THE FORAGE RESOURCES OF GREECE*

ATH. PANOS

Director, Experimental Station of Forage and Vegetable Breeding, Cfreek Ministry of

Agriculture, Lariam, Greece

TNTBODDCTORY NOTE

By R. O. WHYTE

This article is being published as the result of correspondence between Dr. Norman Wright ofthe Ministry of Food, London, Professor A. A. Johnson of the Department of Plant Breeding atCornell University, and myself, which arose because of a mutual interest in the improvement of Balkanand Middle East agriculture. It represents a report of pioneer work in the field of forage crop pro-duction which ha.s been carried on by Dr. Panos at the Exeprimental Station at Larissa from 1933 tothe present time.

Apart from the subdivision of Greece into four climatic and crop zones (see Fig. 1), and the re-port of the yields and behaviour of a number of forage plants tested, perhaps the greatest interestattaches to the report of the rotation experiments which have been conducted for 10 years. Havinghad an opportunity of seeing the research plots for himself. Professor Johnson states that he wasparticularly impressed by these experimental rotations, and believes that this aspect is an "importantkey" to the improvement of the Greek agricultural economy. Application of the results obtained byDr. Panos would make it possible to increase wheat production by 20 to 30 per cent on the plains,using the same acreage in wheat but introducing legumes in the rotation in place of fallow and othercereals. In addition to the increase in wheat production due to the fertility provided by legumes,these same legumes would be a source of badly needed high-protein feed for the stock and food forhumans. An upgraded diet, higher standard of living and improved cropping practices would go handin hajid. Such improvements can be made within existing resources, that is, without the extensionof irrigation or mechanization. The better varieties to be produced by the plant breeders and croptesters and reproduced in the seed programme would be much less limited in their opportunity toexpress their superior yielding capacity.

In supporting in general Professor Johnson's statements concerning the desirability of soil-improv-ing rotations in the cereal-producing economy ofGreece, I would like to point out the importance of themethod in which the legume is used or harvested. Results in Cyprus and Palestine seem to indicatethat there is a marked difference in after-effect on the yield of subsequent crops depending uponwhether the legume or the legume/grass or legume/cereal mixture is harvested for gram or hay,ploughed under for green mantire, or grazed by live stock in situ. In particular, the grazing of arableforage crops, possibly by the use of an electric fence, facilitates the return of stock nitrogen to the land,increases the organic matter content, and also relieves the pressure of the grazing animals on thealmost invariably overgrazed natural vegetation. It is to be hoped that the research workers inGreece and other less advanced countries will in their experiments explore the applicability of someform of alternate husbandry as a development of their existing farming systems based on a cereal-growing economy.

In the axt of using her agricultural land, Greece is still at the grain production stage,since more than half of her cultivated land is used annually for the production of cereal

•Original translation prepared by Miss Regina O. Hughes.

2 DIMTTBIUS ATH. PANOS

grains, especially of winter oereals. Agricultural statistics for the year 1938 show thatthe- area of cultivated land rose to 2,409,662 hectares out of a total land area in Greeceof 12,988,000 hectares, aji indication of the mountainous relief of the country. Of thisentire cultivated area, cereals occupied 1,606,654 hectares or 66.67 per cent, made up asfollows (in percentage): wheat 35.76, maize 11.62, barley 8.11, oats 6.68, rye 2.62, wheat/barley mixed 2.5, rice 0.16, millet 0.16, other cereals 0.08. Certain provinces devote them-selves almost exclusively to the production of cereals ; for example the percentages inrelation to total cultivated land are as follows : Thessaly 70.99, Macedonia 75.29, Thrace76.83, Epiru8 79.04 and Thresprotie 91.23. In contrast, all kinds of legumes such as thegrain legumes (broad beans, lentils, chickpeas, kidney beans, vetches including Viciaervilia) occupied 5.51 per cent of the total cultivated area. The total forage crops alsooccupied, in 1938, 6.61 per cent of which 2.29 per cent were hay cereals, 2.61 naturalmeadows cut for hay, and 0.61 per cent lucerne.

These figures show that there is a lack of proper balance between the crop plantswhich enrich and deplete the soil respectively, as is manifested by :

(a) a gradual fall in soil productivity because of lack of oi^anic matter,(b) a reduction in jdeld of cereals and other crops, annual and perennial, and(c) a reduction in animal husbandry due to scarcity of forage, which shows a pro-

gressive decrease, thus influencing numbers and return from live stock.Because of the absence of any fixed relationship between crop and animal husbandry,

the agricultTiral revenue is small and insufficient, agriculture unstable, and living standardsmiserably low. Table 1 gives some population and area figures in comparison with othercountries.

Country

Greece, 1938Bulgaria . .Jugoslavia 1934 . .Boumania. .Tiu-keyBelgium . .FranceGermany . .DenmarkSwitzerlandSpainItalyGreat BritainNorwayHungary . .RussiaSweden . .

