a p o r t i o n o f t h e f i l e s i s c o n d u c t e d ; m o r e o v e r , a c a r e f u l d a t a s e a r c h m a y r e v e a l o t h e r , o t h e r w i s e u n a p p a r e n t a s p e c t s o f h o w t h e s y s t e m i s u s e d a n d d a t a g e n e r a t e d , a c -c e s s e d , t r a n s m i t t e d a n d s t o r e d . @) ; i d . a t 1 0 5 ( d i s c u s s i n g h o w i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e a Ar o b u s t s e a r c h s t r a t e g y @ t h a t m a y r e q u i r e Aa c a r e f u l f i l e - b y - f i l e r e v i e w @ b e c a u s e o f , i n t e r a l i a , t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f k e y w o r d s e a r c h e s , t h e u s e o f c o d e w o r d s i n f i l e s , a n d u n u s u a l l o c a t i o n s w h e r e t h e d a t a m a y b e s t o r e d o n a c o m p u t e r ) ; O r i n K e r r , D i g i t a l E v i d e n c e a n d t h e N e w C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e , 1 0 5 C O L U M . L . R E V . 2 7 9 , 3 0 3 ( 2 0 0 5 ) ( AE x i s t i n g t e c h n o l o g y s i m p l y g i v e s u s n o w a y t o k n o w a h e a d o f t i m e w h e r e i n s i d e a c o m p u t e r a p a r t i c u l a r f i l e o r p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n m a y b e l o c a t e d . @) ; E O G H A N C A S E Y , D I G I T A L E V I D E N C E A N D C O M P U T E R C R I M E ( 2 d e d . 2 0 0 4 ) ( d e s c r i b i n g a m e t h o d i c a l d a t a f i l t e r i n g p r o c e s s t h a t i n c l u d e s s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t t o o l s , i d . a t 6 3 2 - 4 3 , a n d o b s e r v i n g t h a t d i g i t a l e v i d e n c e a n a l y s i s r e q u i r e s e x a m i n e r s t o e m p l o y f i l t e r i n g p r o c e d u r e s t o f i n d p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l d a t a a n d t h a t A[ l ] e s s m e t h o d i c a l d a t a r e d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , s u c h a s s e a r c h i n g f o r s p e c i f i c k e y w o r d s o r e x t r a c t i n g o n l y c e r t a i n f i l e t y p e s m a y n o t o n l y m i s s i m p o r t a n t c l u e s b u t c a n s t i l l l e a v e t h e e x a m i n e r s f l o u n d e r i n g i n a s e a o f s u p e r f l u o u s d a t a @, i d . a t 2 3 0 ) . 4 7 S e e , e . g . , E O G H A N C A S E Y , D I G I T A L E V I D E N C E A N D C O M P U T E R C R I M E 6 4 3 ( 2 d e d . 2 0 0 4 ) ( d i s c u s s i n g t h e c h a l l e n g e s t o i n v e s t i g a t o r s o f c o m p r e s s e d f i l e s , e n -c r y p t e d f i l e s , e - m a i l s , a n d e m a i l a t t a c h m e n t s , w h i c h r e q u i r e a Ac o m b i n a t i o n o f t o o l s w i t h d i f f e r e n t f e a t u r e s @) .


mandate that advanced technological search engines be used? If technology is constantly evolvingBand it is, then the inquiry is a moving target. This is to say that law enforcement must always stay on the cutting edge of technological change and continually invest money and resources for new training and new equipment. Such a mandate would be, in my view, a form of a least intrusive means analysis.48 Recourse to a least intrusive analysis is a persistent minority view of the Fourth Amendment's requirements.49 This is despite the clear mandate from the Supreme Court that it is not an element of reason-ableness.50 Indeed, there is no support for such an analysis in the language of the Amendment or in the historical regulation of search and seizure powers.51 A least intrusive means analysis first appeared in opinions during the Warren Court era and its advocates do not rely on historical precedent to support it. Rather, they argue that it is necessary to achieve equivalence of protection between Fourth Amendment rights and other guarantees of the Bill of Rights.52 For example, one commenta-tor has argued that Athe rationale which is commonly offered

4 8 S e e W i n i c k , s u p r a n o t e 1 8 , a t 1 0 8 ( A[ T ] h e g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d b e a r a h e a v y b u r d e n i n d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t n o l e s s i n t r u s i v e m e t h o d i s a v a i l a b l e t o s e p a -r a t e f i l e s f a l l i n g w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f t h e w a r r a n t f r o m f i l e s f a l l i n g o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e o f t h e w a r r a n t . @) . 4 9 S e e T h o m a s K . C l a n c y , P r o t e c t i v e S e a r c h e s , P a t - D o w n s , o r F r i s k s ? : T h e S c o p e o f t h e P e r m i s s i b l e I n t r u s i o n t o A s c e r t a i n i f a D e t a i n e d P e r s o n i s A r m e d , 8 2 M A R Q . L . R E V . 4 9 1 , 5 1 3 - 1 4 ( 1 9 9 9 ) ( c o l l e c t i n g c a s e s ) . 5 0 S e e i d . a t 5 1 4 - 1 5 ( c o l l e c t i n g c a s e s ) . 5 1 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . K o y o m e j i a n , 9 7 0 F . 2 d 5 3 6 , 5 4 6 ( 9 t h C i r . ) ( K o z i n s k i , J . , c o n c u r r i n g ) ( f i n d i n g n o s u p p o r t f o r a l e a s t i n t r u s i v e m e a n s r e q u i r e -m e n t i n e i t h e r t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t o r i n t h e At w o c e n t u r i e s o f s e a r c h a n d s e i z u r e c a s e l a w @ i n t e r p r e t i n g i t ) , c e r t . d e n i e d , 5 0 6 U . S . 1 0 0 5 ( 1 9 9 2 ) . 5 2 S e e N a d i n e S t r o s s e n , T h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t i n t h e B a l a n c e : A c c u r a t e l y S e t t i n g t h e S c a l e s t h r o u g h t h e L e a s t I n t r u s i v e M e a n s A n a l y s i s , 6 3 N . Y . U . L . R E V . 1 1 7 3 , 1 2 4 2 ( 1 9 8 8 ) ; S c o t t E . S u n d b y , A R e t u r n t o F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t B a s i c s : U n d o i n g t h e M i s c h i e f o f C a m a r a a n d T e r r y , 7 2 M I N N . L . R E V . 3 8 3 , 4 3 6 - 3 7 ( 1 9 8 8 ) ( a r g u i n g t h a t a s t r i c t s c r u t i n y - l e a s t i n t r u s i v e m e a n s s t a n d a r d w o u l d Ab e s t o w p r e f e r r e d s t a t u s u p o n t h e f o u r t h a m e n d m e n t a s a f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t @) .


for according a special status to first amendment libertiesCthat they created the environment necessary for other freedoms to flourishBis equally applicable to the fourth amendment.@53 Such broad brush analysis ignores important historical differences in constitutional rights and the language of the constitution. For example, the First Amendment's Speech Clause utilizes ab-solute language: ACongress shall make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech.@ Given that absolute bar, as a general matter, it is appropriate that restrictions on speech should be subjected to a requirement of necessity, that is, that the government have a compelling interest and that the restriction be narrowly tailored to effectuate that interest.54 Such close tailoring analysis is, however, inappropriate in the Fourth Amendment context, which, instead of barring governmental intrusions, requires only that the intrusion be reasonable. This is to say that reasonableness is a more forgiving concept than a least intrusive means analysis allows. In accordance with that mandate, the means need be only reasonably related to the justification for the intrusion.55 The proper question for searches of data stored on a com-puterBas with all questions of reasonablenessBis whether the means chosen by the government to execute the search are rea-sonably related to the purpose of the search. This inquiry, in my view, does not mandate that the police utilize any specific technology or procedures at any given time, particularly where the state of technology creates uncertainty that the search would be effective if limited to certain means. Indeed, there is no parallel in Supreme Court jurisprudence limiting intrusions

5 3 S t r o s s e n , s u p r a n o t e 5 2 , a t 1 2 4 1 ( f o o t n o t e o m i t t e d ) . 5 4 S e e , e . g . , A s h c r o f t v . A m e r i c a n C i v i l L i b e r t i e s U n i o n , 5 4 2 U . S . 6 5 6 ( 2 0 0 4 ) ( l o o k i n g t o l e s s r e s t r i c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s t o c o n t e n t - b a s e d r e s t r i c t i o n s o n s p e e c h i n c o n t e x t o f C o n g r e s s i o n a l a t t e m p t s t o p r o t e c t m i n o r s f r o m s e x u a l l y e x p l i c i t m a t e r i a l s o n I n t e r n e t ) . 5 5 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G r a y , 7 8 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 2 4 , 5 2 9 n . 8 ( E . D . V a . 1 9 9 9 ) ( p o l i c e s e a r c h i n g c o m p u t e r s n o t o b l i g a t e d t o c o n d u c t At h e m o s t t e c h n i c a l l y a d -v a n c e d s e a r c h p o s s i b l e @; i n s t e a d , p r o p e r q u e s t i o n i s Aw h e t h e r t h e s e a r c h , a s c o n -d u c t e d w a s r e a s o n a b l e @) .


to means that might permit evidence to go undetected once it is determined that the police have a warrant to search based on probable cause to believe that the place to be searched contains evidence of a crime.56

c. Does the Nature or Amount of Material Make Computers Different from Other Containers?

A fundamental premise of the Aspecial approach,@ which asserts that computers should be treated differently than other containers of evidence, is the belief that Aelectronic storage is likely to contain a greater quantity and variety of information than any previous storage method.@57 The premise does not dispute that, at the most basic level, a computer is a container of a variety of items, ranging from wires to hard drives, some of which hold (contain!) digital evidence. The underlying rationale seems to be nothing more than the fact that computers store such a vast amount of information of all sorts that the particu-lar container called a computer becomes distinct from any pre-vious container. The Supreme Court at one point attempted to distinguish among types of containers in ranking expectations of privacy. 5 6 S e e g e n e r a l l y T h o m a s K . C l a n c y , T h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t ' s C o n c e p t o f R e a s o n a b l e n e s s , 2 0 0 4 U T A H L . R E V . 9 7 7 ( 2 0 0 4 ) [ h e r e i n a f t e r C l a n c y , C o n c e p t o f R e a s o n a b l e n e s s ] ( d i s c u s s i n g t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t ' s r e a s o n a b l e n e s s a n a l y s i s ) . T h e C o u r t h a s c r e a t e d a f e w u n u s u a l r e s t r i c t i o n s f o r p r o b a b l e - c a u s e b a s e d i n t r u s i o n s d u e t o h e i g h t e n e d c o n c e r n s f o r i n t r u s i o n s i n t o t h e b o d y a n d b a s e d o n f r e e - s p e e c h c o n c e r n s . S e e i d . a t 1 0 1 5 - 2 0 . C e r t a i n l y , t h e s e a r c h o f a c o m p u t e r i s n o t a n a l o g o u s t o a f o r c e d s u r g i c a l p r o c e d u r e t o r e m o v e a b u l l e t f r o m a p e r s o n ' s c h e s t . S e e W i n s t o n v . L e e , 4 7 0 U . S . 7 5 3 , 7 5 5 ( 1 9 8 5 ) . M o r e o v e r , e v e n i n t h e a r e a o f f r e e s p e e c h , t h e C o u r t h a s h e l d t h a t a w a r r a n t b a s e d o n p r o b a b l e c a u s e i s s u f f i c i e n t a u t h o r i t y t o s e a r c h n e w s p a p e r o f f i c e s f o r e v i d e n c e o f a c r i m e . S e e Z u r c h e r v . S t a n f o r d D a i l y , 4 3 6 U . S . 5 4 7 , 5 6 6 - 6 7 ( 1 9 7 8 ) . C o n g r e s s , i n r e s p o n s e t o Z u r c h e r , h a s i m p o s e d s e v e r a l s t a t u t o r y o b l i g a t i o n s o n l a w e n f o r c e m e n t w h e n t h e r e i s r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t F i r s t A m e n d m e n t m a t e r i a l s a r e i n v o l v e d . S e e , e . g . , C C I P S M a n u a l , s u p r a n o t e 4 6 , a t 4 4 - 4 7 ( d i s c u s s i n g t h e P r i v a c y P r o t e c t i o n A c t ) . 5 7 W i n i c k , s u p r a n o t e 1 8 , a t 1 0 5 .


Luggage had high expectations of privacy.58 But other contain-ers did not Adeserve the full protection of the Fourth Amend-ment.@59 The bankruptcy of an analytical structure based on distinguishing between types of containers soon became evi-dent, at least to a plurality of the Court: it had no basis in the language of the Amendment, which Aprotects people and their effects, . . . whether they are `personal' or ìmpersonal.'@60 Thus, the contents of closed footlockers or suitcases and opaque con-tainers were immune from a warrantless search because the owners Areasonably `manifested an expectation that the con-tents would remain free from public examination.'@61 Moreover, the plurality believed that it would be Adifficult if not impossible to perceive any objective criteria@ to make any distinction be-tween containers: AWhat one person may put into a suitcase, another may put into a paper bag.@62 A majority of the Court later adopted the view that there was no distinction between Aworthy@ and Aunworthy@ containers:

t h e c e n t r a l p u r p o s e o f t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t f o r e c l o s e s s u c h a d i s t i n c t i o n . F o r j u s t a s t h e m o s t f r a i l c o t t a g e i n t h e k i n g d o m i s a b s o l u t e l y e n t i t l e d t o t h e s a m e g u a r a n t e e s o f

5 8 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C h a d w i c k , 4 3 3 U . S . 1 , 1 2 - 1 3 ( 1 9 7 7 ) ( c o n t r a s t i n g r e d u c e d e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y s u r r o u n d i n g a n a u t o m o b i l e w i t h l u g g a g e a n d a s s e r t i n g : AU n l i k e a n a u t o m o b i l e , w h o s e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n i s t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , l u g -g a g e i s i n t e n d e d a s a r e p o s i t o r y o f p e r s o n a l e f f e c t s . I n s u m , a p e r s o n ' s e x p e c t a t i o n s o f p r i v a c y i n p e r s o n a l l u g g a g e a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n i n a n a u t o m o b i l e . @) ; a c -c o r d F l o r i d a v . J i m e n o , 5 0 0 U . S . 2 4 8 , 2 5 3 - 5 4 ( 1 9 9 1 ) ( M a r s h a l l , J . , d i s s e n t i n g ) ; s e e a l s o D o n a l d A . D r i p p s , T h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t a n d t h e F a l l a c y o f C o m p o s i t i o n : D e t e r m i n a c y V e r s u s L e g i t i m a c y i n a R e g i m e o f B r i g h t - L i n e R u l e s , 7 4 M I S S . L . J . 3 4 1 , 3 7 9 - 8 7 ( 2 0 0 4 ) ( d i s c u s s i n g t h e C o u r t ' s i n c o n s i s t e n t t r e a t m e n t o f c o n t a i n e r s i n v e h i -c l e s ) . 5 9 A r k a n s a s v . S a n d e r s , 4 4 2 U . S . 7 5 3 , 7 6 5 n . 1 3 ( 1 9 7 9 ) . I n d e e d , As o m e c o n t a i n e r s ( f o r e x a m p l e a k i t o f b u r g l a r t o o l s o r a g u n c a s e ) b y t h e i r v e r y n a t u r e [ c o u l d n o t ] s u p p o r t a n y r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y b e c a u s e t h e i r c o n t e n t s [ c o u l d ] b e i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e i r o u t w a r d a p p e a r a n c e . @ I d . ; a c c o r d W a l t e r v . U n i t e d S t a t e s , 4 4 7 U . S . 6 4 9 , 6 5 8 n . 1 2 ( 1 9 8 0 ) . 6 0 R o b b i n s v . C a l i f o r n i a , 4 5 3 U . S . 4 2 0 , 4 2 6 ( 1 9 8 1 ) ( p l u r a l i t y o p i n i o n ) . 6 1 I d . 6 2 I d .


p r i v a c y a s t h e m o s t m a j e s t i c m a n s i o n , s o a l s o m a y a t r a v e l e r w h o c a r r i e s a t o o t h b r u s h a n d a f e w a r t i c l e s o f c l o t h i n g i n a p a p e r b a g o r k n o t t e d s c a r f c l a i m a n e q u a l r i g h t t o c o n c e a l h i s p o s s e s s i o n s f r o m o f f i c i a l i n s p e c t i o n a s t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d e x e c u t i v e w i t h t h e l o c k e d a t t a c h e c a s e . 6 3

Based on this reasoning, it seems clear that the Supreme Court wouldBand shouldBreject a special rule for electronic evidence containers. Otherwise, contrary to Supreme Court precedent and sound reasoning, filing cabinets, diaries, books, floppy drives, hard drives, paper bags, and other storage devic-es would all require different rules. Moreover, given the pace of technological change, which permits ever greater storage of information on ever smaller devices, such distinctions are illu-sory. Finally, the fact that some of the evidence in electronic storage is intermingled with other materials should not change the analysis. The same can be said of many other containers: diaries may contain evidence unrelated to the crime; filing cabinets often hold not only files of business-related paper but also miscellaneous other documents, ranging from personal tax records to family photographs.

6 3 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . R o s s , 4 5 6 U . S . 7 9 8 , 8 2 2 ( 1 9 8 2 ) ( f o o t n o t e o m i t t e d ) ; a c c o r d F l o r i d a v . J i m e n o , 5 0 0 U . S . 2 4 8 , 2 5 3 - 5 4 ( 1 9 9 1 ) ( M a r s h a l l , J . , d i s s e n t i n g ) ; s e e a l s o C a l i f o r n i a v . C a r n e y , 4 7 1 U . S . 3 8 6 , 3 9 4 ( 1 9 8 5 ) ( r e j e c t i n g d i s -t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n w o r t h y a n d u n w o r t h y m o t o r v e h i c l e s ) ; N e w J e r s e y v . T . L . O . , 4 6 9 U . S . 3 2 5 , 3 3 7 - 3 9 ( 1 9 8 5 ) ( s t u d e n t h a s p r o t e c t e d p r i v a c y i n t e r e s t i n h e r p u r s e a t s c h o o l ) . B u t c f . C a l i f o r n i a v . G r e e n w o o d , 4 8 6 U . S . 3 5 , 4 0 - 4 1 ( 1 9 8 8 ) ( p e r s o n l e a v i n g p l a s t i c t r a s h b a g s f o r c o l l e c t i o n h a s n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y a s t o t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e b a g s ) .


d. Limitations Based on Search Execution

Procedures in Warrants

Based at least in part on the other premises of the Aspecial approach,@ that is, computers are different than other contain-ers, that there should be limitations on how the government may conduct a search based on file names or types, or that software search technology must be employed, some authorities require that the warrant set forth the police strategy for exe-cuting the search for electronic evidence.64 Frankly, there is no basis in the language of the Fourth Amendment or Supreme Court caselaw65 for such warrant requirements. As emphasized by the Supreme Court in Dalia v. United States,66 the Warrant Clause contains three requirements for a search warrant to issue: an oath or affirmation; probable cause to search; and a particular description of the place to be searched.67 Grounded in that language, the Dalia Court rejected the claim that a war-rant must specifically authorize a covert entry in order for such a manner of execution of a warrant to be legal. The Court rea-soned: 6 4 S e e , e . g . , I n r e S e a r c h o f 3 8 1 7 W . W e s t E n d , 3 2 1 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 9 5 8 - 6 3 ( d i s c u s s i n g t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s a s a p p l i e d t o c o m p u t e r s e a r c h e s ) . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f J u s t i c e ' s m a n u a l o n h o w t o s e a r c h c o m p u t e r s m a y b e p a r t l y t o b l a m e f o r t h i s b e c a u s e i t s t a t e s t h a t a c o m p u t e r s e a r c h w a r r a n t s h o u l d s e t f o r t h a s e a r c h s t r a t e g y a n d t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h a t s t r a t e g y . S e e C C I P S M a n u a l , s u p r a n o t e 4 6 , 6 9 - 7 5 . H o w e v e r , i t h a s b e e n n o t e d t h a t t h e C C I P S m a n u a l i s n o t a u t h o r i t a t i v e o n w h a t t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t r e q u i r e s a n d t h a t , a l t h o u g h Ai t m a y b e p r e f e r a b l e a n d a d v i s a b l e t o s e t f o r t h a c o m p u t e r s e a r c h s t r a t e g y i n a w a r r a n t a f f i d a v i t , f a i l u r e t o d o s o d o e s n o t r e n d e r c o m p u t e r s e a r c h p r o v i s i o n s u n d u l y b r o a d . @ M a a l i M . , 3 4 6 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 1 2 4 6 . I n d e e d , t h e C C I P S m a n u a l i t s e l f r e c o g n i z e s t h e i n h e r e n t d i f f i c u l t y o f m a n d a t i n g a p r e d e t e r m i n e d s e a r c h s t r a t e g y : AE v e r y c o m p u t e r a n d c o m p u t e r n e t w o r k i s d i f f e r e n t , a n d s u b t l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n h a r d w a r e , s o f t w a r e , o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m s , a n d s y s t e m s c o n f i g u r a t i o n c a n a l t e r t h e s e a r c h p l a n d r a -m a t i c a l l y . @ C C I P S M a n u a l , s u p r a n o t e 4 6 , a t 3 9 . 6 5 I n A n d r e s e n , t h e C o u r t d i d a s s e r t t h a t , f o r d o c u m e n t s e a r c h e s a n d t e l e p h o n e c o n v e r s a t i o n s e i z u r e s , Ar e s p o n s i b l e o f f i c i a l s , i n c l u d i n g j u d i c i a l o f f i c i a l s , m u s t t a k e c a r e t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e y a r e c o n d u c t e d i n a m a n n e r t h a t m i n i m i z e s u n w a r -


N o t h i n g i n t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o r i n t h i s C o u r t ' s d e c i s i o n s i n t e r p r e t i n g t h a t l a n g u a g e s u g g e s t s t h a t . . . w a r -r a n t s a l s o m u s t i n c l u d e a s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r e c i s e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e y a r e t o b e e x e c u t e d . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , i t i s g e n e r a l l y l e f t t o t h e d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e e x e c u t i n g o f f i c e r s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d e t a i l s o f h o w b e s t t o p r o c e e d w i t h t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a s e a r c h a u t h o r i z e d b y w a r r a n t - s u b j e c t o f c o u r s e t o t h e g e n e r a l F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t p r o t e c t i o n Aa g a i n s t u n r e a s o n a b l e s e a r c h e s a n d s e i z u r e s . @ . . . . I t w o u l d e x t e n d t h e W a r r a n t C l a u s e t o t h e e x t r e m e t o r e -q u i r e t h a t , w h e n e v e r i t i s r e a s o n a b l y l i k e l y t h a t F o u r t h

r a n t e d i n t r u s i o n s u p o n p r i v a c y . @ 4 2 7 U . S . a t 4 8 2 n . 1 1 . N o t h i n g i n t h a t l a n g u a g e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h a s e a r c h i s t o b e c o n d u c t e d w a s s u b j e c t t o p r e -a u t h o r i z a t i o n b y t h e j u d i c i a r y . A l s o , B e r g e r v . N e w Y o r k , 3 8 8 U . S . 4 1 ( 1 9 6 7 ) , p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d , d o e s n o t s u p p o r t p r e - a u t h o r i z a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s i n a w a r r a n t b e y o n d w h a t t h e W a r r a n t C l a u s e r e q u i r e s . I n s t r i k i n g d o w n a s t a t u t e t h a t a u t h o r i z e d w i r e t a p p i n g o f t e l e p h o n e c o n v e r s a t i o n s , t h e B e r g e r C o u r t i d e n t i f i e d t h e s t a t u t e ' s f a i l u r e s a s n o n c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t ' s p a r t i c u l a r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s o f n a m i n g t h e c r i m e t h a t h a d b e e n o r w a s b e i n g c o m m i t t e d a n d s p e c i f y i n g t h e c o n -v e r s a t i o n s t o b e s e a r c h e d . I d . a t 5 5 - 6 0 . T h e C o u r t a d d e d t h a t t h e s t a t u t e h a d t h e v i c e o f f a i l i n g t o p l a c e a t e r m i n a t i o n d a t e o n t h e e a v e s d r o p o n c e t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n t a r g e t e d h a d b e e n s e i z e d . I d . a t 5 9 - 6 0 . T h i s l a t t e r m i n i m i z a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s t e m s n o t f r o m W a r r a n t C l a u s e r e q u i r e m e n t s r e g u l a t i n g t h e i s s u a n c e o f a w a r r a n t b u t f r o m t h e n a t u r e o f r e a s o n a b l e n e s s , t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o m m a n d o f t h e f i r s t c l a u s e o f t h e A m e n d m e n t , w h i c h m a n d a t e s t h a t t h e s c o p e o f a n i n t r u s i o n m u s t b e r e a s o n a b l y r e l a t e d t o i t s j u s t i f i c a t i o n . S e e , e . g . , N e w J e r s e y v . T . L . O . , 4 6 9 U . S . 3 2 5 , 3 4 1 ( 1 9 8 5 ) ( n o t i n g t h e t w o f o l d i n q u i r y t o a s s e s s t h e r e a s o n a b l e n e s s o f a s e a r c h : i n i t i a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r s e a r c h a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t s c o p e o f t h a t s e a r c h ) . N o t h i n g i n t h a t r e a s o n a b l e n e s s i n q u i r y r e q u i r e s p r e - a u t h o r i z a t i o n . P r i m a r i l y i n r e s p o n s e t o B e r g e r , C o n g r e s s c r e a t e d m i n i m i z a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s u p o n l a w e n f o r c e m e n t o f f i c e r s s e e k i n g t o i n t e r c e p t e l e c t r o n i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , m a n d a t i n g t h a t a t t e m p t s b e m a d e t o l i m i t i n t e r c e p t i o n s t o t h o s e c o n v e r s a t i o n s t h a t a r e r e l e v a n t t o t h e c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y t h a t t h e y a r e a u t h o r i z e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e . S e e 1 8 U . S . C . ' 2 5 1 8 ( 5 ) . T h o s e b r o a d p r o h i b i -t i o n s h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t a p p l i c a t i o n t o c o m p u t e r - f a c i l i t a t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . S e e g e n e r a l l y C C I P S M a n u a l , s u p r a n o t e 4 6 , a t 1 6 4 - 9 6 . 6 6 4 4 1 U . S . 2 3 8 ( 1 9 7 9 ) . 6 7 I d . a t 2 5 5 .


A m e n d m e n t r i g h t s m a y b e a f f e c t e d i n m o r e t h a n o n e w a y , t h e c o u r t m u s t s e t f o r t h p r e c i s e l y t h e p r o c e d u r e s t o b e f o l l o w e d b y t h e e x e c u t i n g o f f i c e r s . S u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s u n n e c e s s a r y , a s w e h a v e h e l d . . . t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h a w a r r a n t i s e x e c u t e d i s s u b j e c t t o l a t e r j u d i c i a l r e v i e w a s t o i t s r e a s o n a b l e n e s s . 6 8

Indeed, in the computer context, some courts have recognized that a warrant need not specify the methods of recovery of the data or the tests to be performed because A[t]he warrant process is primarily concerned with identifying what may be searched or seizedBnot howBand whether there is sufficient cause for the invasion of privacy thus entailed.@69

6 8 I d . a t 2 5 7 - 5 8 ( f o o t n o t e o m i t t e d ) . 6 9 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . U p h a m , 1 6 8 F . 3 d 5 3 2 , 5 3 7 ( 1 s t C i r . 1 9 9 9 ) .


III. SELECTED FOURTH AMENDMENT APPLICABILITY ISSUES

A. Expectation of Privacy Analysis

1. In General


A person seeking to challenge the propriety of a governmental search must establish that she has a protected interest, which the Supreme Court measures by ascertaining whether she has a legitimate expectation of privacy that has been invaded by the government.70 This expectation of privacy inquiry is two pronged: the individual must show that she has a subjective expectation of privacy; and that that subjective expectation of privacy is one that society is prepared to recognize as reason-able.71 If either prong is missing, no protected interest is estab-lished.72 The application of this doctrine in the computer con-text is not without critics;73 nonetheless, it remains the frame-

7 0 R a k a s v . I l l i n o i s , 4 3 9 U . S . 1 2 8 , 1 4 3 ( 1 9 7 8 ) . B u t s e e T h o m a s K . C l a n c y , W h a t D o e s t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t P r o t e c t : P r o p e r t y , P r i v a c y , o r S e c u r i t y ? , 3 3 W A K E F O R E S T L . R E V . 3 0 7 , 3 2 7 - 4 4 ( 1 9 9 8 ) ( d i s c u s s i n g o r i g i n s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p r i v a c y e x p e c t a t i o n s t e s t a n d a r g u i n g t h a t i t i n a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n t e r e s t s p r o t e c t e d b y t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t ) . 7 1 S e e , e . g . , K a t z v . U n i t e d S t a t e s , 3 8 9 U . S . 3 4 7 , 3 6 1 ( 1 9 6 7 ) ( H a r l a n , J . , c o n c u r r i n g ) ; C a l i f o r n i a v . C i r a o l o , 4 7 6 U . S . 2 0 7 , 2 1 4 ( 1 9 8 6 ) ( s t a t i n g t h a t AJ u s t i c e H a r l a n m a d e i t c r y s t a l c l e a r t h a t h e w a s r e s t i n g o n t h e r e a l i t y t h a t o n e w h o e n t e r s a t e l e p h o n e b o o t h i s e n t i t l e d t o a s s u m e t h a t h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n i s n o t b e i n g i n t e r c e p t e d @) ; S m i t h v . M a r y l a n d , 4 4 2 U . S . 7 3 5 , 7 4 0 ( 1 9 7 9 ) ( s t a t i n g t h a t t h e H a r l a n t e s t Ae m b r a c e s t w o d i s c r e t e q u e s t i o n s @) . 7 2 T o s u p p o r t t h i s p r i v a c y a n a l y s i s , t h e C o u r t h a s c r e a t e d a h i e r a r c h y o f p r i v a c y i n t e r e s t s . F i r s t , e x p e c t a t i o n s o f p r i v a c y t h a t As o c i e t y i s ` p r e p a r e d t o r e c o g n i z e a s l e g i t i m a t e ' @ h a v e , a t l e a s t i n t h e o r y , t h e g r e a t e s t p r o t e c t i o n . N e w J e r s e y v . T . L . O . , 4 6 9 U . S . 3 2 5 , 3 3 8 ( 1 9 8 5 ) ( q u o t i n g H u d s o n v . P a l m e r , 4 6 8 U . S . 5 1 7 , 5 2 6 ( 1 9 8 4 ) ) . S e c o n d , d i m i n i s h e d e x p e c t a t i o n s o f p r i v a c y a r e m o r e e a s i l y i n v a d -e d . S e e i d . a t 3 4 2 n . 8 ( d i s c u s s i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l s u s p i c i o n r e q u i r e m e n t w h e n p r i v a c y i n t e r e s t s a r e m i n i m a l ) ; a c c o r d S k i n n e r v . R a i l w a y L a b o r E x e c u t i v e s ' A s s ' n , 4 8 9 U . S . 6 0 2 , 6 2 4 - 2 5 ( 1 9 8 9 ) . T h i r d , s u b j e c t i v e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f p r i v a c y t h a t s o c i e t y i s n o t p r e p a r e d t o r e c o g n i z e a s l e g i t i m a t e h a v e n o p r o t e c t i o n . S e e , e . g . , R a k a s v . I l l i n o i s , 4 3 9 U . S . 1 2 8 , 1 4 3 n . 1 2 ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C a y m e n , 4 0 4 F . 3 d 1 1 9 6 , 1 2 0 0 -0 1 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 5 ) ( n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n t h e c o n t e n t s o f c o m p u t e r s t h e p e r s o n h a s s t o l e n o r o b t a i n e d b y f r a u d ) . S e e g e n e r a l l y C l a n c y , C o n c e p t o f R e a s o n a b l e n e s s , s u p r a n o t e 5 6 , a t 1 0 0 5 - 1 3 ( d i s c u s s i n g t h e i m p a c t o f t h e p r i v a c y h i e r a r c h y o n t h e C o u r t ' s r e a s o n a b l e n e s s a n a l y s i s ) . 7 3 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H a m b r i c k , 5 5 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 0 4 , 5 0 8 ( W . D . V a . 1 9 9 9 ) ( AC y b e r s p a c e i s a n o n p h y s i c a l ` p l a c e ' a n d i t s v e r y s t r u c t u r e , a c o m -p u t e r a n d t e l e p h o n e n e t w o r k t h a t c o n n e c t s m i l l i o n s o f u s e r s , d e f i e s t r a d i t i o n a l F o u r t h


work to assess a person's ability to challenge the propriety of governmental searches. The following sections discuss the more common situations where the reasonable expectation of privacy analysis has been applied in the computer context.

2. The Location of the ComputerCIn General Preliminarily, it is important to distinguish between the exterior of the computer (including what is visible on the monitor's screen) and its contents. As to locating a computer, the person seeking to challenge plain view74 observations made upon observing the computer must establish an expectation of privacy in the place where the computer is stored.75 Thus, for example, when computers are located in a common storage area accessible to hotel employees and tenants, a person does not have a reasonable expectation of privacy in the physical compo-nents of that computer.76 In contrast, homeowners have a reasonable expectation of privacy in their belongings, including computers, in their home.77 Equally true, however, is the prin-ciple that persons with no expectation of privacy in someone else's home or that home's contents cannot challenge the search or seizure of another's computer in that home.78 A m e n d m e n t a n a l y s i s . S o l o n g a s t h e r i s k - a n a l y s i s a p p r o a c h o f K a t z r e m a i n s v a l i d , h o w e v e r , t h i s c o u r t i s c o m p e l l e d t o a p p l y t r a d i t i o n a l l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s t o t h i s n e w a n d c o n t i n u a l l y e v o l v i n g t e c h n o l o g y . @) . 7 4 S e e d i s c u s s i o n i n f r a a t 2 6 2 - 6 4 . 7 5 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L y o n s , 9 9 2 F . 2 d 1 0 2 9 , 1 0 3 1 - 3 2 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 1 9 9 3 ) ( n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n a s t o l e n h a r d d r i v e ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . P o u l s e n , 4 1 F . 3 d 1 3 3 0 , 1 3 3 7 ( 9 t h C i r . 1 9 9 4 ) ( h o l d i n g t h a t a p e r s o n w h o f a i l e d t o p a y r e n t h a d n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n t h e c o n t e n t s o f s t o r a g e l o c k e r , i n c l u d i n g c o m p u t e r t a p e s ) . 7 6 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . N e t t l e s , 1 7 5 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 0 8 9 , 1 0 9 3 - 9 4 ( N . D . I l l . 2 0 0 1 ) . 7 7 G u e s t , 2 5 5 F . 3 d a t 3 3 3 ; s e e a l s o P e o p l e v . O ' B r i e n , 7 6 9 N . Y . S . 2 d 6 5 4 , 6 5 6 ( N . Y . A p p . D i v . 2 0 0 3 ) ( d e f e n d a n t h a d r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n c o m p u t e r i n h i s b e d r o o m ) . 7 8 G u e s t v . L e i s , 2 5 5 F . 3 d a t 3 3 3 .


3. Data on Work ComputersCGovernmental Employer

Government employees may have a legitimate expectation of privacy in their offices or parts of their offices.79 However, office policies, practices, or regulations may reduce that expectation of privacy.80 In the context of government computers used by employees, the assessment whether an employee has standing to challenge a search is made Aìn the context of the employment relation,' after considering what access other em-ployees or the public had to [the employee's] office@81 and is done on a case-by-case basis.82 When the employer has no policy notifying employees that their computer use could be monitored and there is no indica-tion that the employer directs others to routinely access the employees' computers, the employees' subjective beliefs that their computer files are private may be objectively reasonable.83 Thus, for example, in Leventhal v. Knapek,84 the court held that Leventhal had a reasonable expectation of privacy in a com-puter in a private office that he occupied.85 He had exclusive use of the computer.86 The agency did not have a general practice of routinely conducting searches of office computers nor had it placed Leventhal on notice that he should have no 7 9 O ' C o n n o r v . O r t e g a , 4 8 0 U . S . 7 0 9 , 7 1 6 - 1 8 ( 1 9 8 7 ) ( p l u r a l i t y o p i n i o n ) . 8 0 I d . a t 7 1 7 . 8 1 L e v e n t h a l v . K n a p e k , 2 6 6 F . 3 d 6 4 , 7 3 ( 2 d C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) ( q u o t i n g O ' C o n n o r , 4 8 0 U . S . a t 7 1 7 ) ; c f . V o y l e s v . S t a t e , 1 3 3 S . W . 3 d 3 0 3 , 3 0 6 ( T e x . A p p . 2 0 0 4 ) ( t e a c h e r h a d n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n c o m p u t e r o w n e d b y s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t h a t h a d b e e n p l a c e d o n t e a c h e r ' s d e s k i n c o m p u t e r l a b o r a t o r y t o t e a c h s t u d e n t s a b o u t c o m p u t e r s ) . 8 2 O ' C o n n o r , 4 8 0 U . S . a t 7 1 8 . 8 3 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S l a n i n a , 2 8 3 F . 3 d 6 7 0 , 6 7 6 - 7 7 ( 5 t h C i r . ) , r e m a n d e d o n o t h e r g r o u n d s , 5 3 7 U . S . 8 0 2 ( 2 0 0 2 ) , o n a p p e a l a f t e r r e m a n d , 3 5 9 F . 3 d 3 5 6 ( 5 t h C i r . 2 0 0 4 ) . 8 4 2 6 6 F . 3 d 6 4 ( 2 d C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) . 8 5 I d . a t 7 3 . 8 6 I d .


expectation of privacy in the contents of his office computer.87 Although agency technical support staff had access to all com-puters in the agency's offices, their maintenance of the comput-ers was normally announced; the one unannounced visit to Leventhal's computer was only to change the name of a serv-er.88 Further, although agency Apersonnel might also need, at times, to search for a document in an unattended computer,@ those searches were not so frequent, widespread, or extensive as to constitute an atmosphere A`so open to fellow employees or the public that no expectation of privacy is reasonable.'@89 The Leventhal court concluded that the A`[c]onstitutional protection against unreasonable searches by the government does not disappear merely because the government has the right to make reasonable intrusions in its capacity as employer.'@90 On the other hand, agency policies and notices indicating that computer use is not private or is subject to inspection or audit have routinely served to defeat expectation of privacy claims.91

8 7 I d . a t 7 4 . 8 8 I d . 8 9 I d . a t 7 4 ( q u o t i n g O ' C o n n o r , 4 8 0 U . S . a t 7 1 8 ( p l u r a l i t y o p i n i o n ) ) . 9 0 I d . ( q u o t i n g O ' C o n n o r , 4 8 0 U . S . a t 7 1 7 - 1 8 ( p l u r a l i t y o p i n i o n ) ( e m p h a s i s i n o r i g i n a l ) ) . 9 1 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . A n g e v i n e , 2 8 1 F . 3 d 1 1 3 0 , 1 1 3 4 - 3 5 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 2 0 0 2 ) ( u n i v e r s i t y p o l i c i e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s , w h i c h i n t e r a l i a r e s e r v e d t h e r i g h t t o r a n d o m l y a u d i t I n t e r n e t u s e a n d t o m o n i t o r i n d i v i d u a l s s u s p e c t e d o f c o m p u t e r m i s u s e , p r e v e n t e d e m p l o y e e s f r o m h a v i n g r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n d a t a d o w n l o a d e d f r o m t h e I n t e r n e t a n d s t o r e d o n u n i v e r s i t y c o m p u t e r s ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S i m o n s , 2 0 6 F . 3 d 3 9 2 , 3 9 8 - 9 9 ( 4 t h C i r . 2 0 0 0 ) ( i n l i g h t o f a g e n c y ' s p o l i c y t h a t p e r m i t t e d i t t o Aa u d i t , i n s p e c t , a n d / o r m o n i t o r @ e m p l o y e e s ' u s e o f I n t e r n e t , e m p l o y e e d i d n o t h a v e r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n f i l e s h e t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e I n t e r n e t o r i n t h e h a r d d r i v e o f c o m p u t e r h e u s e d ) ; W a s s o n v . S o n o m a J u n i o r C o l l . D i s t . , 4 F . S u p p . 2 d 8 9 3 , 9 0 5 - 0 6 ( N . D . C a l . 1 9 9 7 ) ( n o l e g i t i m a t e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n c o m p u t e r f i l e s b y e m p l o y e e b a s e d o n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t ' s p o l i c y t h a t r e s e r v e d r i g h t t o Aa c c e s s a l l i n f o r m a t i o n s t o r e d o n d i s t r i c t c o m p u t e r s @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . T a n k s l e y , 5 0 M . J . 6 0 9 , 6 2 0 ( N - M . C t . C r i m . A p p . 1 9 9 9 ) ( s t a t i n g t h e r e i s n o r e a -s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y b y m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r i n o f f i c e c o m p u t e r m a d e a v a i l a b l e t o h i m t o p e r f o r m o f f i c i a l d u t i e s ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M o n r o e , 5 2 M . J . 3 2 6 , 3 3 0 ( C . A . A . F .


For example, a public employee had no reasonable expectation of privacy in the contents of his government computer based on his written acknowledgement of the agency's policy, which prohibited personal use, expressly stated that employees had no privacy rights, and that the employee consented to inspection and audit of the computer.92

4. Data on Work ComputersCPrivate Employer A similar analysis has been applied to work computers owned by a private employer. For example, it has been held that there is no reasonable expectation of privacy in a laptop provided by an employer based on the employer's reserving the right to inspect.93 Also, a person who has no ownership in a computer that has been assigned by a company to another user has no standing to challenge its search.94

2 0 0 0 ) ( n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n e m a i l m e s s a g e s a n d e m a i l b o x w h e n g o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d e m a i l s y s t e m h a d b a n n e r w a r n i n g t h a t u s e r o f s y s t e m c o n s e n t e d t o m o n i t o r i n g ) ; c f . B o h a c h v . R e n o , 9 3 2 F . S u p p . 1 2 3 2 , 1 2 3 4 - 3 5 ( D . N e v . 1 9 9 6 ) ( s t a t i n g t h a t t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n m e s s a g e s s e n t o v e r c o m p u t e r i z e d p o l i c e p a g i n g s y s t e m d e s i g n e d f o r o f f i c i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w h e n a l l m e s s a g e s w e r e r e c o r d e d , a n d n o t i c e w a s g i v e n t h a t a l l m e s s a g e s w o u l d b e Al o g g e d o n t h e n e t w o r k , @ a n d t h a t c e r t a i n m e s s a g e s w e r e b a n n e d ) . B u t s e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L o n g , 6 1 M . J . 5 4 0 , 5 4 5 - 4 7 ( N - M . C t . C r i m . A p p . 2 0 0 5 ) ( d e s p i t e b a n n e r w a r n i n g u s e r o f p o s s i b l e m o n i t o r i n g o f c o m p u t e r n e t w o r k s y s t e m , t h e d e f e n d a n t h a d r e a s o n -a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n i n p r i v a c y o f e m a i l o n h e r c o m p u t e r b e c a u s e t h e s y s t e m a d -m i n i s t r a t o r d i s c o v e r e d t h e e v i d e n c e a s a r e s u l t o f a r e q u e s t b y l a w e n f o r c e m e n t t o l o c a t e e v i d e n c e r a t h e r t h a n a s a r e s u l t o f r o u t i n e m o n i t o r i n g ) . 9 2 T h o r n , 3 7 5 F . 3 d a t 6 8 3 . 9 3 M u i c k v . G l e n a y r e E l e c . , 2 8 0 F . 3 d 7 4 1 , 7 4 3 ( 7 t h C i r . 2 0 0 2 ) . C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . B a i l e y , 2 7 2 F . S u p p . 2 d 8 2 2 , 8 2 4 , 8 3 5 - 3 7 ( D . N e b . 2 0 0 3 ) ( t h e r e w a s n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n w o r k c o m p u t e r o w n e d b y e m p l o y e e ' s c o m p a n y w h e n c o m p a n y r e q u i r e d e m p l o y e e t o a s s e n t t o s e a r c h e v e r y t i m e e m p l o y e e a c c e s s e d c o m p u t e r ) . 9 4 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . T r i u m p h C a p i t a l G r o u p , I n c . , 2 1 1 F . R . D . 3 1 , 5 4 ( D . C o n n . 2 0 0 2 ) . C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . W o n g , 3 3 4 F . 3 d 8 3 1 , 8 3 9 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 3 ) ( d e f e n d a n t h a d n o s t a n d i n g t o c h a l l e n g e s e a r c h o f f o r m e r e m p l o y e r ' s l a p t o p c o m -p u t e r ) .


5. Information Obtained from Third Parties


If a third party discloses information to the government that an individual has provided to that third party, the individual typically will not have an interest protected by the Fourth Amendment.95 This is based on the Court's view that no Fourth Amendment protection exists where a wrongdoer has a mis-placed belief that a person to whom he voluntarily confides his wrongdoing will not reveal it.96 Such a Arisk,@ according to the Court, is Aprobably inherent in the conditions of human soci-ety.@97 This is consistent with the Supreme Court's view that voluntary exposure to the public eliminates Fourth Amendment protection.98 Thus, there is no Fourth Amendment protection99 against the 9 5 S e e , e . g . , M i l l e r v . U n i t e d S t a t e s , 4 2 5 U . S . 4 3 5 , 4 4 3 ( 1 9 7 6 ) ( s t a t i n g r u l e ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H o r o w i t z , 8 0 6 F . 2 d 1 2 2 2 , 1 2 2 5 - 2 6 ( 4 t h C i r . 1 9 8 6 ) ( n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n c o m p u t e r d a t a s o l d t o a n d s t o r e d o n a n o t h e r c o m p a n y ' s c o m p u t e r ) . T h e r e i s a b u r g e o n i n g a m o u n t o f i n f o r m a t i o n h e l d b y t h i r d p a r t i e s a n d u s e d b y l a w e n f o r c e m e n t . S e e D a n i e l J . S o l o v e , D i g i t a l D o s s i e r s a n d t h e D i s s i p a t i o n o f F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t P r i v a c y , 7 5 S . C A L . L . R E V . 1 0 8 3 , 1 0 8 9 - 1 1 0 1

( 2 0 0 2 ) ( c a t a l o g u i n g t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t ) . N u m e r o u s c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e a r g u e d f o r F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t p r o t e c t i o n s e x t e n d i n g t o i n f o r m a t i o n h e l d b y t h i r d p a r t i e s . S e e , e . g , P a t r i c i a I . B e l l i a , S u r v e i l l a n c e L a w T h r o u g h C y b e r l a w ' s L e n s , 7 2 G E O . W A S H . L . R E V . 1 3 7 5 , 1 4 0 3 - 1 2 ( 2 0 0 4 ) ( a r g u i n g t h a t t h e r e i s a r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i -v a c y i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s h e l d b y I n t e r n e t s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r s ) . S o m e , a s h a s P r o f e s s o r L a F a v e , d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e t y p e o f i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n t o t h e t h i r d p a r t y a n d t h e p u r p o s e s f o r w h i c h t h e t h i r d p a r t y h a s b e e n g i v e n t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d c o n c l u d e t h a t a p e r s o n m a y r e t a i n a r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n s o m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . W A Y N E R . L A F A V E , S E A R C H A N D S E I Z U R E ' 2 . 6 ( f ) a t 7 1 7 - 1 9 ( 4 t h e d . 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e r e i s a r e c e n t c a s e , w h i c h i s p e r h a p s a m e r e a b e r r a t i o n , t h a t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e C o u r t m a y a d o p t a s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s . S e e F e r g u s o n v . C i t y o f C h a r l e s t o n , 5 3 2 U . S . 6 7 , 7 8 ( 2 0 0 1 ) ( f i n d i n g a r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y b y a p a t i e n t i n i n f o r m a t i o n c o n -v e y e d t o m e d i c a l p e r s o n n e l a n d s t a t i n g : AT h e r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y e n j o y e d b y t h e t y p i c a l p a t i e n t u n d e r g o i n g d i a g n o s t i c t e s t s i n a h o s p i t a l i s t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f t h o s e t e s t s w i l l n o t b e s h a r e d w i t h n o n m e d i c a l p e r s o n n e l w i t h o u t h e r c o n s e n t . @) . 9 6 H o f f a v . U n i t e d S t a t e s , 3 8 5 U . S . 2 9 3 , 3 0 2 ( 1 9 6 6 ) . 9 7 I d . a t 3 0 3 . 9 8 K a t z , 3 8 9 U . S . a t 3 5 1 . 9 9 C o n g r e s s h a s p r o v i d e d s o m e s t a t u t o r y p r o t e c t i o n s f o r s t o r e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s i n t h e c o n t r o l o f t h i r d p a r t i e s . S e e , e . g . , O r i n S . K e r r , A U s e r ' s


disclosure of subscriber information by Internet service providers.100 This rule also applies to email recovered from a third party: once an email message has been received by anoth-er party, the sender has no reasonable expectation of privacy in its contents.101 This risk of exposure analysis also has been uni-formly applied to statements made in Internet chat rooms.102 As G u i d e t o t h e S t o r e d C o m m u n i c a t i o n s A c t , a n d a L e g i s l a t o r ' s G u i d e t o A m e n d i n g I t , 7 2 G E O . W A S H . L . R E V . 1 2 0 8 ( 2 0 0 4 ) . S i m i l a r l y , t h e i n t e r c e p t i o n o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s i n t r a n s i t i s l a r g e l y g o v e r n e d b y a s t a t u t o r y f r a m e w o r k . S e e , e . g . , B e l l i a , s u p r a n o t e 9 5 , a t 1 3 8 3 - 9 6 ( o u t l i n i n g t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d s t a t u t o r y f r a m e w o r k ) . 1 0 0 S e e G u e s t v . L e i s , 2 5 5 F . 3 d 3 2 5 , 3 3 6 ( 6 t h C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) ( n o t i n g t h a t Ac o m p u t e r u s e r s d o n o t h a v e a l e g i t i m a t e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n t h e i r s u b s c r i b e r i n f o r m a t i o n b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e c o n v e y e d i t t o a n o t h e r p e r s o n C t h e s y s t e m o p e r a t o r @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C o x , 1 9 0 F . S u p p . 2 d 3 3 0 , 3 3 2 ( N . D . N . Y . 2 0 0 2 ) ( h o l d i n g t h a t t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n i n s u b s c r i b e r i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d t o I n t e r n e t s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . K e n n e d y , 8 1 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 1 0 3 , 1 1 1 0 ( D . K a n . 2 0 0 0 ) ( n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n s u b s c r i b e r i n f o r m a t i o n ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H a m b r i c k , 5 5 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 0 4 , 5 0 7 - 0 9 ( W . D . V a . 1 9 9 9 ) ( i n d i v i d u a l h a s n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n h i s n a m e , a d d r e s s , s o c i a l s e c u r i t y n u m b e r , c r e d i t c a r d n u m b e r , s c r e e n n a m e , a n d p r o o f o f I n t e r n e t c o n n e c t i o n o b t a i n e d f r o m I n t e r n e t s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r ) ; S t a t e v . E v e r s , 8 1 5 A . 2 d 4 3 2 , 4 4 0 - 4 1 ( N . J . 2 0 0 3 ) ( p e r -s o n h a d n o s t a n d i n g t o c h a l l e n g e w a r r a n t t h a t o b t a i n e d h i s s u b s c r i b e r i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m I n t e r n e t s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r ) ; H a u s e v . C o m m o n w e a l t h , 8 3 S . W . 3 d 1 , 1 0 - 1 2 ( K y . A p p . 2 0 0 1 ) ( n o s t a n d i n g o f s u b s c r i b e r t o c h a l l e n g e w a r r a n t t h a t o b t a i n e d h i s n a m e , a d d r e s s , a n d s c r e e n n a m e f r o m I n t e r n e t s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . O h n e s o r g e , 6 0 M . J . 9 4 6 , 9 4 9 - 5 0 ( N - M . C t . C r i m . A p p . 2 0 0 5 ) ( n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n s u b s c r i b e r i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n t o I n t e r n e t s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r ) . 1 0 1 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C h a r b o n n e a u , 9 7 9 F . S u p p . 1 1 7 7 , 1 1 8 4 ( S . D . O h i o 1 9 9 7 ) ( Aa n e - m a i l m e s s a g e , l i k e a l e t t e r , c a n n o t b e a f f o r d e d a r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y o n c e t h a t m e s s a g e i s r e c e i v e d @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M a x w e l l , 4 5 M . J . 4 0 6 , 4 1 8 - 1 9 ( C . A . A . F . 1 9 9 6 ) ( n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n e m a i l s a f t e r b e i n g r e c e i v e d b y a n o t h e r p e r s o n ) ; C o m m o n w e a l t h v . P r o e t t o , 7 7 1 A . 2 d 8 2 3 , 8 3 1 ( P a . S u p e r . 2 0 0 1 ) ( n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n e m a i l m e s s a g e s s e n t t o a n o t h e r p e r s o n w h e n t h a t p e r s o n f o r w a r d e d e m a i l t o p o l i c e ) . C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . B a c h , 3 1 0 F . 3 d 1 0 6 3 , 1 0 6 6 ( 8 t h C i r . 2 0 0 2 ) ( e x p r e s s i n g d o u b t b u t d e -c l i n i n g t o d e c i d e w h e t h e r t h e r e w a s a r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n e m a i l r e c o v e r e d f r o m I n t e r n e t s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r ) . 1 0 2 S e e , e . g . , G u e s t v . L e i s , 2 5 5 F . 3 d 3 2 5 , 3 3 3 ( 6 t h C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) ( n o e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n m a t e r i a l p o s t e d o n b u l l e t i n b o a r d s y s t e m t h a t h a d d i s c l a i m e r


one court has stated: AClearly, when Defendant engaged in chat room conversations, he ran the risk of speaking with an under-cover agent.@103

6. Joint Users; Password Protected Files The question also arises where there are joint users of a computer.104 By creating password-protected files, the creator Aaffirmatively@ intends to exclude the joint user and others from the files.105 Under such circumstances, it has been reasoned, it cannot be said that the person has assumed the risk that the joint user would permit others to search the files.106 On the other hand, for example, stating that there is Ano generic expectation of privacy for shared usage on computers,@ one court has held that a student has no standing to suppress ses-sion logs, indicating when he used a computer, and evidence on hard drives of the university-owned computer that he used in a computer lab on campus.107

t h a t p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w e r e n o t p r i v a t e ) ; S t a t e v . E v e r s , 8 1 5 A . 2 d 4 3 2 , 4 3 9 - 4 0 ( N . J . 2 0 0 3 ) ( p e r s o n h a d n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n Ap o r n o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l h e u n l o o s e d i n t o t h e e l e c t r o n i c s t r e a m o f c o m m e r c e w h e n h e e - m a i l e d t w o p h o t o g r a p h s . . . t o f i f t y - o n e c h a t - r o o m s u b s c r i b e r s @) ; C o m m o n w e a l t h v . P r o e t t o , 7 7 1 A . 2 d 8 2 3 , 8 3 1 ( P a . S u p e r . 2 0 0 1 ) ( n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y b y s u s p e c t i n h i s c h a t - r o o m c o n v e r s a t i o n s ) . C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M e e k , 3 6 6 F . 3 d 7 0 5 , 7 1 2 n . 7 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 4 ) ( c h a t r o o m p a r t i c i p a n t h a d n o s t a n d i n g t o a s s e r t p r i v a c y i n t e r e s t o f m i n o r ' s o n l i n e i d e n t i t y ) . 1 0 3 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C h a r b o n n e a u , 9 7 9 F . S u p p . 1 1 7 7 , 1 1 8 5 ( S . D . O h i o 1 9 9 7 ) ( n o e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n s t a t e m e n t s m a d e i n p u b l i c c h a t r o o m ) . 1 0 4 C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L o n g o , 7 0 F . S u p p . 2 d 2 2 5 , 2 5 6 ( W . D . N . Y . 1 9 9 9 ) ( n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y b y l a w y e r i n c o m p u t e r f i l e s a c c e s s e d b y e m p l o y e e i n h e r s t a t u s a s l e g a l s e c r e t a r y ) . 1 0 5 T r u l o c k v . F r e e h , 2 7 5 F . 3 d 3 9 1 , 4 0 3 ( 4 t h C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) . 1 0 6 I d . ; s e e a l s o U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S l a n i n a , 2 8 3 F . 3 d 6 7 0 , 6 7 6 ( 5 t h C i r . ) , r e m a n d e d o n o t h e r g r o u n d s , 5 3 7 U . S . 8 0 2 ( 2 0 0 2 ) , o n a p p e a l a f t e r r e m a n d , 3 5 9 F . 3 d 3 5 6 ( 5 t h C i r . 2 0 0 4 ) ( u s e o f p a s s w o r d s a n d l o c k i n g o f f i c e d o o r s t o r e s t r i c t e m p l o y e r ' s a c c e s s t o c o m p u t e r f i l e s i s e v i d e n c e o f e m p l o y e e ' s s u b j e c t i v e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n t h o s e f i l e s ) . 1 0 7 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . B u t l e r , 1 5 1 F . S u p p . 2 d 8 2 , 8 4 - 8 5 ( D . M e . 2 0 0 1 ) .