Total areain

hectares

thous.1298810316247642960576274

3061560994701742934129

606723100824100308699307

220687141024

Population

thous.71096171

1495019196162508300

419406645637094163

248494230046992

28828944

1730006260

Per cent totalarea undercultivation

22.240.263.662.0

—66.663.361.271.863.238.966.281.233.281.128.811.8

Productive areaper inhabitant

per hectare

0.410.670.880.96

—0.200.830.430.840.620.790.480.420.490.840.370.77

TABLE 1. Total area, population, percentage of area under cultivation, and productionarea per inhabitant in Greece compared with other countries.

THE FOKAGE RESOURCES OF GREECE 3

To meet the demand for food, the Greek peasants have everywhere increased thepercentage of cereals, especially wheat, so that in many places the predominant rotationof wheat/cereal/fallow (for grazing) has degenerated into the monocultural rotation ofwheat/wheat/cereal. Thus the worst possible conditioiis have been created for the ac-cumiilation of moisture and organic matter in the soil, and the provision of fodder forgrazing animals.

For these reasons the average yields of cereals, especially during the 5-year period1934-8, were mediocre, although only one of these years had a dry spring and a hotsummer, while the others had favourable conditions of rather mild winters, cool and rainysprings and temperate summers. In spite of the spread of improved varieties from theInstitute for Plant Improvement at Salonika, the average yields of various crops duringthe period in question were (in lb. per acre): wheat 894, maslin (wheat/barley mixture)690, rye 826, oats 820, barley 952 and maize 958.

Because of lack of fodder, working animals are unable to carry out satisfactorily thework of cultivation, and producing animals often show serious falls in yields in cold or dryyears because of the coniflict of interest between the cultivators and the nomadic herdersconcerning the utilization of the fallow lands which have been the basis for maintainingthe flocks during winter.

Since we are now in Greece in the intermediate stage between cultural epochswhich demand adequate preparatory work to facilitate the change, we are seriously inneed of experimental data which will contribute to the very essential improvement inthe disastrous economy of the Greek peasant. Work commenced at Larissa in March1933 and continued uninterrupted for 15 years now provides data on the fodder and graz-ing crops which may be cultivated on the arable land in order to introduce a soil-improvingcrop into the rotation. It will first be necessary to quote some ecological informationconcerning the climatic and crop zones of Greece before dealing in particular with thesoils and results of trials at Larissa.

Greece is situated between lat. 34°55'N. and 41°38'N. and between long. 19°37'E.and 27°6'E. Climatically the country can be divided into two regions. South Greece,lying to the south of lat. 39°N. where the temperate Mediterranean climate prevails, andNorth Greece which has a more continental climate with an annual mean temperatureexceeding 20°C. as in ThessaJy, Macedonia, Thrace and Epirus. The rainfall regionfollows, in general, the Mediterranean pattern, annual precipitation being limited to theautumn, winter and spring with a maximum in the winter. Summer, the period ofgreatest heat, is consequently a drought period. The summer drought lasts approx-imately four months, from mid-May to mid-September. There is an exception to thesegeneral conditions in the interior of northern Greece and of the Balkans in general, wherethe climate is more continental and the annual rainfall, which is not great, is more evenlydistributed throughout the year, the minimum being during the months of July andAugust. Thus in general, of the annual precipitation of Greece some 70-90 per cent fallsbetween October and March, frequently in the form of torrential showers. The pre-valence of steep slopes in the country means that the greater part of this rainfall runs ofiFand is thus lost to agricultural vegetation.

Ecologically Greece may be divided into four principal zones distinguished by : thedistribution of the important meteorological factors, the occurrence of different soil types,and the phenologic index of legumes and cereals. This division is based on two lines ;

4 DIMITRIUS ATH. PANOS

one passes a little to the south of the 39th parallel and of the Pindus Mountains, dividingthe country into cold northern and warm southern zones ; the other line passes to the east,quite close to the 22nd meridian and to the east of the watershed in the mountains,dividing Greece into dry eastern and humid western zones. On this rough geographicalbasis the following approximate divisions can be recognized.

1. South-east Greece : warm and dry : zone of barley, Cicer arietinum, Ceratoniasiliqua, Amygdalus comm,unis, olive and vines, Vitis vinifera.

2. South-west Greece : warm and humid: zone of currant-grapes, V. viniferavar. apyzena (Vitis ficus carica), citrus fruit, soybean and cotton.

3. North-east Greece : cold and dry : zone of hard wheat, Lathyrus cicera, maize,tobacco, Morus alba and the wild pear {Pyrus amygdaliformis).

4. North-west Greece : cold and humid : zone of potato, rye, forage peas andapples.

Within each zone there may be distinguished three sub-divisions based on altitude,(a) the low-lying regions or pla.ins up to about 500 metres, comprising the most importantagricultural plains of the country, (b) the high or mountainous regions, at or around 1000metres, comprising the most important plateaux agriculturally, and (c) the very high orvery mountainous regions over 1000 metres in altitude.