B. Private Searches and Seizures

1. In General The Fourth Amendment is applicable only to governmental activity; hence, private searches and seizures are unregulated by it.108 Caselaw has detailed three aspects of the private search doctrine that have significance when applied to searches of computers. They are: 1) determining who is a government agent; 2) ascertaining what constitutes replication of a private search; and 3) determining under what circumstances the Acon-text@ of a private search destroys any reasonable expectation of privacy in objects not searched by the private party. These latter two questions have been treated by the courts as analyti-cally related and will, therefore, be treated together in this article.

1 0 8 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . J a c o b s e n , 4 6 6 U . S . 1 0 9 , 1 1 3 ( 1 9 8 4 ) ( T h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t i s Aw h o l l y i n a p p l i c a b l e ` t o a s e a r c h o r s e i z u r e , e v e n a n u n r e a s o n a b l e o n e , e f f e c t e d b y a p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l n o t a c t i n g a s a n a g e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o r w i t h t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o r k n o w l e d g e o f a n y g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l . ' @) .


2. Government Agents

The first difficulty is assessing when a person acts as a governmental agent. The Supreme Court has stated that the question whether a person is acting as an agent of the govern-ment Anecessarily turns on the degree of the Government's participation in the private party's activities, [which] can only be resolved ìn light of all of the circumstances.'@109 Nonetheless, two considerations for determining when a private party is a government agent are often the focus of the inquiry used by lower courts: (1) whether the government knew or acquiesced in the private party's conduct; and (2) whether the private party's purpose was to assist law enforcement efforts or to further his or her own ends.110 Although a variety of factual instances have been litigated,111 a

1 0 9 S k i n n e r v . R a i l w a y L a b o r E x e c u t i v e s ' A s s ' n , 4 8 9 U . S . 6 0 2 , 6 1 4 - 1 5 ( 1 9 8 9 ) ( c i t a t i o n o m i t t e d ) ; s e e a l s o C o o l i d g e v . N e w H a m p s h i r e , 4 0 3 U . S . 4 4 3 , 4 8 7 ( 1 9 7 1 ) ( a p r i v a t e s e a r c h m a y b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o s t a t e a c t i o n i f t h e p r i v a t e a c t o r i s Ar e g a r d e d a s h a v i n g a c t e d a s a n ` i n s t r u m e n t ' o r a g e n t o f t h e s t a t e @) . 1 1 0 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S o d e r s t r a n d , 4 1 2 F . 3 d 1 1 4 6 , 1 1 5 3 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 2 0 0 5 ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S t e i g e r , 3 1 8 F . 3 d 1 0 3 9 , 1 0 4 5 ( 1 1 t h C i r . 2 0 0 3 ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G r i m e s , 2 4 4 F . 3 d 3 7 5 , 3 8 3 ( 5 t h C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) ; J a r r e t t v . C o m m o n -w e a l t h , 5 9 4 S . E . 2 d 2 9 5 , 3 0 0 - 0 1 ( V a . A p p . 2 0 0 4 ) ; s e e a l s o U n i t e d S t a t e s v . J a r r e t t , 3 3 8 F . 3 d 3 3 9 , 3 4 4 - 4 5 ( 4 t h C i r . 2 0 0 3 ) ( v i e w i n g t h e t w o p a r t s n o t a s a At e s t @ b u t a s Af a c t o r s @) , c e r t . d e n i e d , 5 4 0 U . S . 1 1 8 5 ( 2 0 0 4 ) . 1 1 1 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . E l l y s o n , 3 2 6 F . 3 d 5 2 2 ( 4 t h C i r . 2 0 0 3 ) ( w o m a n l i v i n g i n d e f e n d a n t ' s h o u s e w a s n o t g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t w h e n s h e t u r n e d o v e r t o g o v e r n m e n t c o m p u t e r d i s k s c o n t a i n i n g c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . P o u l s e n , 4 1 F . 3 d 1 3 3 0 , 1 3 3 5 ( 9 t h C i r . 1 9 9 4 ) ( m a n a g e r o f s e l f - s t o r a g e u n i t n o t a c t -i n g a s g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t w h e n h e e n t e r e d d e f e n d a n t ' s u n i t a n d s e i z e d , i n t e r a l i a , c o m p u t e r t a p e s ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . N e t t l e s , 1 7 5 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 0 8 9 , 1 0 9 1 - 9 2 ( N . D . I l l . 2 0 0 1 ) ( F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t i n a p p l i c a b l e t o h o t e l c l e r k ' s m o v i n g o f c o m p u t e r e q u i p -m e n t f r o m h o t e l r o o m t o c o m m o n s t o r a g e a r e a w h e n a c t i o n s w e r e n o t a t b e h e s t o f g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t s ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L o n g o , 7 0 F . S u p p . 2 d 2 2 5 , 2 5 8 - 6 0 ( W . D . N . Y . 1 9 9 9 ) ( l e g a l s e c r e t a r y ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s o f d e f e n d a n t ' s c o m p u t e r f i l e s w e r e w i t h i n s c o p e o f e m p l o y m e n t a n d n o t a s e a r c h ) ; S t a t e v . L a s a g a , 8 4 8 A . 2 d 1 1 4 9 ( C o n n . 2 0 0 4 ) ( p r i v a t e u n i v e r s i t y e m p l o y e e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m o n i t o r i n g c o m p u t e r u s e


common situation involves repairmen who report their findings to the police. Courts have consistently held that observations by private computer technicians made during their examination of a computer given to them to repair do not implicate the Fourth Amendment.112 For example, in United States v. Grimes,113 a re-pairman, during the course of his examination of a computer brought to the computer store for repair by Grimes' wife, opened 17 files that he believed contained child pornography.114 After consultations with his supervisor, the technician called the police.115 An officer then came to the store and viewed the same 17 images.116 Without requesting the store employees to search the computer any further, the officer reported the findings to a FBI agent.117 The repairman's supervisor, meanwhile, copied the 17 images onto a floppy disk, which he gave to the police officer; the officer copied them before faxing the images to the FBI agent, who later seized the computer after obtaining a search warrant.118 Grimes claimed that the store's search went beyond the permission given by his wife, n o t a c t i n g a s g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t w h e n h e d e t e c t e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y o n s c h o o l c o m p u t e r ) . 1 1 2 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H a l l , 1 4 2 F . 3 d 9 8 8 , 9 9 3 ( 7 t h C i r . 1 9 9 8 ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . B a r t h , 2 6 F . S u p p . 2 d 9 2 9 , 9 3 2 - 3 5 ( W . D . T e x . 1 9 9 8 ) ( F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t i n a p p l i c a b l e t o c o m p u t e r r e p a i r m a n ' s e x a m i n a t i o n o f c o m p u t e r w h e n p e r f o r m i n g r e p a i r w o r k ) ; P e o p l e v . P h i l l i p s , 8 3 1 N . E . 2 d 5 7 4 , 5 8 2 ( I l l . 2 0 0 5 ) ( n o s e a r c h w h e n p o l i c e s h o w n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y v i d e o o n c o m p u t e r t h a t h a d b e e n p r e v i o u s l y v i e w e d b y c o m p u t e r r e p a i r m a n d u r i n g c o u r s e o f r e p a i r e f f o r t s ) ; P e o p l e v . E m e r s o n , 7 6 6 N . Y . S . 2 d 4 8 2 , 4 8 6 - 8 7 ( N . Y . S u p . C t . 2 0 0 3 ) ( n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y a n d h e n c e , n o s e a r c h , w h e n p r i v a t e c o m p u t e r r e p a i r m a n s h o w e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c o m p u t e r f i l e s t o p o l i c e t h a t h e h a d p r e v i o u s l y v i e w e d ) . C f . R o g e r s v . S t a t e , 1 1 3 S . W . 3 d 4 5 2 , 4 5 7 - 4 8 ( T e x . A p p . 2 0 0 3 ) ( f i n d i n g n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n c o m p u t e r f i l e s t h a t d e f e n d a n t h a d r e q u e s t e d c o m p u t e r r e p a i r m a n t o c o p y ) . 1 1 3 2 4 4 F . 3 d 3 7 5 ( 5 t h C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) . 1 1 4 G r i m e s , 2 4 4 F . 3 d a t 3 7 7 - 8 3 . 1 1 5 I d . a t 3 7 8 . 1 1 6 I d . 1 1 7 I d . 1 1 8 I d .


thereby invalidating any evidence that flowed from the search.119 The court found that the initial search, being private in nature, was not subject to Fourth Amendment applicabili-ty.120 It reasoned that the government was not involved in the discovery of the 17 images nor were the private parties acting with the intent to assist law enforcement officials.121 The court believed that the pre-warrant images viewed by the police officer and the FBI agent were Awithin the scope of the original private-party search@ and Awere in an area where Grimes no longer possessed a reasonable expectation of privacy.@122 On the other hand, it has been held, when a repairman copied files based on a state trooper's request, a search within the meaning of the Amendment occurred.123 Similarly, although a private computer repairman was acting in a private capacity when he observed the first file containing child pornography, after he related his observations to a FBI agent who asked him to copy the entire hard drive, his observations of additional files were as a government agent.124 Other common searches involve hackers.125 An anonymous computer hacker, known as AUnknownuser,@ has generated several prosecutions for possession of child pornography stem-

1 1 9 I d . a t 3 8 3 . 1 2 0 I d . 1 2 1 I d . 1 2 2 I d . 1 2 3 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H a l l , 1 4 2 F . 3 d 9 8 8 , 9 9 3 ( 7 t h C i r . 1 9 9 8 ) ; s e e a l s o U n i t e d S t a t e s v . B a r t h , 2 6 F . S u p p . 2 d 9 2 9 , 9 3 6 ( W . D . T e x . 1 9 9 8 ) ( c o m p u t e r r e p a i r m a n ' s f i r s t v i e w i n g o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y n o t a s e a r c h b u t h i s l a t e r v i e w i n g o f a d d i t i o n a l f i l e s a f t e r r e p o r t i n g h i s o b s e r v a t i o n t o p o l i c e w a s a s g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t ) . 1 2 4 B a r t h , 2 6 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 9 3 5 - 3 6 . B u t s e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . P e t e r s o n , 2 9 4 F . S u p p . 2 d 7 9 7 , 8 0 0 , 8 0 5 ( D . S . C . 2 0 0 3 ) ( t e c h n i c i a n ' s o b s e r v a t i o n o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y d u r i n g r e p a i r o f c o m p u t e r w a s n o t a s a g e n t o f g o v e r n m e n t , d e -s p i t e S o u t h C a r o l i n a s t a t u t e r e q u i r i n g t e c h n i c i a n t o r e p o r t s u c h o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t , a f t e r t h e t e c h n i c i a n ' s i n i t i a l o b s e r v a t i o n s , h e d e c i d e d t o o p e n a d d i t i o n a l f i l e s b e c a u s e o f t h a t l e g a l r e q u i r e m e n t ) . 1 2 5 S e e M o n i c a R . S h a h , N o t e , T h e C a s e f o r a S t a t u t o r y S u p p r e s s i o n R e m e d y t o R e g u l a t e I l l e g a l P r i v a t e P a r t y S e a r c h e s , 1 0 5 C O L U M . L . R E V . 2 5 0 ( 2 0 0 5 ) ( d i s c u s s i n g a b i l i t y o f p r i v a t e c i t i z e n s t o h a c k i n t o c o m p u t e r s o f o t h e r p e r s o n s ) .


ming from his hacking activities.126 Unknownuser obtained access to the computers via a Trojan horse program that he attached to a picture he posted to a news group frequented by persons interested in pornography. When the picture was downloaded, the Trojan horse program was also downloaded, allowing Unknownuser to gain access to the computers.127 After finding child pornography, Unknownuser reported those find-ings to law enforcement authorities. Although Unknownuser was truly unknown to law enforce-ment prior to his first report, thus making the conclusion that he was not a government agent an easy one,128 Unknownuser's subsequent efforts were preceded by an FBI agent's thanking him for his assistance in the first case and by the comment: AIf you want to bring other information forward, I am available.@129 Several months later, Unknownuser produced information about another child molester.130 Two different appellate courts subsequently rejected the claim that Unknownuser acted as a government agent based on the FBI agent's comments, rea-soning that, although Unknownuser was motivated to aid law enforcement, the government did not involve itself in Unknownuser's search sufficiently to transform it into govern-mental action.131 Those courts asserted that mere acquiescence was insufficient; rather, the government must either partici-pate in or affirmatively encourage the search.132 The mere ex-pression of gratitude did not create an agency relationship; otherwise, as one court stated, Avirtually any Government ex- 1 2 6 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . J a r r e t t , 3 3 8 F . 3 d 3 3 9 ( 4 t h C i r . 2 0 0 3 ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S t e i g e r , 3 1 8 F . 3 d 1 0 3 9 , 1 0 4 2 - 4 6 ( 1 1 t h C i r . 2 0 0 3 ) ( n o s e a r c h w h e n p r i v a t e h a c k e r t u r n e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y o v e r t o p o l i c e t h a t h a c k e r f o u n d b y a c c e s s i n g d e f e n d a n t ' s c o m p u t e r ) ; J a r r e t t v . C o m m o n w e a l t h , 5 9 4 S . E . 2 d 2 9 5 , 3 0 1 -0 3 ( V a . A p p . 2 0 0 4 ) ( s a m e ) . 1 2 7 J a r r e t t , 3 3 8 F . 3 d a t 3 4 1 . 1 2 8 S t e i g e r , 3 1 8 F . 3 d a t 1 0 4 5 . 1 2 9 J a r r e t t , 3 3 8 F . 3 d a t 3 4 1 . 1 3 0 I d . a t 3 4 2 . 1 3 1 I d . a t 3 4 5 ; J a r r e t t , 5 9 4 S . E . 2 d a t 3 0 2 - 0 3 . 1 3 2 J a r r e t t , 3 3 8 F . 3 d a t 3 4 5 .


pression of gratitude for assistance well prior to an investiga-tion would effectively transform any subsequent private search by the party into a Government search.@133 The court noted that the government was under no affirmative obligation to discourage Unknownuser from hacking.134 Subsequent to Unknownuser's providing the information that formed the basis of the second and third prosecutions, an FBI agent began a series of e-mail exchanges with Unknownuser, which one appellate court has described as the Aproverbial `wink and a nod.'@135 The agent informed Unknownuser that she could not ask him to search for additional child pornographers because that would make him an agent of the government and make the information he obtained unuseable.136 The agent further advised that Unknownuser should feel free to send any additional information he obtained and that he would not be prosecuted for hacking.137 The Fourth Circuit viewed those exchanges as Aprobably@ the type of gov-ernment involvement that would create an agency relation-ship.138

1 3 3 I d . a t 3 4 6 . 1 3 4 I d . a t 3 4 7 . 1 3 5 I d . a t 3 4 3 . 1 3 6 I d . 1 3 7 I d . 1 3 8 I d . a t 3 4 6 .


3. Replication and AContext@ Issues

A government search that merely replicates a previous private one is not a Asearch@ within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment; rather, the Amendment applies only to the extent that the government has exceeded the scope of the private search.139 The reasoning behind this rule, generally speaking, is that the original private party search extinguishes any rea-sonable expectation of privacy in the object searched.140 The application of these principles in the computer context has sometimes led to questionable results. For example, although a computer repairman detained a computer for an extra day based on the FBI's request to do so to allow time for the FBI to obtain a search warrant, one court maintained that the deten-tion was not attributable to the government.141 There are also situations where the Acontext@ in which an object is found may lead some courts to the conclusion that there is no legitimate expectation of privacy in that object.142 According to this view, due to the private search, there may not be any legitimate expectation of privacy remaining in aspects of the object that had not been examined during that private search. Under such circumstances, it might be concluded that the government expansion of the private intrusion does not invade any protected interest, which is to say that there is no 1 3 9 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . J a c o b s e n , 4 6 6 U . S . 1 0 9 , 1 1 5 ( 1 9 8 4 ) . 1 4 0 I d . a t 1 2 0 - 2 1 . 1 4 1 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H a l l , 1 4 2 F . 3 d 9 8 8 , 9 9 4 - 9 5 ( 7 t h C i r . 1 9 9 8 ) . 1 4 2 S e e , e . g . , J a c o b s e n , 4 6 6 U . S . a t 1 2 1 ( a l t h o u g h p r i v a t e p a r t y h a d n o t p h y s i c a l l y e x a m i n e d c o n t e n t s o f p a c k a g e c o n t a i n i n g w h i t e p o w d e r , p a c k a g e c o u l d n o l o n g e r s u p p o r t r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y ) ; i d . a t 1 4 3 ( B r e n n a n , J . , d i s s e n t i n g ) ( o b s e r v i n g t h a t t h e Ac o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e w h i t e p o w d e r w a s f o u n d @ u n d e r h i s v i e w o f t h e f a c t s Ac o u l d n o t s u p p o r t a r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y @ a n d t h a t t h e r e w a s a A v i r t u a l c e r t a i n t y ' @ t h a t t h e D E A a g e n t c o u l d i d e n t i f y i t ) . C f . T e x a s v . B r o w n , 4 6 0 U . S . 7 3 0 , 7 4 3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) ( p l u r a l i t y o p i n i o n ) ( b a l l o o n h a d Ad i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r [ t h a t ] s p o k e v o l u m e s a s t o i t s c o n t e n t B p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e t r a i n e d e y e o f t h e o f f i c e r @) .


search within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment. Frankly, the caselaw is less than clear whether this principle is firmly establishedBat least in Supreme Court jurisprudence. The analysis of these principles begins with Walter v. United States.143 In that case, 12 packages were delivered to the wrong company.144 Employees opened the packages; inside the packages were 871 boxes of 8-millimeter film.145 On one side of each box Awere suggestive drawings, and on the other were explicit descriptions of the contents.@146 One employee attempt-

1 4 3 4 4 7 U . S . 6 4 9 ( 1 9 8 0 ) . 1 4 4 I d . a t 6 5 1 . 1 4 5 I d . a t 6 5 2 . 1 4 6 I d . T h e S u p r e m e C o u r t d i d n o t d e t a i l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e b o x e s . T h e l o w e r c o u r t , h o w e v e r , s t a t e d t h a t A[ t ] h e t o p o f e a c h f i l m b o x s h o w e d t h e n a m e ` D a v i d ' s B o y s ' a n d a d r a w i n g o f t w o n u d e m a l e s e m b r a c i n g a n d k i s s i n g ; o n t h e b a c k o f e a c h w e r e t h e t i t l e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l m o v i e a n d a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n , i n e x p l i c i t t e r m s , o f t h e b i z a r r e h o m o s e x u a l a c t s d e p i c t e d i n t h e f i l m . @ U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S a n d -e r s , 5 9 2 F . 2 d 7 8 8 , 7 9 1 ( 5 t h C i r . 1 9 7 9 ) . T h e c o u r t d e t a i l e d :

T h e i n d i c t m e n t l i s t e d f i v e o f t h e 2 5 AD a v i d ' s B o y s @ t i t l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e s h i p -m e n t . T h e i n d i v i d u a l b o x e s c o n t a i n i n g AL o o k a t t h e B i r d i e @ s a i d t h a t C o r b e t t r e a l l y g e t s t u r n e d o n w h e n R i c h c o m e s o v e r f o r a p h o t o s e s s i o n . I n t h e a C c l o s e - u p s y o u w o n ' t b e l i e v e ! T h e h i g h l i g h t o f t h e m o v i e h a p p e n s w h e n C o r b e t t m a s t u r b a t e s a n d C o n R i c h ' s f a c e ! T h i s i s a f l i c k y o u w i l l n o t f o r g e t . AT h e C l e a n U p ( 3 w h i t e ) @ b o x e s r e a d t h a t L e n n y a n d E r i c t u r n e a c h o t h e r o n a n d w h e n y o u s e e t h e s e g o o d l o o k i n g s t u d s y o u ' l l k n o w w h y ! ! ! T h e a c t i o n g e t s h e a v y a n d t h e n L e s e n t e r s t h e p i c t u r e . g a l o r e a n d L e s c l e a n s i t u p l i k e y o u ' v e n e v e r s e e n . G r e a t c l o s e - u p s ! T h e AB l a c k R a p e @ ( 1 b l k . 1 w h t . ) b o x e s s t a t e d t h a t B i g B l a c k L a n c e a s 1 1 C b u t i t d o e s n ' t t a k e l o n g b e f o r e t h e s m a l l s l e n d e r L a r r y i s t a k i n g i t a l l r i g h t u p t h e ! G o o d t o n g u e a c t i o n a n d a s u r p r i s e t h a t y o u w o n ' t b e l i e v e . Y o u w i l l l o v e t h e c l o s e - u p a c t i o n . T h e b o x e s c o n t a i n i n g AT h e M a s s a g e @ e x p l a i n e d t h a t A n g e l o t h e m a s s e u r g e t s t u r n e d o n a s h e g i v e s T o m m y a r u b d o w n . A n g e l o ' s e x p e r t t o n g u e & h a n d s s o o n h a v e T o m m y ' s h a r d & e x -c i t e d . B u t h e w a n t s i t t h e G r e e k w a y a n d A n g i e c o m p l i e s . T h e n h e b e a u t i f u l o n T o m m y ' s f a c e ! T h i s i s o n e o f t h e b e s t c l o s e - u p s o f f r e n c h l o v e y o u w i l l e v e r s e e ! ! F i n a l l y , t h e AL o v i n g H a n d s @ b o x e s s a i d t h a t M u r r a y a n d C a r l a r e w e l l i n t o t h e i r l o v e s e s s i o n w h e n B e n e n t e r s t h e r o o m . H e w i l l s h o w y o u h i s l o v i n g h a n d s a s h e s h o v e s t h e m w i t h h i s a r m s ( j u s t s h o r t o f h i s e l b o w s ! ) r i g h t u p


ed to hold one or two of the films up to the light, but was unable to observe the content of the films.147 The recipients contacted federal agents, who viewed the films with a projector without first obtaining a warrant to search. Although a majority of the Court concluded that the viewing of the films using a projector violated the Fourth Amendment, there was no majority opinion. In an opinion announcing the judgment of the Court, authored by Justice Stevens and joined by only one other Justice, Stevens asserted that the officers violated the Fourth Amendment because they exceeded the scope of the private search.148 He reasoned that, because the private party had not actually viewed the films, projecting Athe films was a significant expansion of the search that had been conducted previously by a private party and therefore must be characterized as a separate search.@149 This was despite the fact that Athe nature of the contents of these films was indicated by descriptive material on their individual containers.@150 Stevens maintained:

[ T ] h e l a b e l s o n t h e f i l m b o x e s g a v e [ t h e f e d e r a l a g e n t s ] p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e f i l m s w e r e o b s c e n e a n d t h a t t h e i r s h i p m e n t i n i n t e r s t a t e c o m m e r c e h a d o f f e n d e d t h e f e d e r a l c r i m i n a l c o d e . B u t t h e l a b e l s w e r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o s u p p o r t a c o n v i c t i o n a n d w e r e n o t m e n t i o n e d i n t h e i n d i c t m e n t . F u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n Bt h a t i s t o s a y , a s e a r c h o f t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e f i l m s Bw a s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n

h i s f r i e n d s ' a h ! ! W h i l e t h e y m a s t u r b a t e ! I t i s a t r u e m a s t e r p i e c e f o r t h e a v i d c o n n o i s s e u r ! ! ( C e r t a i n p a r t i c u l a r l y s a l a c i o u s w o r d s h a v e b e e n d e l e t e d b y t h e w r i t e r o f t h i s o p i n i o n , a s i n d i c a t e d . )

I d . a t 7 9 3 n . 5 . 1 4 7 W a l t e r , 4 4 7 U . S . a t 6 5 1 . 1 4 8 I d . a t 6 5 7 . J u s t i c e W h i t e , i n a c o n c u r r i n g o p i n i o n j o i n e d b y J u s t i c e B r e n n a n , b e l i e v e d t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t w a s v i o l a t e d b e c a u s e t h e a g e n t s h a d n o t o b t a i n e d a w a r r a n t , r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r t h e s c o p e o f t h e p r i v a t e s e a r c h w a s e x -c e e d e d . I d . a t 6 6 0 - 6 2 . J u s t i c e M a r s h a l l c o n c u r r e d i n t h e j u d g m e n t b u t d i d n o t w r i t e a n o p i n i o n . I d . a t 6 6 0 . 1 4 9 I d . a t 6 5 7 . 1 5 0 I d . a t 6 5 4 .


t h e e v i d e n c e w h i c h w a s t o b e u s e d a t t r i a l . 1 5 1 Stevens rejected the government's claim Athat because the packages had been opened by a private party, thereby exposing the descriptive labels on the boxes, petitioners no longer had any reasonable expectation of privacy in the films.@152 He be-lieved that A[t]he private search merely frustrated that expecta-tion in part. It did not simply strip the remaining unfrustrated portion of that expectation of all Fourth Amendment protec-tion.@153 In a curious footnote, however, Justice Stevens opined that Aif a gun case is delivered to a carrier, there could then be no expectation that the contents would remain private, but if the gun case were enclosed in a locked suitcase, the shipper would surely expect that the privacy of its contents would be respected.@154 The gun case example indicates that Stevens would hold that, in at least some circumstances where the objects inside the container can be ascertained by information outside the container, there is no reasonable expectation of privacy inside the container. Stevens, however, made no at-tempt to reconcile the gun case example with the facts or his analysis in Walter.155 The four dissenters in Walter believed that no legitimate expectation of privacy remained in the contents of the packages by the time the FBI received them because the private search had Aclearly revealed the nature of their contents.@156 According-ly, the viewing of the films by the FBI did not change the na-ture of the search and was not an additional search.157 The 1 5 1 I d . 1 5 2 I d . a t 6 5 8 . 1 5 3 I d . a t 6 5 9 . 1 5 4 I d . a t 6 5 8 n . 1 2 ( c i t a t i o n o m i t t e d ) . 1 5 5 T h e g u n c a s e h a s b e e n r e p e a t e d s e v e r a l t i m e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e s i t u a -t i o n w h e r e t h e Av e r y n a t u r e @ o f t h e c o n t a i n e r Ac a n n o t s u p p o r t a n y r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y b e c a u s e [ t h e ] c o n t e n t s c a n b e i n f e r r e d f r o m [ t h e ] o u t w a r d a p p e a r a n c e . @ A r k a n s a s v . S a n d e r s , 4 4 2 U . S . 7 5 3 , 7 6 4 - 6 5 n . 1 3 ( 1 9 7 9 ) ; s e e a l s o J a c o b s e n , 4 6 6 U . S . a t 1 2 1 ( r e p e a t i n g t h e g u n c a s e e x a m p l e ) . 1 5 6 W a l t e r , 4 4 7 U . S . a t 6 6 3 ( B l a c k m u n , J . d i s s e n t i n g ) . 1 5 7 I d . a t 6 6 3 - 6 4 ( c i t a t i o n o m i t t e d ) .


dissent also addressed Stevens' gun case hypothetical: AThe films in question were in a state no different from Mr. Justice Stevens' hypothetical gun case when they reached the FBI. Their contents were obvious from `the condition of the package,' . . . and those contents had been exposed as a result of a purely private search that did not implicate the Fourth Amendment.@158 A perplexing question involving searches of computers, which has led to contradictory results, involves whether the scope of the private party search has been exceeded when law enforcement agents open additional files that had not been opened in the preceding private search. This question is similar to the one that so divided the Court in Walter. Some courts have held that the determinative inquiry is not the mere open-ing of additional files.159 On the other hand, in United States v. Barth,160 the court rejected the government's contention that, once a private computer repairman opened a file containing an image of child pornography, Barth lost his reasonable expecta-tion of privacy in the other files on the computer's hard drive, reasoning that the copying of the entire contents of the hard drive and the review of those files by law enforcement Afar exceeded@ the private viewings.161 In this context, United States v. Runyan162 is particularly instructive. In that case, the defendant's estranged wife and 1 5 8 I d . a t 6 6 5 . 1 5 9 S e e , e . g . , P e o p l e v . E m e r s o n , 7 6 6 N . Y . S . 2 d 4 8 2 , 4 8 8 ( N . Y . S u p . C t . 2 0 0 3 ) ( Aw h e n a n e a r l i e r , p r i v a t e s e a r c h o p e n s c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y i m a g e s o n a h a r d d r i v e i n i d e n t i f i e d c o m p u t e r f i l e f o l d e r s w h i c h t h e p r i v a t e s e a r c h e r f o u n d r e p l e t e w i t h f i l e t i t l e s p l a i n l y s u g g e s t i n g i m a g e s o f l i k e k i n d , d e f e n d a n t r e t a i n s n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y w i t h r e s p e c t t o a d d i t i o n a l s u c h i m a g e f i l e s i n t h e s a m e t w o c o m p u t e r f i l e f o l d e r s @) . C f . S t a t e v . L a s a g a , 8 4 8 A . 2 d 1 1 4 9 ( C o n n . 2 0 0 4 ) ( d e c l i n i n g t o d e t e r m i n e i f p o l i c e e x c e e d e d s c o p e o f p r i v a t e s e a r c h w h e n t h e y o p e n e d a d d i t i o n a l f i l e s b e c a u s e , e v e n i f t h o s e f i l e s w e r e d i s r e g a r d e d , w a r r a n t b a s e d o n p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o s e a r c h ) . 1 6 0 2 6 F . S u p p . 2 d 9 2 9 ( W . D . T e x . 1 9 9 8 ) . 1 6 1 I d . a t 9 3 5 - 3 7 . 1 6 2 2 7 5 F . 3 d 4 4 9 , 4 5 3 - 5 7 ( 5 t h C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) .


her companions removed from Runyan's ranch various data storage devices and turned them over to the police. The private parties had examined only a randomly selected assortment of the floppy disks and CDs and they did not view any of the ZIP disks. The government agents examined every one of the floppy disks, ZIP disks, and CDs.163 The Runyan court noted that there are two different analytical approaches to the problem posed by the facts. One line of authority holds that Aa police search exceeds the scope of a prior private search when the police open a container that the private searchers did not open.@164 A second line, according to the court, is reflected in United States v. Bowman:165

I n B o w m a n , a n a i r l i n e e m p l o y e e o p e n e d a n u n c l a i m e d s u i t -c a s e a n d f o u n d f i v e i d e n t i c a l b u n d l e s w r a p p e d i n t o w e l s a n d c l o t h i n g T h e e m p l o y e e o p e n e d o n e b u n d l e a n d f o u n d a w h i t e p o w d e r y s u b s t a n c e w r a p p e d i n p l a s t i c a n d d u c t t a p e . H e c o n t a c t e d a f e d e r a l n a r c o t i c s a g e n t , w h o i d e n t i f i e d t h e e x -p o s e d b u n d l e a s a k i l o b r i c k o f c o c a i n e a n d t h e n o p e n e d t h e o t h e r b u n d l e s , w h i c h a l s o c o n t a i n e d k i l o b r i c k s o f c o c a i n e . T h e c o u r t h e l d t h a t t h e a g e n t d i d n o t a c t i m p r o p e r l y i n f a i l i n g t o s e c u r e a w a r r a n t t o u n w r a p t h e r e m a i n i n g i d e n t i c a l b u n d l e s , r e a s o n i n g t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e c o c a i n e i n t h e e x p o s e d b u n d l e A s p o k e v o l u m e s a s t o [ t h e ] c o n t e n t s [ o f t h e r e m a i n i n g b u n d l e s ] C p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e t r a i n e d e y e o f t h e o f f i c e r . ' @1 6 6

Runyan attempted to harmonize the two approaches:

[ C ] o n f i r m a t i o n o f p r i o r k n o w l e d g e d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e e x c e e d i n g t h e s c o p e o f a p r i v a t e s e a r c h . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f a s e a r c h i n v o l v i n g a n u m b e r o f c l o s e d c o n t a i n e r s , t h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t o p e n i n g a c o n t a i n e r t h a t w a s n o t o p e n e d b y p r i v a t e s e a r c h e r s w o u l d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e p r o b l e m a t i c i f t h e p o l i c e k n e w w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l c e r t a i n t y , b a s e d o n t h e s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e p r i v a t e s e a r c h e r s , t h e i r r e p l i c a t i o n o f t h e

1 6 3 I d . a t 4 6 1 - 6 2 . 1 6 4 I d . a t 4 6 2 . 1 6 5 9 0 7 F . 2 d 6 3 ( 8 t h C i r . 1 9 9 0 ) . 1 6 6 2 7 5 F . 3 d a t 4 6 2 - 6 3 ( q u o t i n g B o w m a n , 9 0 7 F . 2 d a t 6 5 ) .


p r i v a t e s e a r c h , a n d t h e i r e x p e r t i s e , w h a t t h e y w o u l d f i n d i n s i d e . S u c h a n Ae x p a n s i o n @ o f t h e p r i v a t e s e a r c h p r o v i d e s t h e p o l i c e w i t h n o a d d i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e y d i d n o t a l -r e a d y o b t a i n f r o m t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r i v a t e s e a r c h a n d f r u s t r a t e s n o e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y t h a t h a s n o t a l r e a d y b e e n f r u s t r a t e d . 1 6 7

Applying this guideline to the facts of the case before it, the Runyan court believed that the police's pre-warrant exami-nation of the disks not opened by the private parties clearly exceeded the scope of the private search:

T h e p o l i c e c o u l d n o t h a v e c o n c l u d e d w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l c e r t a i n -t y t h a t a l l o f t h e d i s k s c o n t a i n e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y b a s e d o n k n o w l e d g e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e p r i v a t e s e a r c h e r s , i n f o r m a t i o n i n p l a i n v i e w , o r t h e i r o w n e x p e r t i s e . T h e r e w a s n o t h i n g o n t h e o u t s i d e o f a n y d i s k i n d i c a t i n g i t s c o n t e n t s . . . . I n d e e d , [ t h e p r i v a t e s e a r c h e r s ] c o u l d n o t h a v e k n o w n t h e c o n t e n t s o f a n y o f t h e Z I P d i s k s , a s [ t h e y ] d i d n o t u s e h a r d w a r e c a p a b l e o f r e a d i n g t h e s e d i s k s i n t h e i r p r i v a t e s e a r c h . T h e m e r e f a c t t h a t t h e d i s k s t h a t [ t h e p r i v a t e s e a r c h e r s ] d i d n o t e x a m i n e w e r e f o u n d i n t h e s a m e l o c a t i o n i n R u n y a n ' s r e s i d e n c e a s t h e d i s k s t h e y d i d e x a m i n e i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o e s t a b l i s h w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l c e r t a i n t y t h a t a l l o f t h e s t o r a g e m e d i a i n q u e s t i o n c o n t a i n e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y . 1 6 8

Turning to the question whether the police exceeded the scope of the private search because they opened more files on each of the disks than examined by the private searchers, while the record was not entirely clear whether the police actually did so, the court concluded that it would not have been constitutionally problematic for the police to have examined more files than did the private searchers.169 The court reasoned:

[ T ] h e p o l i c e d o n o t e x c e e d t h e s c o p e o f a p r i o r p r i v a t e s e a r c h w h e n t h e y e x a m i n e t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l s t h a t w e r e

1 6 7 I d . a t 4 6 3 ( c i t a t i o n s o m i t t e d ) . 1 6 8 I d . a t 4 6 4 . 1 6 9 I d .


e x a m i n e d b y t h e p r i v a t e s e a r c h e r s , b u t t h e y e x a m i n e t h e s e m a t e r i a l s m o r e t h o r o u g h l y t h a n d i d t h e p r i v a t e p a r t i e s . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f a c l o s e d c o n t a i n e r s e a r c h , t h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e p o l i c e d o n o t e x c e e d t h e p r i v a t e s e a r c h w h e n t h e y e x a m i n e m o r e i t e m s w i t h i n a c l o s e d c o n t a i n e r t h a n d i d t h e p r i v a t e s e a r c h e r s . . . . [ A ] n i n d i v i d u a l ' s e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n t h e c o n t e n t s o f a c o n t a i n e r h a s a l r e a d y b e e n c o m -p r o m i s e d i f t h a t c o n t a i n e r w a s o p e n e d a n d e x a m i n e d b y p r i v a t e s e a r c h e r s [ . ] T h u s , t h e p o l i c e d o n o t e n g a g e i n a n e w As e a r c h @ f o r F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t p u r p o s e s e a c h t i m e t h e y e x -a m i n e a p a r t i c u l a r i t e m f o u n d w i t h i n t h e c o n t a i n e r . 1 7 0

Runyan's approach is open to criticism. One can take issue with the court's view of what the appropriate container is: should it be the computer; an individual disk; the directory; the file folders; or each individual file? Runyan seems to point to each disk as the container and, hence, once that disk is opened by the private party, anything within it that the police examine is within the scope of the private search. The basis for the court's analysis is far from clear: why is not the entire hard drive of a computer the container and, once that container is opened by a private party, all data would be within that search's scope; on the other hand, why is not each data file a container, given that each must be separately Aopened@ to view the file's contents? One could draw an analogy to a filing cabinet in the physical world. Each filing cabinet may have one or more drawers and have a number of file folders in each drawer. For example, there may be a group of folders entitled tax records, each for a different year. If a private party opens Atax records 2004,@ un-der Runyan it would seem that the tax records for other years may be opened by government agents and not be labeled a search. This approach is undoubtedly incorrect. Nothing in previous Supreme Court caselaw supports viewing the entire filing cabinet as a container that permits wholesale searches of all the files therein once a private party opens one of them.171 If 1 7 0 I d . a t 4 6 4 - 6 5 . 1 7 1 C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . K n o l l , 1 6 F . 3 d 1 3 1 3 , 1 3 2 1 ( 2 d C i r . 1 9 9 4 )


computers are containers that hold various forms of informa-tion,172 then there is no principled distinction between them and a metal filing cabinet when applying the private search doctrine. This is to say that the rules regulating containers in the bricks and mortar world have equal applicability to com-puter searches. Accordingly, a computer should be viewed as a physical container with a series of electronic Acontainers@Bthat is, directories, folders, and files that must be each separately opened. Each separate opening is the examination of a new container. Also, to the extent that Runyan grounds its analysis on the belief that the mere opening of additional files within a contain-er already partially examined by a private party does not exceed the scope of that private search because the Acontainer@ no longer supports a reasonable expectation of privacy, there is little Supreme Court jurisprudence to support that view. Only in United States v. Jacobsen173 has the Supreme Court held that the government activities were not a search, even though the government activity exceeded the private search. In that case, a Federal Express employee opened a damaged package and found several transparent plastic bags of white powder inside a closed tube wrapped in crumpled newspaper. The employee put the bags back in the tube, put the tube and the newspapers back in the box, and then summoned federal agents. The agent who responded opened the box, unpacked the bags of white powder, and performed a chemical field test confirming that the white powder was cocaine.174 Putting aside the chemical test-ing, which raised a separate issue,175 the Court found that the agent's actions did not implicate the Fourth Amendment because the agent's actions in removing the plastic bags from the tube and visually inspecting their contents Aenabled the

( v i e w i n g e a c h c l o s e d o p a q u e f i l e f o l d e r a s c l o s e d c o n t a i n e r ) . 1 7 2 S e e d i s c u s s i o n s u p r a a t 1 9 7 - 2 2 0 . 1 7 3 4 6 6 U . S . 1 0 9 ( 1 9 8 4 ) . 1 7 4 I d . a t 1 1 1 - 1 2 . 1 7 5 S e e i d . a t 1 2 3 .


agent to learn nothing that had not previously been learned during the private search.@176 Although the private party had not physically examined the contents of the package containing the white powder, the Court asserted that the package could no longer support a reasonable expectation of privacy.177 The Court concluded that the visual inspection was not a Asearch@ because it did not infringe Aany constitutionally protected privacy interest that had not already been frustrated as the result of private conduct.@178 By merely replicating the private party's actions, the agents in Jacobsen observed white powder in a transparent container. They learned nothing more from its mere removal, which is to say that no reasonable expectation of privacy was invaded by their actions. This is in marked contrast to Runyan, where the container did not disclose its contents prior to its opening and, as a result, the police did learn something new when the files were opened. This leaves the difficult decision of Walter as possible support for the Runyan viewpoint. Clearly, the Court has changed since Walter and a majority might be willing to adopt the Walter dissent's view that context does sometimes destroy an ex-pectation of privacy, even if the private party had not opened the same container as the governmental authorities. On the other hand, if Justice Stevens' view in Walter is adopted by a majority of the Court, it is difficult to envision a situation where the police could open a computer file unopened by the private party without exceeding the scope of that private search. The boxes in Walter certainly gave the police a high degree of confidence that they contained pornography.179 So too would a private party search that opened some files with sug-gestive names that were in a folder with a series of other files.

1 7 6 I d . a t 1 2 0 . 1 7 7 I d . a t 1 2 1 ; s e e a l s o i d . a t 1 4 2 ( B r e n n a n , J . , d i s s e n t i n g ) ( o b s e r v i n g t h a t t h e Ac o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e w h i t e p o w d e r w a s f o u n d @ u n d e r h i s v i e w o f t h e f a c t s Ac o u l d n o t s u p p o r t a r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y @ a n d t h a t t h e r e w a s a A v i r t u a l c e r t a i n t y ' @ t h a t t h e D E A a g e n t c o u l d i d e n t i f y i t ) . 1 7 8 I d . a t 1 2 6 . 1 7 9 S e e s u p r a n o t e s 1 4 3 - 4 7 a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g t e x t .


Thus, for example, if a private party opened files labeled Apre-teen.female9.rape@, Apreteen.female10.rape@, and pre-teen.female11.rape,@ and discovered images of young girls being raped, if there were additional files in the same folder labeled Apreteen.female12.rape@ and Apreteen.female13.rape@, I would think that most courts would easily conclude that the police had probable cause to believe that the A12@ and A13@ files also depicted images of child pornography. But under Stevens' view in Walter, mere probable causeBor even Asubstantial certain-ty@Bdoes not eliminate Fourth Amendment applicability. This, it seems to me, is the proper approach. Probable cause is the usual level of suspicion that justifies a search. Moving to a higher level of suspicion, such as Asubstantial certainty,@ does not somehow make the Amendment inapplicable. The opposing position would hold that, the more certain the police are, the less applicable the Amendment becomes. That position confuses Fourth Amendment applicability with Fourth Amendment sat-isfaction.180 Underlying the private search doctrine is the view that the private party has already discovered what is in the container; in the Court's words, the private party has eliminated the owner's reasonable expectation of privacy in the contents of the container. Yet, when the governmental agent opens an opaque container that a private party has not opened, the agent does learn something that the private party did not learn. That is, the container does in fact hold a gun, drugs, or child pornography, or that the container in fact holds something else B despite all indications of what it held prior to its opening. Finally, there remains the oft-stated gun case hypothetical. This is much different than the situation in Jacobsen, where the contents of the transparent package could be viewed with-out opening the container. The gun case hypothetical envisions a container that is specifically designed to hold a gun and

1 8 0 C f . S o l d a l v C o o k C o u n t y , 5 0 6 U . S . 5 6 , 6 9 ( 1 9 9 2 ) ( A[ T ] h e r e a s o n w h y a n o f f i c e r m i g h t e n t e r a h o u s e o r e f f e c t u a t e a s e i z u r e i s w h o l l y i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e t h r e s h o l d q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e A m e n d m e n t a p p l i e s . W h a t m a t t e r s i s t h e i n t r u s i o n o n t h e p e o p l e ' s s e c u r i t y f r o m g o v e r n m e n t a l i n t e r f e r e n c e . @) .


whose exterior shape informs the observer that it is a gun case.181 However, putting aside transparent gun cases, the shape of the case does not disclose what is inside; instead, it informs the observer that it is a case designed to hold guns and perhapsBor even probablyBthat there is a gun inside. The police will not know what is inside until they open the case or use other means, such as an x-ray, to examine its contents. The dissent in Walter was correct in asserting that the viewing of the films in that case and the gun case hypothetical presented identical scenarios. Yet, in both situations, although the police may have had a high degree of confidence in what they would find when they opened the container, that confidence should not eliminate the applicability of the Amendment; instead, that confidence goes to the reasonableness of the police's actions.182

1 8 1 G u n c a s e s c o m e i n m a n y f o r m s : s o m e a r e m e r e r e c t a n g u l a r h a r d -s i d e d b o x e s ; o t h e r s a r e s o f t - s i d e d a n d i n t h e s h a p e o f a r i f l e o r a s h o t g u n . R e c t a n g u l a r b o x e s d i s c l o s e n o t h i n g o f t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e b o x . I n s t e a d , t h e g u n c a s e h y p o t h e t i c a l r e f e r s t o t h o s e c o n t a i n e r s t h a t h a v e t h e u n i q u e s h a p e t h a t s a y s t o t h e v i e w e r t h a t i s a c o n t a i n e r d e s i g n e d t o h o l d a g u n . 1 8 2 C f . C l a n c y , C o n c e p t o f R e a s o n a b l e n e s s , s u p r a n o t e 5 7 , a t 1 0 0 0 - 0 3 ( d i s c u s s i n g t h e C o u r t ' s i n c o n s i s t e n t t r e a t m e n t o f c o n t a i n e r s a s t o a p p l i c a t i o n o f w a r r a n t p r e f e r e n c e r u l e a n d a r g u i n g t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d b e n o w a r r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t f o r Ae f f e c t s @) .


IV. SELECTED SATISFACTION ISSUES

A. Probable Cause

The concept of probable causeBa familiar but fluid standard for a court to apply183Bhas created some unique difficulties in the computer context.184 This article focuses on two nexus questions that have troubled the courts confronting them: 1) as to subscribers of child pornography sites, the amount of infor-mation needed in order to conclude that there is probable cause to search the subscriber's computer; and 2) as to distributors or recipients of child pornography, establishing the location of the computer used to distribute or receive the materials.185 Both of these problems illuminate the difficulty of piercing through the layers of anonymity that the Internet affords.

1 8 3 S e e g e n e r a l l y R o n a l d J . B a c i g a l , M a k i n g t h e R i g h t G a m b l e : T h e O d d s o n P r o b a b l e C a u s e , 7 4 M I S S . L . J . 2 7 9 ( 2 0 0 4 ) ( c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y e x a m i n i n g t h e c o n c e p t o f p r o b a b l e c a u s e ) . AI n d e a l i n g w i t h p r o b a b l e c a u s e . . . a s t h e v e r y n a m e i m -p l i e s , w e d e a l w i t h p r o b a b i l i t i e s . T h e s e a r e n o t t e c h n i c a l ; t h e y a r e t h e f a c t u a l a n d p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e o n w h i c h r e a s o n a b l e a n d p r u d e n t m e n , n o t l e g a l t e c h n i c i a n s , a c t . @ B r i n e g a r v . U n i t e d S t a t e s , 3 3 8 U . S . 1 6 0 , 1 7 5 ( 1 9 4 9 ) . T h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i s t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e r e i s a Af a i r p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t c o n t r a b a n d o r e v i d e n c e o f a c r i m e w i l l b e f o u n d i n a p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e . @ I l l i n o i s v . G a t e s , 4 6 2 U . S . 2 1 3 , 2 3 8 ( 1 9 8 3 ) . I n r e v i e w i n g a w a r r a n t t h a t h a d b e e n i s s u e d b y a m a g i s t r a t e , a c o u r t d o e s n o t m a k e a d e n o v o d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p r o b a b l e c a u s e ; i n s t e a d , t h e p r o p e r q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r a s u b s t a n t i a l b a s i s e x i t s f o r t h e m a g i s t r a t e ' s f i n d i n g o f p r o b a b l e c a u s e . I d . a t 2 3 6 . 1 8 4 A s w i t h o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s , p r o b a b l e c a u s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s i n t h e c o m -p u t e r c o n t e x t a r e f a c t - b o u n d . S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H i l l , 3 2 2 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 0 8 1 , 1 0 8 4 - 8 7 ( C . D . C a l . 2 0 0 4 ) ( d i s c u s s i n g w h e n a l l e g a t i o n s o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y a r e s u f f i c i e n t ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S c o t t , 8 3 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 8 7 , 1 9 7 ( D . M a s s . 2 0 0 0 ) ( i t i s Ar e a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t s o m e o n e a l l e g e d l y e n g a g e d i n b a n k f r a u d a n d p r o d u c i n g f a l s e s e c u r i t i e s o n h i s c o m p u t e r w o u l d h a v e r e c o r d s o f t h e b a n k f r a u d a n d f a l s e s e c u r i t i e s o n t h a t c o m p u t e r @) ; B u r n e t t v . S t a t e , 8 4 8 S o . 2 d 1 1 7 0 , 1 1 7 3 - 7 5 ( F l a .


There is a split of authority over the strength of the inference that can be drawn as to whether a person has child por-nography on his computer based on membership in a child pornography web site. A few courts have indicated that mere membership in a child pornography site is sufficient.186 Others A p p . 2 0 0 3 ) ( n o p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o s u p p o r t w a r r a n t t o s e a r c h c o m p u t e r f o r e v i d e n c e o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y b a s e d o n i n i t i a l c o m p l a i n t t h a t s u s p e c t h a d m a d e l e w d v i d e o t a p e o f t w o c h i l d r e n ) ; S t a t e v . S t a l e y , 5 4 8 S . E . 2 d 2 6 , 2 8 - 2 9 ( G a . A p p . 2 0 0 1 ) ( a l t h o u g h p o l i c e h a d p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t S t a l e y h a d m o l e s t e d a s p e c i f i c c h i l d , t h a t h e h a d w o r k e d a s a c o m p u t e r a n a l y s t , t h a t h e h a d b e e n p r e v i o u s l y c o n v i c t e d o f m o -l e s t i n g a c h i l d a n d t a k i n g p i c t u r e s o f t h a t c h i l d , a n d t h a t t h e a f f i a n t d e t a i l e d t h a t p e d o p h i l e s s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i n g t o h a v i n g s e x w i t h c h i l d r e n , t h e r e w a s n o n e x u s b e t w e e n e i t h e r t h e c r i m e o f m o l e s t i n g t h a t s p e c i f i c c h i l d o r t h e p r o p e n s i t i e s o f c h i l d s e x o f f e n d e r s a n d s e a r c h o f c o m p u t e r i n S t a l e y ' s a p a r t m e n t ) ; S t a t e v . L u m , 9 9 8 P . 2 d 1 3 7 , 1 3 9 - 4 2 ( K a n . C t . A p p . 2 0 0 0 ) ( a f f i d a v i t i n s u p p o r t o f s e a r c h w a r r a n t f o r c o m p u t e r i n s u f f i c i e n t b e c a u s e a f f i a n t f a i l e d t o d e t a i l b a s i s o f k n o w l e d g e ) ; W i l l i f o r d v . S t a t e , 1 2 7 S . W . 3 d 3 0 9 , 3 1 3 ( T e x . A p p . 2 0 0 4 ) ( p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o s e i z e c o m p u t e r b a s e d o n r e p a i r m a n ' s v i e w i n g o f t h u m b n a i l p i c t u r e o f t w o n a k e d b o y s o n b e d ) ; B u r k e v . S t a t e , 2 7 S . W . 3 d 6 5 1 , 6 5 3 - 5 6 ( T e x . A p p . 2 0 0 0 ) ( f a c t - b o u n d q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e r e w a s p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o i s s u e w a r r a n t i n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c a s e ) . A p e r s i s t e n t q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n s t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d e r w h i c h f i l e n a m e s e s t a b l i s h p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o s e a r c h o r s e i z e a c o m p u t e r ; a f i n d i n g o f p r o b a b l e c a u s e g e n e r a l l y t u r n s o n t h e e x p l i c i t n a t u r e o f t h e n a m e s a n d t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s . S e e , e . g . , S t a t e v . W i b l e , 5 1 P . 3 d 8 3 0 , 8 3 3 - 3 4 ( W a s h . A p p . 2 0 0 2 ) ( f i l e n a m e s A8 y e a r o l d R a p e @ a n d A8 y e a r o l d S m i l e @ g a v e c o n t e x t a n d m e a n i n g t o r e p a i r m a n ' s t i p t h a t c o m p u t e r c o n t a i n e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y ) . 1 8 5 T h e n u m b e r o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h e r s u t i l i z i n g t h e I n t e r n e t i s t r u l y s h o c k i n g a n d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t e f f o r t s t o c a t c h t h o s e c r i m i n a l s c o m p r i s e a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e p u b l i s h e d d e c i s i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h c o m p u t e r - r e l a t e d s e a r c h a n d s e i z u r e s . S e e , e . g . , A m y E . W e l l s , C o m m e n t , C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e : T h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t C o l -l i d e s w i t h t h e P r o b l e m o f C h i l d P o r n o g r a p h y a n d t h e I n t e r n e t , 5 3 O K L A . L . R E V . 9 9 , 1 0 0 - 0 1 ( 2 0 0 0 ) ( c a t a l o g u i n g r e a s o n s f o r e x p l o s i o n o f I n t e r n e t c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y ) . T h e I n t e r n e t h a s i n c r e a s i n g l y b e c o m e a p r e f e r r e d v e h i c l e t o t r a d e a n d d i s t r i b u t e c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y ; w e b s i t e s a r e d e s i g n e d f o r t h a t p u r p o s e a n d c h a t r o o m s a r e u s e d t o e s t a b l i s h c o n t a c t s , f o l l o w e d b y t r a n s m i s s i o n o r t r a d i n g o f i m a g e s . S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H a y , 2 3 1 F . 3 d 6 3 0 , 6 3 6 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 0 ) . B e c a u s e o f a c o m p u t e r ' s a b i l i t y t o s t o r e i m a g e s i n d i g i t a l f o r m , i t i s a n i d e a l r e p o s i t o r y f o r c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y . I d . a t 6 3 5 - 3 6 . 1 8 6 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M a r t i n , 4 2 6 F . 3 d 3 ( 2 d C i r . 2 0 0 5 ) ( f i n d i n g


have rejected that view.187 Those latter courts caution:

I f t h e G o v e r n m e n t i s c o r r e c t i n i t s p o s i t i o n t h a t m e m b e r s h i p i n t h e C a n d y m a n g r o u p [ a n I n t e r n e t c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y s i t e ] a l o n e w a s s u f f i c i e n t t o s u p p o r t a f i n d i n g o f p r o b a b l e c a u s e , t h e n p r o b a b l e c a u s e e x i s t e d t o i n t r u d e i n t o t h e h o m e s o f s o m e 3 , 4 0 0 ( o r e v e n 6 , 0 0 0 ) i n d i v i d u a l s m e r e l y b e c a u s e t h e i r e - m a i l a d d r e s s e s w e r e e n t e r e d i n t o t h e C a n d y m a n w e b s i t e . W i t h o u t a n y i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a n y o f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s d o w n l o a d e d o r u p l o a d e d o r t r a n s m i t t e d o r r e c e i v e d a n y i m a g e s o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y , w i t h o u t a n y e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s d i d a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n s i m p l y s u b s c r i b e , t h e G o v e r n m e n t a r g u e s t h a t i t h a d t h e r i g h t t o e n t e r t h e i r

p r o b a b l e c a u s e b a s e d o n s u b s c r i p t i o n t o w e b s i t e t h a t ' s e s s e n t i a l p u r p o s e w a s t o t r a d e c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . W a g e r s , 3 3 9 F . S u p p . 2 d 9 3 4 ( E . D . K y . 2 0 0 4 ) ( p r o b a b l e c a u s e e x i s t e d t h a t s u s p e c t ' s h o m e c o m p u t e r c o n t a i n e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y b a s e d o n m e m b e r s h i p i n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y w e b s i t e ) ; U . S . v . B a i l e y , 2 7 2 F . S u p p . 2 d 8 2 2 , 8 2 4 - 2 5 ( D . N e b . 2 0 0 3 ) ( h o l d i n g t h a t Ak n o w i n g l y b e c o m i n g a c o m p u t e r s u b s c r i b e r t o a s p e c i a l i z e d I n t e r n e t s i t e t h a t f r e q u e n t l y , o b v i o u s l y , u n q u e s -t i o n a b l y a n d s o m e t i m e s a u t o m a t i c a l l y d i s t r i b u t e s e l e c t r o n i c i m a g e s o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y t o o t h e r c o m p u t e r s u b s c r i b e r s a l o n e e s t a b l i s h e s p r o b a b l e c a u s e f o r a s e a r c h o f t h e t a r g e t s u b s c r i b e r ' s c o m p u t e r e v e n t h o u g h i t i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t t h e p e r s o n s u b s c r i b i n g t o t h e c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y s i t e d i d s o f o r i n n o c e n t p u r p o s e s a n d e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e i s n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e t a r g e t s u b s c r i b e r a c t u a l l y r e c e i v e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y o n h i s o r h e r c o m p u t e r @) . 1 8 7 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G o u r d e , 3 8 2 F . 3 d 1 0 0 3 , 1 0 0 6 , 1 0 1 1 - 1 3 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 4 ) ( h o l d i n g t h a t m e r e l y b e c a u s e s u s p e c t w a s m e m b e r o f I n t e r n e t c h i l d p o r -n o g r a p h y s i t e f o r a t l e a s t t w o m o n t h s w a s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t h e h a d d o w n l o a d e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y o n t o h i s h o m e c o m p u t e r , d e s p i t e a d i s c u s s i o n o f t r a i t s o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c o l l e c t o r s b y a f f i a n t t h a t i n c l u d e d e x p l a n a t i o n s t h a t t h e y Ar a r e l y i f e v e r @ d i s p o s e o f p o r n o g r a p h y a n d t h a t t h e y u s e t h e I n t e r n e t t o s h a r e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d t r a d e c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y ) , r e h ' g g r a n t e d , 4 1 6 F . 3 d 9 6 1 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 5 ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . P e r e z , 2 4 7 F . S u p p . 2 d 4 5 9 , 4 8 3 - 8 4 ( S . D . N . Y . 2 0 0 3 ) ( s u b s c r i p t i o n t o k n o w n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y w e b s i t e c r e a t e d a Ac h a n c e , b u t n o t a f a i r p r o b a b i l i t y , t h a t c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y w o u l d b e f o u n d @) . B u t s e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C o r c a s , 4 1 9 F . 3 d 1 5 1 ( 2 d C i r . 2 0 0 5 ) ( a l t h o u g h a f f i r m i n g d e n i a l o f m o t i o n t o s u p p r e s s , t h e p a n e l d i d s o b a s e d o n p r i o r p r e c e d e n t f i n d i n g p r o b a b l e c a u s e s t e m m i n g f r o m m e m b e r s h i p i n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y w e b s i t e , w h i l e c r i t i c i z i n g t h a t p r e c e d e n t a s u n s o u n d ) .


h o m e s t o c o n d u c t a s e a r c h a n d s e i z e t h e i r c o m p u t e r s , c o m p u t e r f i l e s a n d e q u i p m e n t , s c a n n e r s , a n d d i g i t a l c a m e r a s . T h i s c a n n o t b e w h a t t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t c o n t e m p l a t e d . * * * * H e r e , t h e i n t r u s i o n i s p o t e n t i a l l y e n o r m o u s : t h o u s a n d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s w o u l d b e s u b j e c t t o s e a r c h , t h e i r h o m e s i n v a d e d a n d t h e i r p r o p e r t y s e i z e d , i n o n e f e l l s w o o p , e v e n t h o u g h t h e i r o n l y a c t i v i t y c o n s i s t e d o f e n t e r i n g a n e - m a i l a d d r e s s i n t o a w e b s i t e f r o m a c o m p u t e r l o c a t e d i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e i r o w n h o m e s . I n f a c t , h e r e t h e F B I s e n t o u t 7 0 0 o r m o r e d r a f t s e a r c h w a r r a n t s a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y . . . . I n l i g h t o f t h e p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t , c a r e m u s t b e t a k e n . 1 8 8

To establish probable cause to search, courts often rely on additional informationBbeyond membership in a child pornogra-phy siteBthat substantiates the person's sexual interest in children or in child pornography.189 That additional information has included such factors as evidence of actual down-loading190Bas opposed to mere viewing,191 automatic transmis-

1 8 8 P e r e z , 2 4 7 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 4 8 3 - 8 4 . 1 8 9 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . F r o m a n , 3 5 5 F . 3 d 8 8 2 , 8 8 4 - 9 1 ( 5 t h C i r . 2 0 0 4 ) ( u p h o l d i n g s e a r c h w a r r a n t f o r m e m b e r o f g r o u p w h o s e As i n g u l a r g o a l . . . w a s t o c o l l e c t a n d d i s t r i b u t e c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y a n d s e x u a l l y e x p l i c i t i m a g e s o f c h i l -d r e n , @ w h e n m e m b e r s c o u l d c h o o s e t o a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e c e i v e e m a i l s w i t h a t t a c h e d i m a g e s a n d F r o m a n ' s i n t e r e s t i n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y w a s s h o w n b y h i s c h o s e n s c r e e n n a m e s , AL i t t l e b u t t s u e @ a n d AL i t t l e t i t g i r l y @) ; S t a t e v . S c h a e f e r , 6 6 8 N . W . 2 d 7 6 0 , 7 7 0 ( W i s . A p p . 2 0 0 3 ) ( b e c a u s e c o m p u t e r f i l e s a r e c o m m o n w a y o f s t o r i n g p h o t o g r a p h s , r e a s o n a b l e i n f e r e n c e t h a t c o m p u t e r c o n t a i n e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y w h e n s u s p e c t a c t i v e l y c u l t i v a t e d f r i e n d s h i p o f t e e n a g e b o y s b y i n v i t i n g t h e m t o u s e h i s h o m e c o m p u t e r , u s e d h i s c o m p u t e r t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h o t h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n s t o r i e s a b o u t a d u l t s s e x u a l l y a s s a u l t i n g c h i l d r e n , a n d v i s i t e d I n t e r n e t s i t e s w h e r e c h i l d p o r -n o g r a p h y w a s a v a i l a b l e f o r d o w n l o a d i n g ) . 1 9 0 G o u r d e , 3 8 2 F . 3 d a t 1 0 0 6 , 1 0 1 2 ( AR e q u i r i n g t h e g o v e r n m e n t t o b u t t r e s s i t s a f f i d a v i t w i t h p e r s o n a l i z e d i n f o r m a t i o n l i n k i n g a w e b s i t e m e m b e r t o a c t u a l c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y s t r i k e s a r e a s o n a b l e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n s a f e g u a r d i n g t h e i m p o r t a n t F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t p r i n c i p l e s e m b o d i e d i n t h e p r o b a b l e c a u s e r e q u i r e m e n t a n d e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t c a n e f f e c t i v e l y p r o s e c u t e p o s s e s s o r s a n d d i s t r i b u t o r s o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y . @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . P e r e z , 2 4 7 F . S u p p . 2 d 4 5 9 , 4 8 3 - 8 4 ( S . D . N . Y . 2 0 0 3 ) ( r e j e c t i n g f i n d i n g o f p r o b a b l e c a u s e a n d n o t i n g , i n t e r a l i a , t h a t ,


sions as part of the site's services,192 use of suggestive screen names,193 expert information on the retention habits of child pornography collectors194 (which often serves to dispel allega- u n l i k e o t h e r c a s e s w h e r e t h e r e w a s e v i d e n c e o f d o w n l o a d i n g , t h e a f f i d a v i t c o n t a i n e d An o t h i n g c o n c r e t e t o s u g g e s t t h a t P e r e z h a d t r a n s m i t t e d o r r e c e i v e d i m a g e s o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y @) . 1 9 1 S e e P e r e z , 2 4 7 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 4 8 3 - 8 4 n . 1 2 ( AT h e s t a t u t e d o e s n o t c r i m i n a l i z e ` v i e w i n g ' t h e i m a g e s , a n d t h e r e r e m a i n s t h e i s s u e o f w h e t h e r i m a g e s v i e w e d o n t h e i n t e r n e t a n d a u t o m a t i c a l l y s t o r e d i n a b r o w s e r ' s t e m p o r a r y f i l e c a c h e a r e k n o w i n g l y ` p o s s e s s e d ' o r ` r e c e i v e d . ' @) ; s e e a l s o U n i t e d S t a t e s v . Z i m m e r m a n , 2 7 7 F . 3 d 4 2 6 , 4 3 5 ( 3 d C i r . 2 0 0 2 ) ( w i t h o u t e v i d e n c e t h a t p o r n o g r a p h y w a s s p e -c i f i c a l l y d o w n l o a d e d a n d s a v e d t o d e f e n d a n t ' s c o m p u t e r , o f f e n d i n g i m a g e s Am a y w e l l h a v e b e e n l o c a t e d i n c y b e r s p a c e , n o t i n [ t h e d e f e n d a n t ' s ] h o m e @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . T u c k e r , 3 0 5 F . 3 d 1 1 9 3 , 1 1 9 8 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 2 0 0 2 ) ( u p h o l d i n g c o n v i c t i o n f o r p o s s e s s i o n o f f i l e s a u t o m a t i c a l l y s t o r e d i n b r o w s e r c a c h e b e c a u s e d e f e n d a n t ' s h a b i t o f m a n u a l l y d e l e t i n g i m a g e s f r o m c a c h e f i l e s e s t a b l i s h e d h i s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e m ) . 1 9 2 S e e P e r e z , 2 4 7 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 4 8 5 ( a s s e r t i n g t h a t At h e a g e n t s e i -t h e r h a d o r c o u l d h a v e h a d , b e f o r e t h e y r e q u e s t e d t h e w a r r a n t , a l l t h e Y a h o o l o g s , w h i c h p r o v i d e d e x t e n s i v e i n f o r m a t i o n C w h e t h e r a s u b s c r i b e r w a s o f f e r e d e - m a i l d e l i v e r y o p t i o n s ; w h e t h e r h e e l e c t e d a d e l i v e r y o p t i o n ; w h e t h e r h e u p l o a d e d o r p o s t e d a n y i m a g e s ; w h e n h e s u b s c r i b e d ; a n d w h e t h e r h e u n s u b s c r i b e d @) . C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . F r o m a n , 3 5 5 F . 3 d 8 8 2 , 8 8 4 - 9 1 ( 5 t h C i r . 2 0 0 4 ) ( u p h o l d i n g s e a r c h w a r r a n t f o r m e m b e r o f g r o u p w h o s e As i n g u l a r g o a l . . . w a s t o c o l l e c t a n d d i s t r i b u t e c h i l d p o r n o g -r a p h y a n d s e x u a l l y e x p l i c i t i m a g e s o f c h i l d r e n , @ w h e n m e m b e r s c o u l d c h o o s e t o a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e c e i v e e m a i l s w i t h a t t a c h e d i m a g e s a n d F r o m a n ' s i n t e r e s t i n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y w a s s h o w n b y h i s c h o s e n s c r e e n n a m e s , AL i t t l e b u t t s u e @ a n d AL i t t l e t i t g i r l y @) . 1 9 3 G o u r d e , 3 8 2 F . 3 d a t 1 0 0 6 , 1 0 1 1 - 1 3 ( s t a t i n g t h a t s c r e e n n a m e i n d i c a t i n g s e x u a l i n t e r e s t i n c h i l d r e n w o u l d a d d t o p r o b a b l e c a u s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n ) . 1 9 4 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L a c y , 1 1 9 F . 3 d 7 4 2 , 7 4 5 ( 9 t h C i r . 1 9 9 7 ) ( p r o b a b l e c a u s e f o u n d i n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c a s e w h e n a f f i a n t , b a s e d o n h e r t r a i n i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e , e x p l a i n e d t h a t c o l l e c t o r s a n d d i s t r i b u t o r s o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y t y p i c a l l y s t o r e i t i n t h e i r h o m e s ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . W a g e r s , 3 3 9 F . S u p p . 2 d 9 3 4 , 9 4 1 ( E . D . K y . 2 0 0 4 ) ( AI n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c a s e s , c o u r t s h a v e r e p e a t e d l y r e c o g n i z e d t h a t c o l l e c t o r s o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y t e n d t o r e t a i n t h e i r m a t e r i a l s . @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C o x , 1 9 0 F . S u p p . 2 d 3 3 0 , 3 3 3 ( N . D . N . Y . 2 0 0 2 ) ( s a m e ) ; S t a t e v . E v e r s , 8 1 5 A . 2 d 4 3 2 , 4 4 6 , 4 4 8 ( N . J . 2 0 0 3 ) ( p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t p o r n o g r a p h i c i m a g e s o f c h i l d r e n w o u l d b e r e t a i n e d o n c o m p u t e r d u e t o r e t e n t i o n h a b i t s o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h e r s ) ; S t a t e v . L i n d g r e n , 6 8 7 N . W . 2 d 6 0 , 6 4 - 6 5 ( W i s .


tions of staleness195 and identifies the house as the place where A p p . 2 0 0 4 ) ( w h e n d e f e n d a n t t o o k n u d e p h o t o g r a p h s o f a 1 4 y e a r o l d f e m a l e e m p l o y e e a t w o r k , t o u c h e d h e r v a g i n a l a r e a , a n d h a d a l l e g e d l y t a k e n p i c t u r e s o f o t h e r f e m a l e e m p l o y e e s , a n d a f f i a n t d e t a i l e d h a b i t s a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c h i l d m o l e s t e r s , i n c l u d i n g , i n t e r a l i a , t h a t t h e y c o l l e c t s e x u a l l y e x p l i c i t m a t e r i a l s , r a r e l y d i s p o s e o f t h e m , a n d r e c o r d d i a r i e s o f t h e i r e n c o u n t e r s o n , i n t e r a l i a , t h e i r c o m p u t e r s , p r o b a b l e c a u s e e x i s t e d t o s e a r c h h o m e c o m p u t e r f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e o f u n d e r a g e c h i l d r e n o f s e x u a l l y e x p l i c i t n a t u r e ) . C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G o u r d e , 3 8 2 F . 3 d 1 0 0 3 , 1 0 0 6 , 1 0 1 1 - 1 3 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 4 ) ( m e r e l y b e c a u s e s u s p e c t w a s m e m b e r o f I n t e r n e t c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y s i t e f o r a t l e a s t t w o m o n t h s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o e s t a b l i s h h e h a d d o w n l o a d e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y o n t o h o m e c o m p u t e r , d e s p i t e d i s c u s s i o n o f t r a i t s o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c o l l e c t o r s b y a f f i a n t t h a t i n c l u d e d e x p l a n a t i o n s t h a t t h e y Ar a r e l y i f e v e r @ d i s p o s e o f p o r n o g r a p h y a n d t h a t t h e y u s e t h e I n t e r n e t t o s h a r e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d t r a d e c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y ) , r e h ' g g r a n t e d , 4 1 6 F . 3 d 9 6 1 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 5 ) . T h e r e a s o n w h y c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c o l l e c t o r s r e t a i n t h e i r c o l l e c t i o n s f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e w a s e x p l a i n e d b y t h e c o u r t i n U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L a m b , 9 4 5 F . S u p p . 4 4 1 , 4 6 0 ( N . D . N . Y . 1 9 9 6 ) :

S i n c e t h e [ c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h i c ] m a t e r i a l s a r e i l l e g a l t o d i s t r i b u t e a n d p o s s e s s , i n i t i a l c o l l e c t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t . H a v i n g s u c c e e d e d i n o b t a i n i n g i m a g e s , c o l l e c t o r s a r e u n l i k e l y t o q u i c k l y d e s t r o y t h e m . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r i l l e g a l i t y a n d t h e i m p r i m a t u r o f s e v e r e s o c i a l s t i g m a s u c h i m a g e s c a r r y , c o l l e c t o r s w i l l w a n t t o s e c r e t t h e m i n s e c u r e p l a c e s , l i k e a p r i v a t e r e s i d e n c e . T h i s p r o p o s i t i o n i s n o t n o v e l i n e i t h e r s t a t e o r f e d e r a l c o u r t : p e d o p h i l e s , p r e f e r e n t i a l c h i l d m o l e s t e r s , a n d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c o l l e c t o r s m a i n t a i n t h e i r m a t e r i a l s f o r s i g n i f i c a n t p e r i o d s o f t i m e .

B u t s e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G r e a t h o u s e , 2 9 7 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 2 6 4 , 1 2 7 2 ( D . O r . 2 0 0 3 ) ( e v e n t h o u g h a g e n t i n d i c a t e d i n a f f i d a v i t t h a t c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c o l l e c t o r s r o u t i n e l y m a i n t a i n t h e i r m a t e r i a l s f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e , r e j e c t i n g t h a t a s s e r t i o n a s s u f f i c i e n t b e c a u s e i t a p p e a r e d At o b e b a s e d u p o n a g e n e r a l i z e d s e n s e d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r a g e n t s @) . 1 9 5 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H a y , 2 3 1 F . 3 d 6 3 0 , 6 3 6 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 0 ) ( p r o b a b l e c a u s e t h a t c o m p u t e r i n s u s p e c t ' s h o m e c o n t a i n e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y w a s n o t s t a l e , e v e n t h o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n w a s s i x m o n t h s o l d , d u e t o a f f i a n t ' s e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t c o l l e c t o r s a n d d i s t r i b u t o r s r a r e l y i f e v e r d i s p o s e o f i t a n d s t o r e i t i n s e c u r e p l a c e ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L a c y , 1 1 9 F . 3 d 7 4 2 , 7 4 5 ( 9 t h C i r . 1 9 9 7 ) ( p r o b a b l e c a u s e n o t s t a l e i n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c a s e w h e n b a s e d o n i n f o r m a t i o n 1 0 m o n t h s o l d b e c a u s e a f f i a n t , b a s e d o n h e r t r a i n i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e , e x p l a i n e d t h a t c o l l e c t o r s a n d d i s t r i b u t o r s o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y Ar a r e l y i f e v e r @ d i s p o s e o f s u c h m a t e r i a l ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . W a g e r s , 3 3 9 F . S u p p . 2 d 9 3 4 , 9 4 1 ( E . D . K y . 2 0 0 4 ) ( c o l l e c t i n g c a s e s ) ;


the materials were viewed), and prior convictions involving sex offenses involving children or child pornography.196 Another significant question is ascertaining the location of the computer that has distributed or received the child pornogra-phy. This difficulty arises because many individuals use computers in a variety of locations, including in an office and at home.197 Persons accessing the Internet are assigned an

H a u s e v . C o m m o n w e a l t h , 8 3 S . W . 3 d 1 , 1 3 - 1 4 ( K y . A p p . 2 0 0 2 ) ( b a s e d o n Ah o a r d i n g @ c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c o l l e c t o r s , i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t w a s 1 7 8 d a y s o l d n o t s t a l e ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L a m b , 9 4 5 F . S u p p . 4 4 1 , 4 6 0 - 6 1 ( N . D . N . Y . 1 9 9 6 ) ( b a s e d , i n t e r a l i a , o n p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t p e d o p h i l e s , p r e f e r e n t i a l c h i l d m o l e s t e r s , a n d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c o l l e c t o r s m a i n t a i n t h e i r m a t e r i a l s f o r s i g n i f i c a n t p e r i o d o f t i m e , f i v e m o n t h d e l a y f r o m l a s t t r a n s m i s s i o n o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y t o i s s u a n c e o f w a r r a n t d i d n o t r e n d e r p r o b a b l e c a u s e s t a l e ) ; S t a t e v . S c h a e f e r , 6 6 8 N . W . 2 d 7 6 0 , 7 6 7 ( W i s . A p p . 2 0 0 3 ) ( i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t s u s p e c t p o s s e s s e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y i n 1 9 9 8 , s o m e o f w h i c h w e n t b a c k t o 1 9 9 0 , n o t s t a l e b a s e d o n p r o t r a c t e d a n d c o n -t i n u o u s n a t u r e o f h a b i t s o f p r e f e r e n t i a l c h i l d o f f e n d e r s , w h o r a r e l y d i s p o s e o f s e x u a l l y e x p l i c i t m a t e r i a l s ) . B u t c f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . Z i m m e r m a n , 2 7 7 F . 3 d 4 2 6 , 4 3 3 - 3 4 ( 3 d C i r . 2 0 0 2 ) ( p r o b a b l e c a u s e b a s e d o n v i e w i n g o f p o r n o g r a p h i c v i d e o f i l e o n d e f e n d a n t ' s c o m p u t e r s i x m o n t h s p r i o r t o e x e c u t i o n o f s e a r c h w a r r a n t w a s s t a l e , a b -s e n t e v i d e n c e t h a t d e f e n d a n t h a d d o w n l o a d e d t h e v i d e o c l i p a n d a b s e n t e v i d e n c e o f c o n t i n u o u s c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G r e a t h o u s e , 2 9 7 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 2 6 4 , 1 2 7 2 - 7 3 ( D . O r . 2 0 0 3 ) ( AC a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r i n g a l l o f t h e f a c t o r s p r e s e n t i n t h i s c a s e , i n c l u d i n g t h e l i m i t e d i n c r i m i n a t i n g e v i d e n c e , t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y e v i d e n c e o f i n t e r v e n i n g c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y , t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y e v i d e n c e t h a t [ t h e s u s p e c t ] w a s a p e d o p h i l e , a n d t h e f a c t t h a t c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t b e c o m e s o b s o l e t e v e r y q u i c k l y , I f i n d t h a t t h e t h i r t e e n m o n t h d e l a y i n t h i s c a s e i s s i m p l y t o o l o n g . I f a l i n e m u s t b e d r a w n i n i n t e r n e t c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c a s e s , I f i n d t h a t t h e l i n e i s o n e y e a r a b s e n t e v i d e n c e o f o n g o i n g o r c o n t i n u o u s c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y . @) . 1 9 6 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . W a g e r s , 3 3 9 F . S u p p . 2 d 9 3 4 , 9 4 1 ( E . D . K y . 2 0 0 4 ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . F i s k , 2 5 5 F . S u p p . 2 d 6 9 4 , 7 0 6 ( E . D . M i c h . 2 0 0 3 ) ( w h e n t h e d e f e n d a n t h a d p r i o r c o n v i c t i o n f o r u n l a w f u l s e x u a l i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h a m i n o r , h a d w i r e d m o n e y t o p u r v e y o r o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y , a n d w h e n t h e p u r v e y o r s o l d t h a t p o r n o g r a p h y o v e r t h e I n t e r n e t , t h e r e w a s p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t c o m p u t e r c o n t a i n e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y ) . 1 9 7 S e e , e . g . , S t a t e v . E v e r s , 8 1 5 A . 2 d 4 3 2 , 4 4 8 ( N . J . 2 0 0 3 ) ( AC o m p u t e r s a r e i n u s e i n b o t h h o m e s a n d b u s i n e s s e s , a n d , w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f t h e l a p t o p , i n a l m o s t e v e r y o t h e r c o n c e i v a b l e p l a c e . B u s i n e s s p e o p l e a n d s t u d e n t s l e a v e


Internet Protocol number, which does Anot directly reflect the geographic street address of the office, residence, or building from which an individual accesses his email and/or the internet.@198 As a result, Alaw enforcement officials must conduct research and rely upon the addresses and data provided by internet providers, . . . as well as billing addresses for those service providers and/or credit card companies.@199 Some courts will infer that the computer is located in the home from the Internet Protocol address assigned to the user's account. For example, in United States v. Wagers,200 the court reasoned that, while the account holder

h a d a c c e s s t o t h e i n t e r n e t f r o m m a n y l o c a t i o n s . . . h i s r e s i -d e n c e a n d b u s i n e s s l o c a t i o n s a r e c e r t a i n l y t h e m o s t l i k e l y a n d s u s p e c t l o c a t i o n s t h r o u g h w h i c h h e w o u l d h a v e a c c e s s e d t h e i n t e r n e t . T h e q u e s t i o n , t h e n , i s n o t w h e t h e r h e d i d o r d i d n o t a c c e s s c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y t h r o u g h t h e s u s p e c t s i t e s f r o m t h o s e p h y s i c a l a d d r e s s e s , b u t , r a t h e r , g i v i n g t h e M a g i s t r a t e J u d g e ' s d e c i s i o n g r e a t d e f e r e n c e , w h e t h e r t h e r e i s a Af a i r p r o b a b i l i t y @ t h a t e v i d e n c e o r f r u i t s o f c r i m i n a l w r o n g d o i n g w o u l d b e f o u n d . 2 0 1

As another example, in State v. Brennan,202 although the sus-pect admittedly used his work laptop to view and store child

t h e i r h o m e s w i t h l a p t o p s , u s e t h e m a t o t h e r l o c a t i o n s , a n d r e t u r n h o m e w i t h t h e m . @) . 1 9 8 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . W a g e r s , 3 3 9 F . S u p p . 2 d 9 3 4 , 9 4 0 ( E . D . K y . 2 0 0 4 ) . I n t e r n e t p r o t o c o l ( I P ) n u m b e r s a r e o w n e d b y I n t e r n e t s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r s ; e a c h n u m b e r i s u n i q u e t o e a c h c o m p u t e r w h i l e i t i s o n l i n e . T e r r e n c e B e r g , P r a c t i c a l I s s u e s i n S e a r c h i n g a n d S e i z i n g C o m p u t e r s , 7 T . M . C O O L E Y J . P R A C . & C L I N I C A L L . 2 7 , 3 7 n . 2 2 ( 2 0 0 4 ) . H o w e v e r , I P n u m b e r s c a n b e e i t h e r Ad y n a m i c @ o r As t a t i c . @ A d y n a m i c n u m b e r , t y p i c a l l y u s e d b y p e r s o n s w h o h a v e d i a l - u p I n t e r n e t s e r v i c e , c h a n g e s e a c h t i m e t h e u s e r g o e s o n l i n e : Ai t i s o n l y g o o d f o r t h a t t r a n s a c t i o n , a n d t h e n r e t u r n s t o t h e p o o l o f n u m b e r s a f t e r t h e t r a n s a c t i o n i s o v e r . @ I d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a s t a t i c I P n u m b e r , w h i c h i s m o r e c o m m o n l y u s e d w i t h c a b l e a n d D S L c o n n e c t i o n s , i s p e r m a n e n t l y a s s i g n e d t o a c u s t o m e r . I d . 1 9 9 W a g e r s , 3 3 9 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 9 4 0 . 2 0 0 I d . 2 0 1 I d . 2 0 2 6 7 4 N . W . 2 d 2 0 0 ( M i n n . C t . A p p . 2 0 0 4 ) .


pornography, the court found that there was a substantial basis for the magistrate's determination that probable cause existed to search the suspect's home computer based on the training and expertise of the affiant, who asserted that persons with an interest in child pornography tend to view it in their home. The court reasoned, in part, that Aviewing and possessing child pornography is, by its nature, a solitary and secretive crime.@203 It accordingly believed that a Acourt could reasonably draw an inference that the suspect would keep the illicit images in a place considered safe and secret, like the home.@204 The court also relied on the transportable nature of laptops and stated that it was reasonable to infer Athat the illicit images found on the laptop would also be found on [the suspect's] home comput-er.@205 Screen names also help to identify who the person is. A Ascreen name@ is an identity created by a user and may or may not have any correlation with the user's real name; an individual typically gains access to a screen name by supplying a password that is associated with that screen name.206 Some courts will find probable cause to search the billing address associated with the screen name.207 As one court has reasoned:

T h e b i l l i n g a d d r e s s o f a n a c c o u n t t i e d t o a c o m p u t e r s c r e e n n a m e m a y n o t b e a n a b s o l u t e g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e h o l d e r o f t h e c o m p u t e r s c r e e n n a m e u s e d t h e c o m p u t e r a t t h e b i l l i n g a d d r e s s t o c o m m i t c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y , b u t t h e r e i s a f a i r a n d l o g i c a l i n f e r e n c e t h a t t h e c o m p u t e r w i l l p r o b a b l y b e f o u n d a t t h a t a d d r e s s a n d , i f n o t , a t l e a s t e v i d e n c e o f t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e h o l d e r o f t h e s c r e e n n a m e w i l l b e f o u n d t h e r e . 2 0 8

2 0 3 I d . a t 2 0 6 . 2 0 4 I d . 2 0 5 I d . 2 0 6 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G r a n t , 2 1 8 F . 3 d 7 2 , 7 3 n . 1 ( 1 s t C i r . 2 0 0 0 ) . 2 0 7 S e e , e . g . , E v e r s , 8 1 5 A . 2 d a t 4 4 6 ( A[ T ] h e b i l l i n g a d d r e s s o f t h e I n t e r n e t s c r e e n n a m e B a s c r e e n n a m e t h a t h a d e - m a i l e d p h o t o g r a p h s o f c h i l d p o r -n o g r a p h y B w a s t h e l o g i c a l p l a c e t o s e a r c h f o r e v i d e n c e o f t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e h o l d e r o f t h e s c r e e n n a m e a n d e v i d e n c e o f t h e c r i m e . @) . 2 0 8 E v e r s , 8 1 5 A . 2 d a t 4 4 6 ; s e e a l s o U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C a m p o s , 2 2 1


Nonetheless, the court cautioned that it would prefer that law enforcement officials take additional steps to verify that the computer from which offending images were sent is located in the defendant's residence.209 Other courts have rejected the view that a registered screen name is sufficient to establish probable cause to search the subscriber's computer.210 Instead, it has been suggested that additional information is needed, such as the fact that the suspect maintained a computer or computer-related equipment at the place to be searched that was capable of transmitting child pornography, the screen name required a particular pass-word, the transmission of child pornography was to a unique Internet or ethernet address assigned to a particular computer at the location to be searched, or the person occupying the place to be searched had an Aextreme@ interest in young children or had access to Internet sites operated by entities that required those having access to maintain Internet-accessible child pornography.211 Also relevant to the probable cause determi-

F . 3 d 1 1 4 3 , 1 1 4 5 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 2 0 0 0 ) ( u p h o l d i n g v a l i d i t y o f s e a r c h w a r r a n t f o r d e f e n d a n t ' s r e s i d e n c e a f t e r A[ l ] a w e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n t s d e t e r m i n e d t h a t A O L s u b -s c r i b e r w h o u s e d t h e n a m e ` I A M Z E U S ' w a s [ d e f e n d a n t ] @) ; H a u s e v . C o m m o n w e a l t h , 8 3 S . W . 3 d 1 , 4 - 5 , 1 1 - 1 2 ( K y . C t . A p p . 2 0 0 1 ) ( u p h o l d i n g v a l i d i t y o f s e a r c h w a r r a n t f o r r e s i d e n c e t h a t w a s s u p p o r t e d b y s u b s c r i b e r i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d f r o m I n t e r n e t s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r t h r o u g h C a l i f o r n i a s e a r c h w a r r a n t a n d v e r i f i c a t i o n o f a d d r e s s b y K e n t u c k y l a w e n f o r c e m e n t o f f i c i a l s ) . 2 0 9 E v e r s , 8 1 5 A . 2 d a t 4 4 6 . 2 1 0 S e e , e . g . , T a y l o r v . S t a t e , 5 4 S . W . 3 d 2 1 ( T e x . A p p . 2 0 0 1 ) ( n o p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o s e a r c h c o m p u t e r f o r c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y i n T a y l o r ' s h o m e w h e n a f f i -d a v i t m e r e l y a l l e g e d t h a t o n e i m a g e o f c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y s e n t o v e r t h e I n t e r n e t h a d b e e n t r a c e d t o s c r e e n n a m e r e g i s t e r e d t o T a y l o r ) . 2 1 1 S e e , e . g . , T a y l o r v . S t a t e , 5 4 S . W . 3 d 2 1 , 2 5 - 2 6 ( T e x . A p p . 2 0 0 1 ) ( c o l l e c t i n g c a s e s ) ; s e e a l s o U n i t e d S t a t e s v . B a c h , 4 0 0 F . 3 d 6 2 2 , 6 2 7 - 2 8 ( 8 t h C i r . 2 0 0 5 ) ( p r o b a b l e c a u s e e x i s t e d t o s e a r c h d e f e n d a n t ' s h o m e c o m p u t e r , e v e n i n a b -s e n c e o f c r o s s r e f e r e n c e s o f I P a d d r e s s e s p r o v i d e d b y t h e I S P a n d h i s t e l e p h o n e r e c o r d s b a s e d , i n t e r a l i a , o n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e u s e r n a m e e m p l o y e d t o c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e m i n o r w a s r e g i s t e r e d t o d e f e n d a n t a t h i s a d d r e s s ) , c e r t . d e n i e d , 2 0 0 5 U . S . L E X I S 6 5 8 5 ( U . S . , O c t . 3 , 2 0 0 5 ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G r a n t , 2 1 8 F . 3 d 7 2 , 7 5 ( 1 s t C i r .


nation would be the habits of child pornography collectors, their propensity to collect child pornography and maintain the collection at home, and whether the suspect was a pedophile.212

B. Consent

1. In General Consent to search is a question of fact and is determined based on the totality of the circumstances.213 The ultimate question turns on the voluntary nature of the conse214 The principles regulating the permissibility of a search or seizure based on a claim of consent do not change in the context of computer searches.215 However, computers present several challenges to the application of those principles.

2 0 0 0 ) ( b e c a u s e u s e o f p a s s w o r d - p r o t e c t e d a c c o u n t r e q u i r e s t h a t u s e r k n o w p a s s w o r d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a c c o u n t , f a i r p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t p e r s o n u s i n g a c c o u n t i s r e g i s -t r a n t ) . 2 1 2 S e e , e . g . , T a y l o r v . S t a t e , 5 4 S . W . 3 d 2 1 , 2 5 - 2 6 ( T e x . A p p . 2 0 0 1 ) ; s e e a l s o B e r g , s u p r a n o t e 1 9 8 , a t 4 2 - 4 5 ( a r g u i n g t h a t t h e r e a r e Ag o o d r e a s o n s @ t o f o l l o w t h e T a y l o r c o u r t ' s a p p r o a c h , i n c l u d i n g t h e f a c t t h a t e m a i l h e a d e r s c a n b e f o r g e d , t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n t o a n I S P r e g a r d i n g t h e u s e r ' s b i l l i n g a d d r e s s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t a c o m p u t e r i s p r e s e n t a t t h a t a d d r e s s , a n d t h a t , w i t h c u r r e n t t e c h n o l o g y , I S P s c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e p h o n e n u m b e r s a n d t i m e s w h e n t h e a c c o u n t w a s a c c e s s e d ) . 2 1 3 O h i o v . R o b i n e t t e , 5 1 9 U . S . 3 3 , 4 0 ( 1 9 9 6 ) . 2 1 4 S e e , e . g . , S c h n e c k l o t h v . B u s t a m o n t e , 4 1 2 U . S . 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 ( 1 9 7 3 ) ( v i e w i n g c o n s e n t a s a n e x c e p t i o n t o w a r r a n t a n d p r o b a b l e c a u s e r e q u i r e m e n t s ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . W h i t e , 4 0 1 U . S . 7 4 5 , 7 5 2 ( 1 9 7 1 ) ; A l d e r m a n v . U n i t e d S t a t e s , 3 9 4 U . S . 1 6 5 , 1 7 9 n . 1 1 ( 1 9 6 8 ) ; H o f f a v . U n i t e d S t a t e s , 3 8 5 U . S . 2 9 3 , 3 0 2 - 0 3 ( 1 9 6 6 ) . U n d e r l y i n g c o n s e n t p r i n c i p l e s i s t h e C o u r t ' s a s s u m p t i o n o f r i s k a n a l y s i s . S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . K a t z , 3 8 9 U . S . 3 5 1 ( 1 9 6 7 ) ( AW h a t a p e r s o n k n o w i n g l y e x p o s e s t o t h e p u b l i c , e v e n i n h i s o w n h o m e o r o f f i c e , i s n o t a s u b j e c t o f F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t p r o t e c t i o n . @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . J a c o b s e n , 4 6 6 U . S . 1 0 9 , 1 1 8 ( 1 9 8 4 ) ( w h e n i n d i v i d u a l r e v e a l s i n f o r m a t i o n t o a n o t h e r , h e a s s u m e s t h e r i s k t h a t h i s c o n -


2. Scope of Consent

f i d a n t w i l l r e v e a l t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n ) . V o l u n t a r i n e s s B m e a n i n g t h e l a c k o f c o e r c i o n b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t s C m u s t b e e s t a b l i s h e d . H o w e v e r , t h e c o n s e n t n e e d n o t b e a n i n -f o r m e d o n e , w h i c h i s t o s a y t h a t t h e p e r s o n g i v i n g t h e c o n s e n t n e e d n o t k n o w t h a t h e o r s h e h a s t h e r i g h t t o r e f u s e , w h i c h i s t h e e s s e n t i a l h o l d i n g o f S c h n e c k l o t h . T h e A m e n d m e n t r e g u l a t e s t h e r e a s o n a b l e n e s s o f g o v e r n m e n t a l a c t o r s , n o t t h e k n o w l e d g e o f p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s . H e n c e , i t i s r e a s o n a b l e f o r a l a w e n f o r c e m e n t o f f i c e r t o r e l y o n t h e a p p a r e n t c o n s e n t o f a p e r s o n w h o s e e m s a u t h o r i z e d a n d c o m p e t e n t t o c o n s e n t , r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e p e r s o n i s i n f a c t a u t h o r i z e d , c o m p e t e n t , o r o t h e r w i s e m a k i n g a n i n f o r m e d c h o i c e . S e e I l l i n o i s v . R o d r i g u e z , 4 9 7 U . S . 1 7 7 , 1 8 3 - 8 9 ( 1 9 9 0 ) ( c o n s e n t b y p e r s o n w h o m p o l i c e r e a s o n a b l y b e l i e v e t o h a v e c o m m o n a u t h o r i t y o v e r p r e m i s e s v a l i d a t e d s e a r c h ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M a t l o c k , 4 1 5 U . S . 1 6 4 , 1 7 1 ( 1 9 7 4 ) ( t h i r d p a r t y m a y c o n s e n t t o s e a r c h i f p a r t y h a s c o m m o n a u t h o r i t y o r o t h -e r s u f f i c i e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p r e m i s e s o r e f f e c t s ) . 2 1 5 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M a b e , 3 3 0 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 2 3 4 , 1 2 4 0 ( D . U t a h 2 0 0 4 ) ( r e j e c t i n g a s s e r t i o n t h a t d e f e n d a n t c o n s e n t e d t o s e a r c h o f c o m p u t e r a f t e r p o l i c e f a l s e l y s t a t e d t h a t t h e y h a d s e a r c h w a r r a n t ) ; P e o p l e v . Y u r u c k s o , 7 4 6 N . Y . S . 2 d 3 3 , 3 4 - 3 5 ( N . Y . A p p . D i v . 2 0 0 2 ) ( c o n s e n t t o s e a r c h h o m e c o m p u t e r v a l i d , b a s e d o n d e f e n d a n t ' s m a t u r i t y , e d u c a t i o n , a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s , e v e n t h o u g h p o l i c e s t a t -e d t h a t , i f h e d i d n o t c o n s e n t , t h e y w o u l d o b t a i n a s e a r c h w a r r a n t a n d s e i z e h i s w o r k c o m p u t e r ) .


A person may Adelimit as he chooses the scope of the search to which he consents.@216 The government, in performing a search, cannot exceed the scope of the consent given. This is an objective inquiry: Awhat would the typical reasonable person have understood by the exchange between the officer and the suspect?@217 Moreover, the scope of a consensual search is generally defined by its expressed object.218 This is to say that consent Aextends to the entire area in which the object of the search may be found and is not limited by the possibility that separate acts of entry or opening may be required to complete the search.@219 Thus, for example, troopers exceeded the scope of 2 1 6 F l o r i d a v . J i m e n o , 5 0 0 U . S . 2 4 8 , 2 5 2 ( 1 9 9 1 ) . C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L e m m o n s , 2 8 2 F . 3 d 9 2 0 , 9 2 4 - 2 5 ( 7 t h C i r . 2 0 0 2 ) ( a l t h o u g h s u s p e c t g a v e l i m i t e d c o n s e n t i n i t i a l l y , h i s l a t e r c o n s e n t t o s e a r c h c o m p u t e r m a d e s e a r c h v a l i d ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G r e e n e , 5 6 M . J . 8 1 7 , 8 2 2 - 2 3 ( N - M . C t . C r i m . A p p . 2 0 0 2 ) ( w h e n s u s p e c t s i g n e d f o r m a g r e e i n g t h a t a g e n t s c o u l d r e m o v e a n d r e t a i n h i s p r o p e r t y o r p a p e r s Aw h i c h a r e d e s i r e d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i v e p u r p o s e s , @ a g e n t s d i d n o t e x c e e d s c o p e o f c o n s e n t w h e n t h e y s e i z e d h i s c o m p u t e r a n d d i s c s a n d h e l d t h e m f o r t h r e e m o n t h s ) . 2 1 7 J i m e n o , 5 0 0 U . S . a t 2 5 1 . 2 1 8 I d ; s e e a l s o U n i t e d S t a t e s v . R a n e y , 3 4 2 F . 3 d 5 5 1 , 5 5 8 ( 7 t h C i r . 2 0 0 3 ) ( s e i z u r e o f Ah o m e m a d e @ a d u l t p o r n o g r a p h y w i t h i n s c o p e o f c o n s e n t t o s e a r c h f o r A m a t e r i a l s [ t h a t ] a r e e v i d e n c e i n t h e n a t u r e o f ' c h i l d a b u s e , c h i l d e r o t i c a , o r c h i l d e x p l o i t a t i o n @ a s i t s h o w e d a b i l i t y a n d i n t e n t t o m a n u f a c t u r e p o r n o g r a p h y d e p i c t i n g h i m s e l f i n s e x u a l a c t s ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . T u r n e r , 1 6 9 F . 3 d 8 4 , 8 8 - 8 9 ( 1 s t C i r . 1 9 9 9 ) ( s c o p e o f d e f e n d a n t ' s p e r m i s s i o n t o s e a r c h a p a r t m e n t i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h i n t r u d e r ' s a s s a u l t o n n e i g h b o r e x c e e d e d w h e n p o l i c e a c c e s s e d f i l e s o n h i s c o m p u t e r b e c a u s e t h e p o l i c e r e q u e s t w o u l d h a v e b e e n r e a s o n a b l y u n d e r s t o o d t o b e t h a t t h e y i n t e n d e d t o s e a r c h f o r p h y s i c a l e v i d e n c e o f t h e a s s a u l t ) ; S t a t e v . B r o w n , 8 1 3 N . E . 2 d 9 5 6 , 9 6 0 ( O h i o C t . A p p . 2 0 0 4 ) ( s c o p e o f d e f e n d a n t ' s c o n s e n t e x c e e d e d w h e n p o l i c e s e i z e d t w o c o m p u t e r s f r o m h i s h o m e w h e n h e h a d m e r e l y g i v e n c o n s e n t t o l o o k a t c o m p u t e r s ) ; P e o p l e v . O ' B r i e n , 7 6 9 N . Y . S . 2 d 6 5 4 , 6 5 6 ( N . Y . A p p . D i v . 2 0 0 3 ) ( A[ T ] h e f a c t t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t ' s w r i t t e n c o n s e n t w a s e x p r e s s l y l i m i t e d t o o n l y t h e C o m p U S A c o m p u t e r a n d m o n i t o r l o c a t e d i n h i s b e d r o o m r e v e a l s d e f e n d a n t ' s i n t e n t t o m a i n t a i n h i s p r i v a c y i n a l l o t h e r c o n t e n t s o f h i s b e d r o o m , @ i n c l u d i n g a n o t h e r c o m p u t e r ) . 2 1 9 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . R o s s , 4 5 6 U . S . 7 9 8 , 8 2 0 - 2 1 ( 1 9 8 2 ) ; s e e a l s o J i m e n o , 5 0 0 U . S . a t 2 5 1 ( c o n s e n t t o s e a r c h c a r i n c l u d e d c l o s e d p a p e r b a g o n f l o o r o f c a r ) ; C o m m o n w e a l t h v . H i n d s , 7 6 8 N . E . 2 d 1 0 6 7 , 1 0 7 1 ( M a s s . 2 0 0 2 ) ( w h e n


the driver's consent to search his vehicle for guns, drugs, money, or illegal contraband when they accessed the computer memory of a cellular phone to retrieve its electronic contents.220 This is because a reasonable person would have understood the driver's consent to be limited to Asearch any containers inside the vehicle which might reasonably contain those specific items@ and none of the objects sought would be found by accessing the phone's electronic contents.221 On the other hand, when a graduate student in computer science agreed to allow agents to search his entire home and to take his computer back to the FBI office for further examina-tion, it was held that the student Awould have realized that the examination of his computer would be more than superficial when the agents explained that they did not have the skills nor the time to perform the examination at his home.@222 Moreover, according to the court, Aa graduate student in computer science would clearly understand the technological resources of the FBI and its ability to thoroughly examine his computer.@223 Given the lack of limitations put on the search by the student, his cooperation, and his expertise, the court believed it was reasonable for the agents to conclude that they had unlimited access to the computer.224

d e f e n d a n t c o n s e n t e d t o s e a r c h o f h i s c o m p u t e r f o r e l e c t r o n i c m a i l , v a l i d s e a r c h n o t l i m i t e d t o s p e c i f i c d i r e c t o r i e s o r l o c a t i o n s o n c o m p u t e r ) . 2 2 0 S m i t h v . S t a t e , 7 1 3 N . E . 2 d 3 3 8 , 3 4 3 - 4 4 ( I n d . C t . A p p . 1 9 9 9 ) . 2 2 1 I d . 2 2 2 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . A l - M a r r i , 2 3 0 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 3 5 , 5 3 9 - 4 0 ( S . D . N . Y . 2 0 0 2 ) . 2 2 3 I d . a t 5 4 0 . 2 2 4 I d .


3. Third Party Consent

The validity of third party consent depends on whether the person giving consent has either actual authority or apparent authority to consent.225 In general, a third party may consent to a warrantless search when that party possesses Acommon au-thority over or other sufficient relationship to the premises or effects sought to be inspected.@226

C o m m o n a u t h o r i t y i s . . . n o t t o b e i m p l i e d f r o m t h e m e r e p r o p e r t y i n t e r e s t a t h i r d p a r t y h a s i n t h e p r o p e r t y . T h e a u -t h o r i t y w h i c h j u s t i f i e s t h e t h i r d - p a r t y c o n s e n t d o e s n o t r e s t u p o n t h e l a w o f p r o p e r t y , w i t h i t s a t t e n d a n t h i s t o r i c a l a n d l e g a l r e f i n e m e n t s , b u t r e s t s r a t h e r o n m u t u a l u s e o f t h e p r o p e r t y b y p e r s o n s g e n e r a l l y h a v i n g j o i n t a c c e s s o r c o n t r o l f o r m o s t p u r p o s e s , s o t h a t i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t a n y o f t h e c o - i n h a b i t a n t s h a s t h e r i g h t t o p e r m i t t h e i n -s p e c t i o n i n h i s o w n r i g h t a n d t h a t t h e o t h e r s h a v e a s s u m e d t h e r i s k t h a t o n e o f t h e i r n u m b e r m i g h t p e r m i t t h e c o m m o n a r e a t o b e s e a r c h e d . 2 2 7

The issue frequently arises in the context of shared computer use. The question, as with consent generally, turns on the person's access or control of the computer, regardless of whether the person is a spouse,228 parent,229 other family mem- 2 2 5 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S m i t h , 2 7 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 5 ( C . D . I l l . 1 9 9 8 ) . 2 2 6 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M a t l o c k , 4 1 5 U . S . 1 6 4 , 1 7 1 ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; s e e a l s o F r a z i e r v . C u p p , 3 9 4 U . S . 7 3 1 , 7 4 0 ( 1 9 6 9 ) ( r e j e c t i n g i n q u i r y i n t o Am e t a p h y s i c a l s u b -t l e t i e s @ o f a r g u m e n t t h a t , b e c a u s e j o i n t u s e r o f d u f f l e b a g o n l y h a d a c t u a l p e r m i s s i o n t o u s e o n e c o m p a r t m e n t , h e c o u l d n o t c o n s e n t t o s e a r c h o f w h o l e b a g ) . 2 2 7 M a t l o c k , 4 1 5 U . S . a t 1 7 1 n . 7 . 2 2 8 S e e W a l s h v . S t a t e , 5 1 2 S . E . 2 d 4 0 8 , 4 1 1 - 1 2 ( G a . C t . A p p . 1 9 9 9 ) ( d e f e n d a n t ' s w i f e h a d a u t h o r i t y t o c o n s e n t t o s e a r c h o f c o m p u t e r t h a t s h e p u r c h a s e d a n d w a s a v a i l a b l e f o r u s e b y f a m i l y ) . 2 2 9 S e e P e o p l e v . B l a i r , 7 4 8 N . E . 2 d 3 1 8 , 3 2 4 - 2 5 ( I l l . A p p . C t . 2 0 0 1 ) ( f a t h e r , w h o h a d n o a c t u a l o r a p p a r e n t o w n e r s h i p o f c o m p u t e r , c o u l d n o t v a l i d l y


ber,230 house mate,231 bailee,232 systems administra-tor,233 or other third party,234 such as a computer repair person.235 The presence of password-protected files is an important consideration in assessing a third party's authority to consent. For example, in Trulock v. Freeh,236 the court held that a resi- c o n s e n t t o s e i z u r e o f s o n ' s c o m p u t e r ) . 2 3 0 S e e S t a t e v . G u t h r i e , 6 2 7 N . W . 2 d 4 0 1 ( S . D . 2 0 0 1 ) ( s o n - i n - l a w p o s -s e s s e d c o m m o n a u t h o r i t y o v e r c o m p u t e r a n d c o u l d v a l i d l y c o n s e n t t o i t s s e i z u r e w h e n h e h a d u n c o n d i t i o n a l a c c e s s a n d c o n t r o l o v e r i t ) . 2 3 1 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S m i t h , 2 7 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 5 - 1 6 ( C . D . I l l . 1 9 9 8 ) ( h o u s e m a t e h a d a u t h o r i t y t o c o n s e n t t o s e a r c h o f d e f e n d a n t ' s c o m p u t e r , t o w h i c h s h e h a d j o i n t a c c e s s a n d w a s l o c a t e d i n c o m m o n a r e a o f h o u s e ; a l -t e r n a t i v e l y , g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t s r e a s o n a b l y b e l i e v e d h o u s e m a t e c o u l d c o n s e n t t o s e a r c h ) . 2 3 2 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . J a m e s , 3 5 3 F . 3 d 6 0 6 , 6 1 4 - 1 5 ( 8 t h C i r . 2 0 0 3 ) ( b a i l e e , w h o a g r e e d t o s t o r e d i s k s a n d w h o h a d b e e n l a t e r d i r e c t e d t o d e s t r o y t h e m , d i d n o t h a v e a c t u a l o r a p p a r e n t a u t h o r i t y t o p e r m i t p o l i c e t o t a k e a n d e x a m i n e t h e m ) . 2 3 3 A As y s t e m s a d m i n i s t r a t o r @ i s t h e p e r s o n Aw h o s e j o b i s t o k e e p [ a c o m p u t e r ] n e t w o r k r u n n i n g s m o o t h l y , m o n i t o r s e c u r i t y , a n d r e p a i r t h e n e t w o r k w h e n p r o b l e m s a r i s e . @ C C I P S M a n u a l , s u p r a n o t e 4 6 , a t 2 2 . T h o s e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s Ah a v e ` r o o t l e v e l ' a c c e s s t o t h e s y s t e m s t h e y a d m i n i s t e r , w h i c h e f f e c t i v e l y g r a n t s t h e m m a s t e r k e y s t o o p e n a n y a c c o u n t a n d r e a d a n y f i l e o n t h e i r s y s t e m s . @ I d . A s t h e C C I P S m a n u a l e m p h a s i z e s , At h e p r i m a r y b a r r i e r t o s e a r c h i n g a n e t w o r k a c c o u n t p u r -s u a n t t o a s y s t e m a d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s c o n s e n t i s s t a t u t o r y , n o t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l . S y s t e m s a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t y p i c a l l y s e r v e a s a g e n t s o f ` p r o v i d e r [ s ] o f e l e c t r o n i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n s e r v i c e ' u n d e r t h e E l e c t r o n i c C o m m u n i c a t i o n s P r i v a c y A c t ( ` E C P A ' ) , 1 8 U . S . C . '' 2 7 0 1 - 2 7 1 2 . @ I d . A n y a t t e m p t b y l a w e n f o r c e m e n t t o o b t a i n a s y s t e m a d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s c o n s e n t m u s t c o m p l y w i t h t h o s e p r o v i s i o n s . I d . a t 2 2 - 2 3 . R e g a r d i n g t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t , i t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t a p e r s o n u s i n g n e t w o r k s w i l l b e f o u n d t o h a v e a r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n r e m o t e l y s t o r e d f i l e s . S e e C C I P S M a n u a l , s u p r a n o t e 4 6 , a t 2 3 . 2 3 4 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M e e k , 3 6 6 F . 3 d 7 0 5 , 7 1 1 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 4 ) ( AL i k e p r i v a t e p h o n e c o n v e r s a t i o n s , e i t h e r p a r t y t o a c h a t r o o m e x c h a n g e h a s t h e p o w e r t o s u r r e n d e r e a c h o t h e r ' s p r i v a c y i n t e r e s t t o a t h i r d p a r t y . @) . 2 3 5 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . B a r t h , 2 6 F . S u p p . 2 d 9 2 9 , 9 3 8 ( W . D . T e x . 1 9 9 8 ) ( c o m p u t e r r e p a i r p e r s o n d o e s n o t h a v e a c t u a l a u t h o r i t y t o c o n s e n t t o s e a r c h o f c u s t o m e r ' s h a r d d r i v e , h a v i n g Ap o s s e s s i o n o f t h e u n i t f o r t h e l i m i t e d p u r p o s e o f r e p a i r @ a n d d i d n o t h a v e a p p a r e n t a u t h o r i t y w h e n p o l i c e k n e w h i s s t a t u s ) . 2 3 6 2 7 5 F . 3 d 3 9 1 ( 4 t h C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) .


dent of a townhouse, Conrad, could not authorize the search of password-protected files of another resident, Trulock, on a computer that was jointly used when Conrad did not have access to the passwords. The court reasoned by analogy to the case of a mother who was found not to have authority to con-sent to the search of a locked footlocker in her son's room, which was located in a home they shared, and added: ABy using a password, Trulock affirmatively intended to exclude Conrad and others from his personal files.@237 On the other hand, the lack of passwords to protect files has been held to defeat a claim that the defendant had exclusive control of a computer and that his housemate did not have authority to consent to search.238

2 3 7 I d . a t 4 0 3 . 2 3 8 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S m i t h , 2 7 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 6 ( C . D . I l l . 1 9 9 8 ) .


C. Particularity Claims

1. In General The Fourth Amendment requires that a search warrant describe with particularity Athe place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.@239 The particularity requirement prevents a Ageneral, exploratory rummaging in a person's belongings@240 and the seizure of one thing under a warrant de-scribing another.241 It also Aàssures the individual whose property is searched or seized of the lawful authority of the executing officer, his need to search, and the limits of his power to search.'@242 Although the Supreme Court has observed that, A[a]s to what is to be taken, nothing is left to the discretion of the officer executing the warrant,@243 this admonition has not been applied strictly by courts.244 A warrant satisfies the partic-ularity requirement if it enables the executing officer to identify with reasonable certainty those items that the issuing mag-istrate has authorized him to seize.245 This is determined, inter alia,246 by the nature of the activity charged247 and the nature of the objects to be seized.248 Without a sufficiently specific war-rant, the search is considered warrantless.249

2 3 9 U . S . C O N S T . a m e n d . I V . 2 4 0 C o o l i d g e v . N e w H a m p s h i r e , 4 0 3 U . S . 4 4 3 , 4 6 7 ( 1 9 7 1 ) . 2 4 1 M a r r o n v . U n i t e d S t a t e s , 2 7 5 U . S . 1 9 2 , 1 9 6 ( 1 9 2 7 ) ; s e e a l s o L A F A V E , s u p r a n o t e 9 5 , ' 4 . 6 ( a ) a t 6 0 5 ( u n d e r l y i n g p u r p o s e s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t y r e -q u i r e m e n t a r e t o p r e v e n t g e n e r a l s e a r c h e s a n d t o p r e v e n t t h e As e i z u r e o f o b j e c t s u n d e r t h e m i s t a k e n a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e y f a l l w i t h i n t h e m a g i s t r a t e ' s a u t h o r i z a t i o n @) . 2 4 2 G r o h v . R a m i r e z , 5 4 0 U . S . 5 5 1 , 5 6 1 ( 2 0 0 4 ) ( q u o t i n g U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C h a d w i c k , 4 3 3 U . S . 1 , 9 ( 1 9 7 7 ) ) . 2 4 3 M a r r o n , 2 7 5 U . S . a t 1 9 6 . 2 4 4 S e e , e . g . , D a v i s v . G r a c e y , 1 1 1 F . 3 d 1 4 7 2 , 1 4 7 8 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 1 9 9 7 ) ( a Aw a r r a n t t h a t d e s c r i b e s t h e i t e m s t o b e s e i z e d i n b r o a d o r g e n e r i c t e r m s m a y b e v a l i d w h e n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n i s a s s p e c i f i c a s t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e


2. Varieties of Computer Searches

a c t i v i t y u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n p e r m i t @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . R i l e y , 9 0 6 F . 2 d 8 4 1 , 8 4 5 ( 2 d C i r . 1 9 9 0 ) ( AO n c e a c a t e g o r y o f s e i z a b l e p a p e r s h a s b e e n a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e d , w i t h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n d e l i n e a t e d i n p a r t b y a n i l l u s t r a t i v e l i s t o f s e i z a b l e i t e m s , t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t i s n o t v i o l a t e d b e c a u s e t h e o f f i c e r s e x e c u t i n g t h e w a r r a n t m u s t e x e r c i s e s o m e m i n i m a l j u d g m e n t . . . . @) . 2 4 5 M a r y l a n d v . G a r r i s o n , 4 8 0 U . S . 7 9 , 8 4 ( 1 9 8 7 ) . 2 4 6 S e e L A F A V E s u p r a n o t e 9 5 , ' 4 . 6 ( a ) a t 6 0 9 - 1 3 ( s u m m a r i z i n g m a n y o f t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s t h a t c a n b e d i s t i l l e d f r o m t h e d e c i d e d c a s e s ) . 2 4 7 S e e , e . g . , A n d r e s e n v . M a r y l a n d , 4 2 7 U . S . 4 6 3 , 4 7 9 - 8 0 ( 1 9 7 6 ) ( p h r a s e s e e k i n g a l l e v i d e n c e w a s n o t g e n e r a l w h e n m o d i f i e d b y s e n t e n c e r e f e r r i n g t o s p e c i f i c c r i m e ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . J o h n s o n , 5 4 1 F . 2 d 1 3 1 1 , 1 3 1 4 ( 8 t h C i r . 1 9 7 6 ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . A b b e l l , 9 6 3 F . S u p p . 1 1 7 8 , 1 1 9 6 ( S . D . F l a . 1 9 9 7 ) . 2 4 8 L A F A V E , s u p r a n o t e 9 5 , ' 4 . 6 ( a ) a t 6 0 9 - 1 1 ; s e e a l s o S t a t e v . W i b l e , 5 1 P . 2 d 8 3 0 , 8 3 6 ( W a s h . A p p . 2 0 0 2 ) ( AC o u r t s e v a l u a t i n g a l l e g e d p a r t i c u l a r i t y v i o l a -t i o n s d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n i n h e r e n t l y i n n o c u o u s i t e m s , s u c h a s [ a ] c o m p u t e r , a n d i n -h e r e n t l y i l l e g a l p r o p e r t y , s u c h a s c o n t r o l l e d d a n g e r o u s s u b s t a n c e s . . . . I n n o c u o u s i t e m s r e q u i r e g r e a t e r p a r t i c u l a r i t y . @) . 2 4 9 G r o h , 5 4 6 U . S . a t 5 5 8 .


There are two varieties of computer searches: one is to seize the equipment, that is, the computer hardware and software; the other is to obtain the data contained in the computer equipment, including on hard drives and various storage devic-es, such as floppy disks. Helpful analysis in recognizing this distinction is contained in In re Grand Jury Subpoena Duces Tecum Dated November 15, 1993.250 Although decided under Federal Rule of Procedure 17(c) rather than under the Fourth Amendment, the court was presented with a subpoena that demanded that X Corporation provide the grand jury with the central processing unit, including the hard drive, of any com-puters supplied by the corporation to specified employees. The subpoena also demanded all computer-accessible data, includ-ing floppy diskettes created by those employees or their assis-tants. The court noted that, not only were corporate records within the scope of the subpoena, so were personal documents. The grand jury was investigating securities trading activities and obstruction of justice. The court observed:

T h e s u b p o e n a a t i s s u e h e r e i s n o t f r a m e d i n t e r m s o f s p e c i f i e d c a t e g o r i e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n . R a t h e r , i t d e m a n d s s p e c i f i e d i n f o r m a t i o n s t o r a g e d e v i c e s Bn a m e l y , p a r t i c u l a r c o m p u t e r h a r d d r i v e s a n d f l o p p y d i s k s t h a t c o n t a i n s o m e d a t a c o n c e d e d l y i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e g r a n d j u r y i n q u i r y . . . . I f t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f m a t e r i a l s p r o p e r l y a r e s e e n t o b e h a r d d i s k d r i v e s a n d f l o p p y d i s k s , t h e n . . . i t i s h i g h l y p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e s e d e v i c e s w i l l c o n t a i n s o m e r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n . I f , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f m a t e r i a l s p r o p e r l y a r e s e e n t o b e t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s o f d o c u m e n t s c o n t a i n e d o n t h e s e d e v i c e s , t h e n t h e s u b p o e n a w o u l d b e u n r e a s o n a b l y b r o a d b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e e a s i l y s e p a r a b l e c a t e g o r i e s o f r e q u e s t e d d o c u m e n t s t h a t u n d o u b t e d l y c o n t a i n n o r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n . 2 5 1

Concluding that the grand jury was actually seeking documents and not the devices that stored them, the court held that the

2 5 0 8 4 6 F . S u p p . 1 1 ( S . D . N . Y . 1 9 9 4 ) . 2 5 1 I d . a t 1 2 .


subpoena was too broad.252 Similarly, under the Fourth Amend-ment, it must be determined whether the computer is a mere storage device for data253 or whether the equipment254 is the object sought.

a. Searches for Computer Equipment In the context of warrants issued to seize computer software and hardware,255 the courts have often found fairly generic de-scriptions of the items to be seized to be sufficient.256 For example, merely labelling the objects to be seized as evidence of, or an instrumentality257 of, a crime as Acomputer equip-ment@258 or even Aequipment@259 relating to a specific crime has sufficed. Of course, if computer equipment has been stolen and that specific equipment is the object of the search, it would have to be described with sufficient particularity to identify it.260

2 5 2 I d . a t 1 3 - 1 4 . 2 5 3 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G a w r y s i a k , 9 7 2 F . S u p p . 8 5 3 , 8 6 0 - 6 1 ( D . N . J . 1 9 9 7 ) ( a p p r o v i n g w a r r a n t t o s e a r c h f o r d o c u m e n t s r e l a t e d t o w i r e f r a u d i n v e s t i g a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g r e c o r d s s t o r e d i n m a g n e t i c o r e l e c t r o n i c f o r m s ) , a f f ' d , 1 7 8 F . 3 d 1 2 8 1 ( 3 d C i r . 1 9 9 9 ) . 2 5 4 S e e , e . g . , A r k a n s a s C h r o n i c l e v . E a s l e y , 3 2 1 F . S u p p . 2 d 7 7 6 , 7 9 3 ( E . D . V a . 2 0 0 4 ) ( c o m p a r i n g s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t i n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c a s e s , w h e r e t h o s e d e v i c e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s o f c r i m e , w i t h c o m p u t e r s t h a t a r e t o o l s o f j o u r n a l i s t ' s t r a d e t h a t m a y o r m a y n o t c o n t a i n e v i d e n c e ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H u n t e r , 1 3 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 7 4 , 5 8 4 - 8 5 ( D . V t . 1 9 9 8 ) ( w a r r a n t a u t h o r i z i n g w h o l e s a l e s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r s a n d r e l a t e d d e v i c e s , w i t h o u t s p e c i f y i n g c r i m e f o r w h i c h c o m p u t e r s w e r e s o u g h t , v i o l a t e d p a r t i c u l a r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t ) . 2 5 5 S e e , e . g . , C C I P S M a n u a l , s u p r a n o t e 4 6 , a t 6 3 - 6 4 ( d i s c u s s i n g t h a t , u n d e r F e d . R . C r i m . P . 4 1 ( b ) , a g e n t s m a y o b t a i n s e a r c h w a r r a n t s t o s e i z e c o m p u t e r h a r d w a r e i f t h e h a r d w a r e i s c o n t r a b a n d , e v i d e n c e , o r a n i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o r f r u i t o f a c r i m e ) . 2 5 6 S e e , e . g . , S t a t e v . L e h m a n , 7 3 6 A . 2 d 2 5 6 , 2 6 0 - 6 1 ( M e . 1 9 9 9 ) ( c o l l e c t i n g c a s e s ) . 2 5 7 S e e , e . g . , A r k a n s a s C h r o n i c l e v . E a s l e y , 3 2 1 F . S u p p . 2 d 7 7 6 , 7 9 3 ( E . D . V a . 2 0 0 4 ) ( c o m p a r i n g s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t i n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c a s -


b. Searches for Data

e s , w h e r e t h o s e d e v i c e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s o f c r i m e , w i t h c o m p u t e r s t h a t a r e t o o l s o f a j o u r n a l i s t ' s t r a d e ) . 2 5 8 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L a c y , 1 1 9 F . 3 d 7 4 2 , 7 4 5 - 4 7 ( 9 t h C i r . 1 9 9 7 ) , c e r t . d e n i e d , 5 2 3 U . S . 1 1 0 1 ( 1 9 9 8 ) ( u p h o l d i n g w a r r a n t i s s u e d f o r s e a r c h o f Ac o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t a n d r e c o r d s @ t h a t r e s u l t e d i n s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r , m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 c o m p u t e r d i s k s , a n d d o c u m e n t s w h e n g o v e r n m e n t k n e w t h a t s u s p e c t h a d d o w n l o a d e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y b u t d i d n o t k n o w w h e r e t h e i m a g e s h a d b e e n s t o r e d , w i t h t h e c o u r t c o n c l u d i n g t h a t At h i s t y p e o f g e n e r i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s a c c e p t a b l e ` w h e n a m o r e p r e c i s e d e s c r i p t i o n i s n o t p o s s i b l e ' @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . U p h a m , 1 6 8 F . 3 d 5 3 2 , 5 3 5 ( 1 s t C i r . 1 9 9 9 ) , c e r t . d e n i e d , 5 2 7 U . S . 1 0 1 1 ( 1 9 9 9 ) ( o b s e r v i n g t h a t w a r r a n t i s s u e d f o r A[ a ] n y a n d a l l c o m p u t e r s o f t w a r e a n d h a r d w a r e , . . . c o m p u t e r d i s k s , d i s k d r i v e s @ i s e a s i l y a d m i n i s t e r e d b y s e i z i n g o f f i c e r b a s e d o n o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a w h e t h e r i t e m i s c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t ) . 2 5 9 D a v i s v . G r a c e y , 1 1 1 F . 3 d 1 4 7 2 , 1 4 7 8 - 7 9 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 1 9 9 7 ) ( c o m p u t e r s , m o n i t o r s , k e y b o a r d s , m o d e m s , C D - R O M d r i v e s , a n d c h a n g e r s w e r e w i t h i n t h e m e a n i n g o f w a r r a n t t h a t d i r e c t e d o f f i c e r s t o s e a r c h f o r Ae q u i p m e n t . . . p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o r d i s p l a y o f p o r n o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l @) . 2 6 0 S e e , e . g . , S t a t e v . T a n n e r , 5 3 4 S o . 2 d 5 3 5 , 5 3 7 ( L a . A p p . 1 9 8 8 ) ( w h e n d e f e n d a n t i l l e g a l l y c o p i e d s o f t w a r e a n d o t h e r m a t e r i a l s b e l o n g i n g t o F i r s t P a g e B e e p e r S e r v i c e s , w a r r a n t n o t o v e r b r o a d t h a t a u t h o r i z e d s e i z u r e o f Aa l l o t h e r c o m -p u t e r r e l a t e d s o f t w a r e @ t h a t b o r e t h e n a m e AF i r s t P a g e B e e p e r s @) . B u t c f . S t a t e v . W a d e , 5 4 4 S o . 2 d 1 0 2 8 , 1 0 2 9 - 3 0 ( F l a . A p p . 1 9 8 9 ) ( w a r r a n t , w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n s e i z u r e o f 5 3 i t e m s , t h a t a u t h o r i z e d s e i z u r e o f Ac o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t a n d b u s i n e s s r e c o r d s @ t h a t h a d b e e n s t o l e n f r o m C o n t r o l l e d D a t a C o r p o r a t i o n w a s s u f f i c i e n t l y p a r t i c u l a r w h e n i t i n c o r p o r a t e d b y r e f e r e n c e e x h i b i t l i s t i n g t h r e e s p e c i f i c i t e m s b u t w a s n o t l i m i t e d t o t h o s e i t e m s ) .


As discussed at the beginning of this article,261 there are two principal approaches to searches involving electronic data stored on computers, that is, whether a computer is a form of a container and the data in electronic storage mere forms of doc-uments or whether such searches for data require a Aspecial approach.@ Perhaps the most significant consequence of those competing views is in the application of the Fourth Amendment's particularity requirement. If data is considered a form of a document and the computer is just a container hold-ing that document, the traditional limitations on document searches apply.262 On the other hand, if the court rejects such an analogy and adopts the Aspecial approach@ to searches of data on computers, then unique limitations are likely to be imposed.263

D. Plain View The permissible scope of a search is usually determined by the objects sought under the warrant. If small objects (such as fibers or bullets) are the target of the search, law enforcement officials can look anywhere such an object may be hidden; if only large objects are sought, the officials can only look where that size of object can be concealed. In executing a search, it is not uncommon for the police to encounter objects that are in-criminating or have evidentiary value for which they did not have prior authority to search or seize. Under such circum-stances, the plain view doctrine may justify seizure of the ob-ject. That doctrine has three requirements: a prior valid intru-sion; observing an object in plain view; and the incriminating character of the object must be immediately apparent.264

2 6 1 S e e d i s c u s s i o n s u p r a a t 1 9 7 - 2 0 5 . 2 6 2 S e e d i s c u s s i o n s u p r a a t 1 9 7 - 2 0 1 . 2 6 3 S e e d i s c u s s i o n s u p r a a t 2 0 2 - 2 0 . 2 6 4 H o r t o n v . C a l i f o r n i a , 4 9 6 U . S . 1 2 8 , 1 3 6 - 3 7 ( 1 9 9 0 ) . T h e r e i s n o r e -q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e s p o t t i n g o f t h e o b j e c t b e i n a d v e r t e n t . I d . ; s e e a l s o I v a t u r y v . S t a t e , 7 9 2 S . W . 2 d 8 4 5 , 8 5 1 ( T e x . C t . A p p . 1 9 9 0 ) ( b a s e d o n w a r r a n t t o s e a r c h s a f e t y


In the context of searches of computers for electronic evidence, if the police are otherwise validly in position to observe a computer screen, their observations of what is depicted on the screen will be considered in plain view.265 As to observations of the contents of unopened files, what is in plain view is determined by whether the court accepts the view that data are mere types of document searches,266 and hence the official can look at all data to ascertain its value when executing a warrant to search for documents,267 or whether the court takes a special

d e p o s i t b o x d u r i n g e s p i o n a g e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , d i s c o v e r y o f s p e c i a l t y p e o f c o m p u t e r t a p e i n b o x u s e d i n d e f e n s e i n d u s t r y i n p l a i n v i e w ) . 2 6 5 S e e S t a t e v . M a y s , 8 2 9 N . E . 2 d 7 7 3 , 7 7 9 ( O h i o C t . A p p . 2 0 0 5 ) ( o b -s e r v a t i o n s o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n c o m p u t e r s c r e e n d u r i n g c o n s e n t s e a r c h o f h o m e i n p l a i n v i e w ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . T a n k s l e y , 5 0 M . J . 6 0 9 , 6 2 0 ( N - M . C t . C r i m . A p p . 1 9 9 9 ) ( o b -s e r v a t i o n s o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n c o m p u t e r s c r e e n m a d e d u r i n g s e a r c h o f o f f i c e w e r e i n p l a i n v i e w ) ; P e o p l e v . B l a i r , 7 4 8 N . E . 2 d 3 1 8 , 3 2 3 ( I l l . A p p . 2 0 0 1 ) ( w h e n p o l i c e o b s e r v e d ` b o o k m a r k s w i t h r e f e r e n c e s t o t e e n a g e r s a n d s o f o r t h , ' t h e y d i d n o t h a v e p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t c o m p u t e r c o n t a i n e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y ) ; S t a t e v . O n e P i o n e e r C D - R O M C h a n g e r , 8 9 1 P . 2 d 6 0 0 , 6 0 4 - 0 5 ( O k l a . C i v . A p p . 1 9 9 5 ) ( d u r i n g e x e c u t i o n o f s e a r c h w a r r a n t b a s e d o n a l l e g a t i o n s t h a t s u s p e c t w a s d i s t r i b u t i n g p o r n o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l , p o l i c e o b s e r v a t i o n s o f c o m p u t e r m o n i t o r Ad i s p l a y i n g t h e w o r d s ` v i e w i n g ' a n d / o r ` c o p y i n g ' w i t h d e s c r i p t i o n s s u c h a s ` l e s b i a n s e x ' a n d / o r ` o r a l s e x ' @ e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e e q u i p m e n t a n d i t s p o s s i b l e c r i m i n a l u s e w e r e i n p l a i n v i e w ) . C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . T u r n e r , 1 6 9 F . 3 d 8 4 , 8 8 ( 1 s t C i r . 1 9 9 9 ) ( o b s e r v a t i o n o f o f f i c e r d u r i n g c o n s e n s u a l s e a r c h o f a p a r t m e n t o f p h o t o g r a p h o f a n u d e w o m a n o n c o m -p u t e r s c r e e n d i d n o t j u s t i f y s e a r c h o f c o m p u t e r f o r o t h e r i n c r i m i n a t i n g f i l e s ) ; S t a t e v . B r o w n , 8 1 3 N . E . 2 d 9 5 6 , 9 6 0 - 6 2 ( O h i o C t . A p p . 2 0 0 4 ) ( i n c r i m i n a t i n g n a t u r e o f c o m p u t e r s a n d t h e i r c o n t e n t s n o t i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t b a s e d o n m e r e o b s e r v a t i o n o f t w o c o m p u t e r s i n d e f e n d a n t ' s h o u s e , w i t h n o p o r n o g r a p h y d i s p l a y e d o n s c r e e n , w h e n p o l i c e m e r e l y k n e w t h a t p o r n o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l h a d b e e n p r i n t e d f r o m s o m e c o m p u t e r ) . O f c o u r s e , i f t h e r e i s n o p r i o r i n t r u s i o n a t a l l , t h a t i s , n o p r i o r s e a r c h o r s e i z u r e w i t h i n t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t , t h e n a n o f f i c e r ' s u s e o f h e r s i g h t t o o b s e r v e s o m e t h i n g i s n o t a s e a r c h . S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . D a v i d , 7 5 6 F . S u p p . 1 3 8 5 , 1 3 9 0 ( D . N e v . 1 9 9 1 ) ( a g e n t ' s l o o k i n g o v e r d e f e n d a n t ' s s h o u l d e r t o s e e p a s s w o r d f o r d e f e n d a n t ' s c o m p u t e r n o t s e a r c h ) . 2 6 6 S e e d i s c u s s i o n s u p r a a t 1 9 8 - 2 0 6 . 2 6 7 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G r a y , 7 8 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 2 4 , 5 3 1 n . 1 1 ( E . D . V a . 1 9 9 9 ) ( w h e n a g e n t i s e n g a g e d i n As y s t e m a t i c s e a r c h @ o f c o m p u t e r f i l e s p u r s u a n t t o w a r r a n t , a n y e v i d e n c e d i s c o v e r e d c o u l d b e s e i z e d u n d e r p l a i n v i e w


approach268 to computer searches and imposes limitations on the search by, for example, file name or file type.269 It also depends on how the court defines the relevant container.270

d o c t r i n e ) ; C o m m o n w e a l t h v . H i n d s , 7 6 8 N . E . 2 d 1 0 6 7 , 1 0 7 2 ( M a s s . 2 0 0 2 ) ( p o l i c e h a d r i g h t t o o p e n f i l e t h a t o f f i c e r b e l i e v e d c o n t a i n e d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y b a s e d o n f i l e ' s n a m e d u r i n g s e a r c h o f c o m p u t e r f o r e m a i l ; a c c o r d i n g l y , c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y w a s i n p l a i n v i e w ) ; S t a t e v . S c h r o e d e r , 6 1 3 N . W . 2 d 9 1 1 , 9 1 6 ( W i s . C t . A p p . 2 0 0 0 ) ( r e j e c t i n g l i m i t a t i o n s o n s e a r c h b a s e d o n f i l e n a m e s a n d c o n c l u d i n g t h a t , d u r i n g s y s -t e m a t i c s e a r c h o f a l l u s e r - c r e a t e d f i l e s i n e x e c u t i n g s e a r c h w a r r a n t f o r e v i d e n c e o f o n l i n e h a r a s s m e n t a n d d i s o r d e r l y c o n d u c t , o p e n i n g f i l e c o n t a i n i n g c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y i n p l a i n v i e w ) ; F r a s i e r v . S t a t e , 7 9 4 N . E . 2 d 4 4 9 , 4 6 2 - 6 6 ( I n d . C t . A p p . 2 0 0 3 ) ( r e j e c t i n g l i m i t a t i o n s o n a s e a r c h b a s e d o n f i l e n a m e s a n d e x t e n s i o n s , a n d c o n c l u d i n g t h a t p l a i n v i e w d o c t r i n e a p p l i e d w h e n p o l i c e o p e n e d f i l e a n d o b s e r v e d c h i l d p o r n o g -r a p h y d u r i n g e x e c u t i o n o f w a r r a n t p e r m i t t i n g p o l i c e t o e x a m i n e n o t e s a n d r e c o r d s f o r e v i d e n c e o f d r u g t r a f f i c k i n g ) . C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . W o n g , 3 3 4 F . 3 d 8 3 1 , 8 3 8 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 3 ) ( u n d e r w a r r a n t p e r m i t t i n g s e a r c h o f g r a p h i c f i l e s f o r e v i d e n c e o f m u r d e r , o b s e r v a t i o n s o f f i l e s c o n t a i n i n g c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y i n p l a i n v i e w ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . T u c k e r , 3 0 5 F . 3 d 1 1 9 3 , 1 2 0 2 - 0 3 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 2 0 0 2 ) ( p a r o l e a g r e e m e n t a u t h o r i z e d s e a r c h o f c o m p u t e r ; u p o n v i e w i n g c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y o n i t , p l a i n v i e w p e r m i t t e d s e i z u r e ) . 2 6 8 S e e d i s c u s s i o n s u p r a a t 2 0 2 - 2 0 . 2 6 9 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C a r e y , 1 7 2 F . 3 d 1 2 6 8 , 1 2 7 2 - 7 5 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 1 9 9 9 ) ( o p e n i n g o f f i l e s c o n t a i n i n g c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y , a t l e a s t a f t e r f i r s t f i l e w a s o p e n e d , d u r i n g e x e c u t i o n o f s e a r c h w a r r a n t f o r d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o d r u g d e a l i n g , n o t j u s t i f i e d b y p l a i n v i e w d o c t r i n e b e c a u s e f i l e s w e r e Ac l o s e d @ a n d Au n -a m b i g u o u s l y @ n a m e d ) . C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . A b b e l l , 9 1 4 F . S u p p . 5 1 9 , 5 2 0 - 2 1 ( S . D . F l a . 1 9 9 5 ) ( i n c r i m i n a l p r o s e c u t i o n w h e r e l a r g e v o l u m e o f c o m p u t e r g e n e r a t e d d a t a s e i z e d f r o m d e f e n d a n t ' s l a w o f f i c e , s p e c i a l m a s t e r w o u l d d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r d o c u m e n t s a n d d a t a w e r e r e s p o n s i v e t o w a r r a n t o r f e l l w i t h i n e x c e p t i o n t o w a r r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M a x w e l l , 4 5 M . J . 4 0 6 , 4 2 2 ( C . A . A . F . 1 9 9 6 ) ( w h e r e o f f i c e r u s e d p e r s o n a l c o m p u t e r t o t r a n s p o r t o b s c e n i t y a n d c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y , p l a i n v i e w d o c t r i n e i n a p p l i c a b l e t o s e a r c h o f c o m p u t e r f i l e s u n d e r s c r e e n n a m e n o t l i s t e d i n w a r r a n t ) ; s e e a l s o B r e n n e r & F r e d e r i k s e n d , s u p r a n o t e 1 8 , a t 8 9 - 1 0 6 ( a d v o c a t i n g s i g n i f i c a n t r e s t r i c t i o n s o n a p p l i c a t i o n o f p l a i n v i e w d o c t r i n e t o c o m p u t e r s e a r c h e s ) . 2 7 0 S e e d i s c u s s i o n s u p r a a t 2 3 3 - 4 4 .


E. Execution Issues

1. On-site/Off-site Searches; Intermingled Documents One question that has often arisen is whether the government may remove the computer, including its hard drive and disks, to the police station for detailed forensic examination. Answering this question, courts have fairly consistently held that, due to the intermingling of legitimate and illegitimate items, the technical difficulty of examination, and the volume of information seized, temporary seizures of the computer and removal off site for examination are permitted.271 Underlying the courts' analysis is the fundamental premise that Acurrent technology does not permit proper on-site examination of com-puter files.@272 For example, in United States v. Hill,273 the court concluded that the police were not required to bring with them equipment capable of reading computer storage media and an officer competent to operate it; the court observed: 2 7 1 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . W a l s e r , 2 7 5 F . 3 d 9 8 1 , 9 8 5 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) ( o b s e r v i n g t h a t s e i z u r e i s a p p r o p r i a t e i n v a r i e t y o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i n c l u d i n g At h e i m p r a c t i c a l i t y o f o n - s i t e s o r t i n g @ a n d b e c a u s e Ac o m p u t e r e v i d e n c e i s v u l n e r a b l e t o t a m p e r i n g o r d e s t r u c t i o n @) ; G u e s t v . L e i s , 2 5 5 F . 3 d 3 2 5 , 3 3 5 ( 6 t h C i r . 2 0 0 1 ) ( d u e t o At e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s o f c o n d u c t i n g a c o m p u t e r s e a r c h i n a s u s p e c t ' s h o m e , @ p e r m i s s i b l e t o s e i z e c o m p u t e r s a n d t h e i r c o n t e n t s a n d r e m o v e t o a l l o w p o l i c e t o l o c a t e r e l e v a n t d a t a ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H a y , 2 3 1 F . 3 d 6 3 0 , 6 3 7 ( 9 t h C i r . 2 0 0 0 ) ( u p h o l d i n g , i n c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y c a s e , w a r r a n t a u t h o r i z i n g s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r s y s -t e m b e c a u s e o f t h e At i m e , e x p e r t i s e , a n d c o n t r o l l e d e n v i r o n m e n t r e q u i r e d f o r a p r o p e r a n a l y s i s @) ; U p h a m , 1 6 8 F . 3 d a t 5 3 5 ( AA s a p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r , t h e s e i z u r e a n d s u b s e q u e n t o f f - p r e m i s e s s e a r c h o f t h e c o m p u t e r a n d a l l a v a i l a b l e d i s k s w a s a b o u t t h e n a r r o w e s t d e f i n a b l e s e a r c h a n d s e i z u r e r e a s o n a b l y l i k e l y t o o b t a i n t h e i m a g e s . A s u f f i c i e n t c h a n c e o f f i n d i n g s o m e n e e d l e s i n t h e c o m p u t e r h a y s t a c k w a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e p r o b a b l e - c a u s e s h o w i n g i n t h e w a r r a n t a p p l i c a t i o n ; a n d a s e a r c h o f a c o m -p u t e r a n d c o - l o c a t e d d i s k s i s n o t i n h e r e n t l y m o r e i n t r u s i v e t h a n t h e p h y s i c a l s e a r c h o f a n e n t i r e h o u s e f o r a w e a p o n o r d r u g s . @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S i s s l e r , 9 6 6 F . 2 d 1 4 5 5 ( 6 t h C i r . 1 9 9 2 ) , c e r t . d e n i e d , 5 0 6 U . S . 1 0 7 9 ( 1 9 9 3 ) ( p o l i c e p e r m i t t e d t o r e m o v e


c o m p u t e r s f r o m d e f e n d a n t ' s r e s i d e n c e t o c o n t i n u e s e a r c h o f f - s i t e ) ; M a h l b e r g v . M e n t z e r , 9 6 8 F . 2 d 7 7 2 , 7 7 5 ( 8 t h C i r . 1 9 9 2 ) ( s e i z u r e o f 1 6 0 c o m p u t e r d i s k s p e r m i s s i b l e w h e n s e a r c h i n g f o r t w o c o m p u t e r f i l e s b e c a u s e o f p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t c o m p u t e r w a s ` b o b b y - t r a p p e d ' t o e r a s e i t s e l f a n d b e c a u s e i t w a s u n k n o w n w h i c h d i s k s c o n t a i n e d t h e f i l e s ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S c h a n d l , 9 4 7 F . 2 d 4 6 2 , 4 6 5 - 6 6 ( 1 1 t h C i r . 1 9 9 1 ) , c e r t . d e n i e d , 5 0 4 U . S . 9 7 5 ( 1 9 9 2 ) ( i n t a x e v a s i o n c a s e , w h i c h r e q u i r e s Ac a r e f u l a n a l y s i s a n d s y n t h e s i s o f a l a r g e n u m b e r o f d o c u m e n t s , @ i t m i g h t b e m o r e d i s r u p t i v e t o c o n d u c t t h o r o u g h s e a r c h o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l d o c u m e n t a n d c o m p u t e r d i s k b e f o r e r e m o v i n g i t ; t o i n s i s t o n s u c h a p r a c t i c e w o u l d s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e t i m e t o c o n d u c t s e a r c h , t h e r e b y a g g r a v a t i n g i t s i n t r u s i v e n e s s ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M a a l i , 3 4 6 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 2 2 6 , 1 2 4 6 ( M . D . F l a . 2 0 0 4 ) ( ( AW a r r a n t s a u t h o r i z i n g s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t f o r l a t e r o f f - s i t e s e a r c h o f t h e i r c o n t e n t s f o r e v i d e n c e . . . h a v e b e e n u p h e l d , e s p e c i a l l y w h e r e , a s h e r e , t h e s u p p o r t i n g a f f i d a v i t e x p l a i n e d t h e r e a s o n s u c h o f f - s i t e a n a l y s i s w a s n e c e s s a r y . @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . L e v e t o , 3 4 3 F . S u p p . 2 d 4 3 4 , 4 4 9 - 5 0 ( W . D . P a . 2 0 0 4 ) ( i n l a r g e t a x f r a u d s c h e m e , i n v o l v i n g m a n y d o c u -m e n t s a n d c o m p u t e r f i l e s , o f f - s i t e i n s p e c t i o n p e r m i s s i b l e ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . A l b e r t , 1 9 5 F . S u p p . 2 d 2 6 7 , 2 7 8 - 7 9 ( D . M a s s . 2 0 0 2 ) ( u p h o l d i n g o f f - s i t e s e a r c h b e c a u s e At h e m e c h a n i c s o f s e a r c h i n g a h a r d d r i v e b y v i e w i n g a l l o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i t c o n t a i n s c a n n o t b e r e a d i l y a c c o m p l i s h e d o n s i t e @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H u n t e r , 1 3 F . S u p p . 2 d 5 7 4 , 5 8 3 ( D . V t . 1 9 9 8 ) ( AO f t e n i t i s s i m p l y i m p r a c t i c a l t o s e a r c h a c o m p u t e r a t t h e s e a r c h s i t e b e c a u s e o f t h e t i m e a n d e x p e r t i s e r e q u i r e d t o u n l o c k a l l s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n . @) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . Y u n g , 7 8 6 F . S u p p . 1 5 6 1 , 1 5 6 9 ( D . K a n . 1 9 9 2 ) ( c o m p u t e r f i l e s Ac l e a r l y c o u l d n o t b e i n d i v i d u a l l y r e v i e w e d p r i o r t o c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e s e a r c h @) ; P e o p l e v . G a l l , 3 0 P . 3 d 1 4 5 , 1 5 4 - 5 5 ( C o l o . 2 0 0 1 ) ( s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r s a n d l a t e r s e a r c h o f f s i t e u p h e l d ) . C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G a w r y s i a k , 9 7 2 F . S u p p . 8 5 3 , 8 6 6 ( D . N . J . 1 9 9 7 ) ( AA r e a s o n a b l e - s e a r c h o f c o m p u t e r f i l e s m a y i n c l u d e c o p y i n g t h o s e f i l e s o n t o a d i s k o n t h e s c e n e , f o r l a t e r t i m e - c o n s u m i n g r e v i e w o f t h e i n d e x o f d o c u m e n t s t o c u l l t h e r e l e v a n t t i m e p e r i o d s a n d s u b j e c t m a t t e r s w h i l e r e t u r n i n g t h e r e m a i n d e r . @) , a f f ' d , 1 7 8 F . 3 d 1 2 8 1 ( 3 d C i r . 1 9 9 9 ) ; C C I P S M a n u a l , s u p r a n o t e 4 6 , a t 6 4 - 6 6 ( d i s c u s s i n g p o s s i b l e s e a r c h s t r a t e g i e s w h e r e t h e h a r d w a r e i s a m e r e s t o r a g e d e v i c e f o r e l e c t r o n i c e v i d e n c e ) . B u t s e e B r e n n e r & F r e d e r i k s e n , s u p r a n o t e 1 8 , a t 4 5 - 8 9 ( e x t e n s i v e l y a n a l y z i n g t h e o f f / o n s i t e i s s u e a n d a d v o c a t i n g t h e v i e w t h a t a n o f f - s i t e s e a r c h As h o u l d b e t r e a t e d a s a n Au n u s u a l m e a s u r e @ a n d s p e c i f i c a l l y a u t h o -r i z e d b y a m a g i s t r a t e , i d . a t 7 6 , a n d t h a t c o m p u t e r h a r d w a r e c a n n o t b e s e i z e d a b s e n t e x p l a n a t i o n i n w a r r a n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f t e c h n i c a l r e a s o n s w h y t h e s e a r c h c a n n o t b e c o n d u c t e d o n - s i t e o r c o n d u c t e d o f f - s i t e u s i n g f o r e n s i c b a c k - u p c o p i e s o f d a t a , i d . a t 7 5 ) . 2 7 2 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . A l - M a r r i , 2 3 0 F . S u p p . 5 3 5 , 5 4 1 n . 3 ( S . D . N . Y . 2 0 0 2 ) ; s e e a l s o U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C a m p o s , 2 2 1 F . 3 d 1 1 4 3 , 1 1 4 7 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 2 0 0 0 )


D o i n g s o w o u l d h a v e p o s e d s i g n i f i c a n t t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s a n d m a d e t h e s e a r c h m o r e i n t r u s i v e . . . . B e c a u s e c o m p u t e r s i n c o m m o n u s e r u n a v a r i e t y o f o p e r a t i n g s y s -t e m s C v a r i o u s v e r s i o n s o r f l a v o r s o f W i n d o w s , M a c O S a n d L i n u x , t o n a m e o n l y t h e m o s t c o m m o n C p o l i c e w o u l d h a v e h a d t o b r i n g w i t h t h e m a c o m p u t e r ( o r c o m p u t e r s ) e q u i p p e d t o r e a d n o t o n l y a l l o f t h e m a j o r m e d i a t y p e s , b u t a l s o f i l e s e n c o d e d b y a l l m a j o r o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m s . B e c a u s e o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m s , m e d i a t y p e s , f i l e s y s t e m s a n d f i l e t y p e s a r e c o n -t i n u a l l y e v o l v i n g , p o l i c e d e p a r t m e n t s w o u l d f r e q u e n t l y h a v e t o m o d i f y t h e i r c o m p u t e r s t o k e e p t h e m u p - t o - d a t e . T h i s w o u l d n o t b e a n i n s u p e r a b l e o b s t a c l e f o r l a r g e r p o l i c e d e p a r t m e n t s a n d f e d e r a l l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n c i e s , b u t i t w o u l d p o s e a s i g n i f i c a n t b u r d e n o n s m a l l e r a g e n c i e s . E v e n i f t h e p o l i c e w e r e t o b r i n g w i t h t h e m a p r o p e r l y e q u i p p e d c o m p u t e r , a n d s o m e o n e c o m p e t e n t t o o p e r a t e i t ,

( q u o t i n g F B I a g e n t ' s e x p l a n a t i o n a s t o w h y i t w a s n o t u s u a l l y f e a s i b l e t o s e a r c h f o r p a r t i c u l a r c o m p u t e r f i l e s i n p e r s o n ' s h o m e , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e v o l u m e o f i n f o r m a t i o n , u s e r a t t e m p t s t o c o n c e a l c r i m i n a l e v i d e n c e , n e e d f o r a n e x p e r t e x a m i n e r , c o n t r o l l e d e n v i r o n m e n t , w i d e v a r i e t y o f c o m p u t e r h a r d w a r e a n d s o f t w a r e , a n d v u l n e r a b l y o f e v i d e n c e t o t a m p e r i n g o r d e s t r u c t i o n ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G r e e n e , 5 6 M . J . 8 1 7 , 8 2 3 -2 4 ( N - M . C t . C r i m . A p p . 2 0 0 2 ) ( d i s c u s s i n g e x p e r t w i t n e s s t e s t i m o n y o n e f f e c t i v e f o r e n s i c a n a l y s i s , i n c l u d i n g d a n g e r o f d e s t r u c t i o n o f e v i d e n c e w h e n c o n d u c t i n g o n - s i t e e x a m i n a t i o n s a n d n e e d f o r o f f - s i t e a n a l y s i s t o p r o t e c t e v i d e n c e ) ; G a l l , 3 0 P . 3 d a t 1 5 4 - 5 5 ( AI n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m s o f v o l u m e a n d c o m m i n g l i n g , t h e s o r t i n g o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l d o c u m e n t s m a y r e q u i r e a s e a r c h t o b e p e r f o r m e d a t a n o t h e r l o c a t i o n ` b e c a u s e t h a t a c t i o n r e q u i r e s a d e g r e e o f e x p e r t i s e b e y o n d t h a t o f t h e e x e c u t i n g o f f i c e r s , ' n o t o n l y t o f i n d t h e d o c u m e n t s b u t t o a v o i d d e s t r u c t i o n o r o v e r s e a r c h i n g . @) . C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G r e a t h o u s e , 2 9 7 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 2 6 4 , 1 2 6 9 , 1 2 7 5 ( D . O r . 1 2 7 5 ) ( a l t h o u g h a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t n u m e r o u s c a s e s h a v e u p h e l d t h e Aw h o l e s a l e s e i z u r e o f c o m p u t e r s a n d c o m p u t e r d i s k s a n d r e c o r d s f o r l a t e r r e v i e w f o r p a r t i c u l a r e v i d e n c e a s t h e o n l y r e a s o n a b l e m e a n s o f c o n d u c t i n g a s e a r c h , @ o b s e r v i n g At h a t t h i s m a y n o t a l w a y s b e t r u e d u e t o t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s @ a n d s t a t i n g t h a t , i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s i t u a t i o n , At h e r e m a y w e l l b e a n o b l i g a t i o n @ t o u s e a c o m p u t e r f o r e n s i c s p r o g r a m At o m o r e n a r r o w l y t a i l o r t h e s e a r c h a n d s e i z u r e @) ; H u n t e r , 1 3 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 5 8 3 ( Au n t i l t e c h n o l o g y a n d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t e x p e r t i s e r e n d e r o n - s i t e c o m p u t e r r e c o r d s s e a r c h i n g b o t h p o s s i b l e a n d p r a c t i c a l , w h o l e s a l e s e i z u r e s , i f a d e q u a t e l y s a f e g u a r d e d , m u s t o c c u r @) . 2 7 3 3 2 2 F . S u p p . 2 d 1 0 8 1 ( C . D . C a l . 2 0 0 4 ) .


u s i n g i t w o u l d p o s e t w o s i g n i f i c a n t p r o b l e m s . F i r s t , t h e r e i s a s e r i o u s r i s k t h a t t h e p o l i c e m i g h t d a m a g e t h e s t o r a g e m e d i u m o r c o m p r o m i s e t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e e v i d e n c e b y a t t e m p t i n g t o a c c e s s t h e d a t a a t t h e s c e n e . A s e v e r y o n e w h o h a s a c c i d e n t a l l y e r a s e d a c o m p u t e r f i l e k n o w s , i t i s f a i r l y e a s y t o m a k e m i s t a k e s w h e n o p e r a t i n g c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t , e s p e c i a l l y e q u i p m e n t o n e i s n o t i n t i m a t e l y f a m i l i a r w i t h . T h e r i s k t h a t t h e o f f i c e r t r y i n g t o r e a d t h e s u s p e c t ' s s t o r a g e m e d i u m o n t h e p o l i c e l a p t o p w i l l m a k e a w r o n g m o v e a n d e r a s e w h a t i s o n t h e d i s k i s n o t t r i v i a l . E v e n i f t h e o f f i c e r e x e c u t e s h i s t a s k f l a w l e s s l y , t h e r e m i g h t b e a p o w e r f a i l u r e o r e q u i p m e n t m a l f u n c t i o n t h a t c o u l d a f f e c t t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e m e d i u m b e i n g s e a r c h e d . F o r t h a t r e a s o n , e x p e r t s w i l l m a k e a b a c k - u p c o p y o f t h e m e d i u m b e f o r e t h e y s t a r t m a n i p u l a t i n g i t s c o n t e n t s . V a r i o u s o t h e r t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s m i g h t a r i s e ; w i t h o u t t h e n e c e s s a r y t o o l s a n d e x p e r t i s e t o d e a l w i t h t h e m , a n y e f f o r t t o r e a d c o m p u t e r f i l e s a t t h e s c e n e i s f r a u g h t w i t h d i f f i c u l t y a n d r i s k . S e c o n d , t h e p r o c e s s o f s e a r c h i n g t h e f i l e s a t t h e s c e n e c a n t a k e a l o n g t i m e . T o b e c e r t a i n t h a t t h e m e d i u m i n q u e s -t i o n d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a n y s e i z a b l e m a t e r i a l , t h e o f f i c e r s w o u l d h a v e t o e x a m i n e e v e r y o n e o f w h a t m a y b e t h o u s a n d s o f f i l e s o n a d i s k C a p r o c e s s t h a t c o u l d t a k e m a n y h o u r s a n d p e r h a p s d a y s . T a k i n g t h a t m u c h t i m e t o c o n d u c t t h e s e a r c h w o u l d n o t o n l y i m p o s e a s i g n i f i c a n t a n d u n j u s t i f i e d b u r d e n o n p o l i c e r e s o u r c e s , i t w o u l d a l s o m a k e t h e s e a r c h m o r e i n -t r u s i v e . P o l i c e w o u l d h a v e t o b e p r e s e n t o n t h e s u s p e c t ' s p r e m i s e s w h i l e t h e s e a r c h w a s i n p r o g r e s s , a n d t h i s w o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e s u s p e c t ' s a c c e s s t o h i s h o m e o r b u s i n e s s . I f t h e s e a r c h t o o k h o u r s o r d a y s , t h e i n t r u s i o n w o u l d c o n t i n u e f o r t h a t e n t i r e p e r i o d , c o m p r o m i s i n g t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t v a l u e o f m a k i n g p o l i c e s e a r c h e s a s b r i e f a n d n o n - i n t r u s i v e a s p o s s i b l e . 2 7 4

Because of these considerations, the court concluded that the police were not required to examine the electronic storage me-dia at the scene to determine which contained child pornogra-phy and which did not but were, instead Aentitled to seize all 2 7 4 I d . a t 1 0 8 8 - 8 9 .


such media and take them to the police station for examination by an expert.@275 Nonetheless, courts have expressed concerns about such wholesale seizures due to the disruption of businesses, profes-sional practices, and personal lives that such seizures entail.276 Accordingly, courts have been cautious in their approval of such practices.277 Some urge that the government copy the data and return the equipment as soon as possible.278 A few courts appear to require a second warrant before searching when the government seizes intermingled documents.279

2 7 5 I d . a t 1 0 8 9 . 2 7 6 H u n t e r , 1 3 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 5 8 3 . 2 7 7 S e e , e . g . , U p h a m , 1 6 8 F . 3 d a t 5 3 5 . 2 7 8 H u n t e r , 1 3 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 5 8 3 . C f . L e v e t o , 3 4 3 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 4 4 1 ( i n l a r g e t a x f r a u d s c h e m e , i n v o l v i n g m a n y d o c u m e n t s a n d c o m p u t e r f i l e s , f a c t u a l l y d e s c r i b i n g h o w e x e c u t i n g o f f i c i a l s t o o k Ac o n s i d e r a b l e s t e p s @ t o m i n i m i z e Au p h e a v a l @ o f v e t e r i n a r i a n ' s b u s i n e s s , i n c l u d i n g c o p y i n g c o m p u t e r f i l e s r a t h e r t h a n r e m o v i n g c o m -p u t e r s ) . B u t c f . M a l a p a n i s v . R e g a n , 3 3 5 F . S u p p . 2 d 2 8 5 , 2 9 1 ( D . C o n n . 2 0 0 4 ) ( f a i l u r e o f p o l i c e t o r e t u r n c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t d o e s n o t i m p l i c a t e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t ; i t i s , i n s t e a d , a n a l y z e d u n d e r p r o c e d u r a l d u e p r o c e s s ) ; L M B u s . A s s o c . v . R o s s , N o . 0 4 - C V - 6 1 2 C J S 2 0 0 4 W L 2 6 0 9 1 8 2 , a t * 5 ( W . D . N . Y . N o v . 1 7 , 2 0 0 4 ) ( s a m e ) . 2 7 9 S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . C a r e y , 1 7 2 F . 3 d 1 2 6 8 , 1 2 7 5 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 1 9 9 9 ) . T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t i s b a s e d o n p r e c e d e n t r e q u i r i n g a s e c o n d w a r r a n t w h e n t h e p o l i c e s e i z e i n t e r m i n g l e d d o c u m e n t s . S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S h i l l i n g , 8 2 6 F . 2 d 1 3 6 5 , 1 3 6 9 - 7 0 ( 4 t h C i r . 1 9 8 7 ) ( a l t h o u g h s t a t i n g t h a t Aw e c a n n o t e a s i l y c o n d o n e t h e w h o l e s a l e r e m o v a l o f f i l e c a b i n e t s a n d d o c u m e n t s n o t c o v e r e d b y t h e w a r r a n t , @ c o n c l u d i n g t h a t t h e r e w e r e l e g i t i m a t e p r a c t i c a l c o n c e r n s t h a t p r o m p t e d t h e r e m o v a l o f f i l e c a b i n e t s a n d o b s e r v i n g t h a t s e i z u r e n o t b a s e d o n i n t e n t t o e n g a g e i n f i s h i n g e x p e d i t i o n ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . T a m u r a , 6 9 4 F . 2 d 5 9 1 , 5 9 5 - 9 6 ( 9 t h C i r . 1 9 8 2 ) ( s u g g e s t i n g t h a t w h e n d o c u m e n t s a r e s o i n t e r m i n g l e d t h a t s o r t i n g o n s i t e i s n o t f e a s i b l e , F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t v i o l a t i o n s c a n b e a v o i d e d b y s e a l i n g d o c u m e n t s a n d o b -t a i n i n g a d d i t i o n a l s e a r c h w a r r a n t ) . O t h e r c o u r t s r e j e c t t h a t r e q u i r e m e n t f o r d o c u m e n t s e a r c h e s . S e e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e s v . H a r g u s , 1 2 8 F . 3 d 1 3 5 8 , 1 3 6 3 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 1 9 9 7 ) ( s e i z u r e o f e n t i r e f i l e c a b i n e t p e r m i s s i b l e , i n c l u d i n g i n t e r m i x e d w a r -r a n t - s p e c i f i e d a n d u n s p e c i f i e d d o c u m e n t s ) . S o m e c o u r t s h a v e r a i s e d t h e s e c o n c e r n s i n t h e c o m p u t e r c o n t e x t b u t h a v e n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y a d d r e s s e d t h e i s s u e . S e e , e . g . , U p h a m , 1 6 8 F . 3 d a t 5 3 6 ( AT h i s p r o b l e m a r i s e s i n a v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s a n d i n m a n y p e r m u t a t i o n s ; m a t t e r s o f d e g r e e a r e i n v o l v e d a n d t h e r e i s p r o b a b l y n o s i n g l e


2. Use of Experts

Because of the complicated nature of the evidence and equipment that computer-related searches give rise to, govern-mental authorities sometimes use computer experts to facilitate the execution of a search warrant. Challenges to the use of such experts, although few, have been consistently rejected.280 The civilian, of course, must be Aserving a legitimate investigative function,@281 including using his or her special expertise to identify Aproperty of a technical nature not generally familiar to law enforcement officers.@282 Approval has even extended to situations where the private experts performed the search outside of the presence of law enforcement officials.283

r u l e t h a t r e s o l v e s a l l s u c h s i t u a t i o n s . @) . C f . H i l l , 3 2 1 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 1 0 9 0 ( AT h e w a r r a n t h e r e a u t h o r i z e d p r e c i s e l y s u c h a s e i z u r e o f i n t e r m i n g l e d m a t e r i a l s t h a t a r e d i f f i c u l t a n d t i m e - c o n s u m i n g t o s e p a r a t e o n - s i t e . T h a t t h e o f f i c e r s e e k i n g t h e w a r r a n t d i d n o t m a k e a s p e c i f i c s h o w i n g t o t h i s e f f e c t i s o f n o c o n s e q u e n c e : T h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f e x a m i n i n g a n d s e p a r a t i n g e l e c t r o n i c m e d i a a t t h e s c e n e a r e w e l l k n o w n . I t i s d o u b t l e s s w i t h t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n m i n d t h a t t h e s t a t e c o u r t j u d g e a u t h o r i z e d s e i -z u r e o f a l l o f d e f e n d a n t ' s s t o r a g e m e d i a , n o t m e r e l y t h o s e c o n t a i n i n g c o n t r a b a n d o r e v i d e n c e o f c r i m e . @) ; G a l l , 3 0 P . 3 d a t 1 5 4 - 5 5 ( o b s e r v i n g t h a t t h e p r o b l e m o f Ap r o p e r l y l i m i t i n g a s e a r c h o f t h e c o n t e n t s o f a l a w f u l l y s e i z e d c o m p u t e r @ w a s n o t a t i s s u e b e c a u s e s e a r c h p u r s u a n t t o s e c o n d , m o r e d e t a i l e d w a r r a n t ) . 2 8 0 S e e , e . g . , B e l l e v i l l e v . T o w n o f N o r t h b o r o , 3 7 5 F . 3 d 2 5 , 3 2 ( 1 s t C i r . 2 0 0 4 ) ( AF e d e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l a w d o e s n o t p r o s c r i b e t h e u s e o f c i v i l i a n s i n s e a r c h e s . @) ; H i l l , 3 2 2 F . S u p p . 2 d a t 1 0 8 8 n . 1 0 ( r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t e x p e r t s m a y b e a d v i s a b l e t o l i m i t s e a r c h ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v . S c h w i m m e r , 6 9 2 F . S u p p . 1 1 9 , 1 2 6 - 2 7 ( E . D . N . Y . 1 9 8 8 ) ( s u m m a r i l y r e j e c t i n g c h a l l e n g e t o u s e o f c o m p u t e r e x p e r t ) . 2 8 1 B e l l e v i l l e , 3 7 5 F . 3 d a t 3 2 . 2 8 2 W a d e , 5 4 4 S o . 2 d a t 1 0 3 0 - 3 1 ( c o m p u t e r e x p e r t s f r o m c o m p a n y f r o m w h i c h c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t w a s s t o l e n a s s i s t e d i n i d e n t i f y i n g e q u i p m e n t ) ; a c -c o r d B e l l e v i l l e , 3 7 5 F . 3 d a t 3 2 . 2 8 3 S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . B a c h , 3 1 0 F . 3 d 1 0 6 3 , 1 0 6 6 - 6 8 ( 8 t h C i r . 2 0 0 2 ) ( p r i v a t e I n t e r n e t s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r e m p l o y e e s s e a r c h e d s u s p e c t ' s e m a i l ) , c e r t . d e n i e d , 5 3 8 U . S . 9 9 3 ( 2 0 0 3 ) .


3. Deleted Files

When a computer user Adeletes@ a file, the data that was contained in that file may remain in the computer memory:

M o s t w o r d p r o c e s s i n g p r o g r a m s u s e s o m e f o r m o f a r e c y c l e b i n , i n t o w h i c h d o c u m e n t s a r e t r a n s f e r r e d w h e n d e l e t e d . T h u s , a c o m p u t e r i s a l s o l i k e a w a s t e b a s k e t o f d i s c a r d e d m a t e r i a l . I n o r d e r t o a t t e m p t t o p e r m a n e n t l y d e l e t e s u c h d o c u m e n t s , t h e r e c y c l e b i n m u s t b e e m p t i e d . H o w e v e r , e v e n e m p t y i n g t h e r e c y c l e b i n m a y n o t a c t u a l l y d e l e t e t h e d o c u m e n t o r f i l e b e c a u s e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n m a y s t i l l r e m a i n o n t h e c o m p u t e r ' s h a r d d r i v e . T h e i n t e n t i o n a l d e l e t i o n o f a f i l e d o e s n o t p e r m a n e n t l y e r a s e t h e f i l e . I n s t e a d , t h e c o m p u t e r i n t e r n a l l y m a r k s t h e f i l e a s n o t n e e d e d , a n d c l e a r s s p a c e f o r s t o r a g e o f o t h e r f i l e s . T h e e r a s u r e o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n l y o c c u r s w h e n t h e c o m p u t e r o v e r w r i t e s t h e f i l e w i t h a n o t h e r f i l e . E v e n t h e n , f r a g m e n t s o f i n f o r m a t i o n m a y b e r e t r i e v a b l e i f t h e e n t i r e f i l e i s n o t o v e r -w r i t t e n . F u r t h e r m o r e , w o r d p r o c e s s i n g p r o g r a m s m a y h a v e s a v e d p o r t i o n s o r v e r s i o n s o f d o c u m e n t s r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r t h e u s e r i n t e n t i o n a l l y s a v e s t h e f i n a l v e r s i o n . T h u s , i n g e n e r a l , a f i l e o r d o c u m e n t m a y n o t b e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e h a r d d r i v e o f a c o m p u t e r u n t i l i t i s r e f o r m a t t e d . H o w e v e r , e v e n t h e n , i t m a y b e p o s s i b l e t o p a r t i a l l y r e c o v e r d o c u m e n t s o r f i l e s r e m o v e d f r o m a h a r d d r i v e , d e p e n d i n g o n h o w t h e d r i v e w a s r e f o r m a t t e d . F u r t h e r , t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r d e l e t e d m a t e r i a l t o b e s t o r e d o n a h a r d d r i v e , w i t h o r w i t h o u t i n t e n t i o n a l s a v i n g b y t h e u s e r , i s n o t l i m i t e d t o w o r d p r o c e s s i n g d o c u m e n t s , b u t a p p l i e s t o o t h e r p r o g r a m s a n d f u n c t i o n s o f a c o m p u t e r a s w e l l . 2 8 4

Because technicians can often recover much of that data using electronic search technology, courts have confronted a variety of

2 8 4 G a l l , 3 0 P . 3 d a t 1 6 1 ( M a r t i n e z , J . , d i s s e n t i n g ) ( c i t a t i o n s o m i t t e d ) . S e e , e . g . , U p h a m , 1 6 8 F . 3 d a t 5 3 7 ( r e j e c t i n g s c o p e a r g u m e n t a n d a s s e r t i n g t h a t r e c o v e r y o f d e l e t e d f i l e s n o d i f f e r e n t t h a n Ap a s t i n g t o g e t h e r s c r a p s o f a t o r n - u p r a n -s o m n o t e @) .


issues regarding the admissibility of such Adeleted@ data. Some courts have addressedBand rejectedBthe government claim that the files have been abandoned.285 The analogy of deletion of a file to putting one's trash out in the street is flawed, according to one court, because in the latter situation, but not the former, every passerby can search the trash.286 On the other hand, defendants have claimed that the recovery of deleted files is outside the scope of a warrant;287 the assertion is that a second warrant is required or the scope of the original warrant has been exceeded because the Adeletion@ of the docu-ments creates a new and legally different expectation of privacy protected by the Amendment.288 Rejecting such a claim, one court has reasoned that an Aattempt to secrete evidence of a crime is not synonymous with a legally cognizable expectation of privacy.@289 The court analogized the situation to a paper tablet and a diary recorded in a private code, both of which may be subjected to scientific analysis after seizure pursuant to a warrant; the court concluded that no second warrant was required Abefore subjecting legally seized physical evidence to scientific testing and analysis to make it divulge its secrets.@290

V. CONCLUSION Courts are increasingly confronting the problems associated with adapting Fourth Amendment principles to modern

2 8 5 S e e , e . g . , U p h a m , 1 6 8 F . 3 d a t 5 3 7 n . 3 . C f . U n i t e d S t a t e s v . A n g e v i n e , 2 8 1 F . 3 d 1 1 3 0 , 1 1 3 5 ( 1 0 t h C i r . 2 0 0 2 ) ( w h e n d e f e n d a n t d i d n o t h a v e a c c e s s t o d a t a h e p r e v i o u s l y a t t e m p t e d t o d e l e t e o n u n i v e r s i t y o w n e d c o m p u t e r , h e h a d n o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y i n t h a t d a t a ) . 2 8 6 U p h a m , 1 6 8 F . 3 d a t 5 3 7 n . 3 . 2 8 7 S e e , e . g . , i d . a t 5 3 7 ( r e c o v e r y o f d e l e t e d f i l e s n o d i f f e r e n t t h a n Ap a s t i n g t o g e t h e r s c r a p s o f a t o r n - u p r a n s o m n o t e @) . 2 8 8 C o m m o n w e a l t h v . C o p e n h e f e r , 5 8 7 A . 2 d 1 3 5 3 , 1 3 5 6 ( P a . 1 9 9 1 ) . 2 8 9 I d . 2 9 0 I d .


technology.291 Supreme Court jurisprudence, developed to regu-late traditional search and seizure practices, presents conceptu-al problems when applied to the world of cyber-space and elec-tronically stored evidence. Some authorities are reluctant to ac-ceptBor outright rejectBanalogies to physical world searches and seizures. This article concludes, however, that there is nothing Aspecial@ in the nature of computer searches that differentiate them in any principled way from other document and container searches. Assuming the validity of the document/container analogy, however, also requires recognition of what the relevant container is, which has significance for application of the plain view and private search doctrines. Traditional Fourth Amendment principles can be translated to the search of electronic evidence. Although one may dispute the correctness of some of the Supreme Court's development of Fourth Amend-ment principles, as I have elsewhere, there is nothing sui generis where the target of the search or seizure is a computer or other device that contains electronic evidence.

2 9 1 S e e g e n e r a l l y S y m p o s i u m : T h e E f f e c t o f T e c h n o l o g y o n F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t A n a l y s i s a n d I n d i v i d u a l R i g h t s , 7 2 M I S S . L . J . 1 ( 2 0 0 2 ) .