1. Sotdh-east Greece, including parts of Crete, is the driest and hottest part. Therainfall varies up to 500 nim.; there are periods of intense dryness in summer. South-eastern Greece has a great amount of sunshine, 2600 to 3000 hours with little cloud, andhas also a high evaporation ; at Athens, surface evaporation rises to 1616 mm. comparedwith 383.9 mm. of total annual rainfall.

Water is the most important limiting factor in agricultural production, and couldeasily be regulated by the appropriate agricultural methods. The zone is also char-acterized by frequency of basins, and by the very large amount of limestone in the soilmaterials. Types of soils completely saturated with calcium have developed, especiallyterra rossa and Rendzina types.

Dry Mediterranean forest soils develop exclusively on the non-calcareous rocks, andtheir presence distinctly indicates the division between south-east Greece, south-west andnorth-east Greece. They are characterized by a high lime content in the deepest strata,by a high silica content in the upper layer, and by a low humus content. This is thepoorest and driest soil type ; on it only xerophytic species can prosper, more especiallyolives, hay cereals, barley, ervil, grasspea and Oicer arietinum. A basis for the improve-ment of production in this region may be found in the culture of appropriate species, andespecially of hay and pasture legumes, which will at the same time improve soil fertility.Animal husbandry may then be increased, and the agricultural income raised becauseof the higher yields from the rotating crops.

2. Sovih-west Greece includes the littoral region of Epirus with the Ionian Isles, aswell as the zone of Crete lying to the west of the 25° meridian, and represents the best zonefor crop production. Here also are the regions with sub-tropical conditions characterizedby both adequate humidity and favourable temperature, above 20°C. for several monthsof the year. Combined with this high mean temperature is also very intense sunshine,higher than in any other zone, varying between 2600 and 3100 hours or more per year.Also in the lower parts of this region and over a large area there are 800 mm. of rain,which rises to 1200 mm. and more, especially in the Ionian region.

THE FOBAGB BESOUEOES OF GBEEOE 5

Limestone is also very widespread and constitutes the parent material of the terrarossa and Rendzina types which often provide a basis for the cultivation of special cropssuch as raisins. This is the region economically best fitted for agricultural as well as in-dustrial production, because it also has enormous undeveloped reserves of hydro-electricpower.

3. North-east Greece has in general dry to semi-humid and cold conditions with sun-shine varying between 2400 and 2800 hours. It is distinguished ftom south-east Greeceby the complete absence of the dry Mediterranean forest soil types. Because of its bettervegetation, higher rainfall and greater relative humidity, this zone is characterized by thechestnut forest soils with or without a B horizon, depending on other climatic characters.Many soil types have a smaller content of lime with an alkaline reaction, which down-grades more or less to a neutral or acid reaction. The dominant type in the plains ofLarissa, Serres, Drama, and (Jombtinis is, according to N. Liatsikas, " the Greek steppe-like chestnut soils", which are not typical steppe soUs, but come from clearing forest soilsor from old solonetz. They are distinguished by their high clay content of up to 38.5 percent, their mediocre lime content in the lower strata of the soil, and their small amountof organic substance even in the top layer. The Greek steppe type extends over the greatplains of the country and is well adapted to the production of grain, especially hard wheat,because cereal production is generally favoured by medium rainfall, combined with a moreuniform temperature, adequate sunshine and relatively high humidity. The conserva-tion of the soil fertility demands the replacement of the present cereal monoculture byrotations, with soil-enriching plants to prevent the impoverishment of the soil in organicmatter. In this zone, spreading and continuous bands of Rendzinas have also developedrepresenting great possibilities for agricultural production.

The saline and alkaline type of soil is found over wide areas in the littoral region ofthis zone ; extensive lands not now cultivated could be raised in value by the cultivationof forage plants, and at the same time improved for higher types of agricultural cultiva-tion.

4. North-west Greece is characterized by semi-humid, humid, and very humid con-ditions with rainfall varying from 600 to 1200 mm. or more, sunshine between 2300 and2600 hours, and medium temperature, lying as it does between the 14.5 to 17.5°C. isothermsexcept for the warm and humid band of the Ionian littoral.

The formation of stable types of soils of great agricultural value is hindered by themountainous rehef and steep slopes of the zone, causing a great deal of erosion, so that thezone is characterized primarily by animal husbandry and arboriculture, the former ofwhich could be greatly improved by the distribution of appropriate forage plants.

Terra rossa and Rendzinas predominate on the limestone rocks, being present inspots and rarely in continuous bands. Both are represented in limited areas, and aremore or less between the forest soils with ABC horizon, and the chestnut forest soUs whichpredominate in the mountain masses. The cultivation of perennial forage plants isnecessary for this zone to ensure the consolidation of the arable topsoil, and to preventsoil wash. This would also help to create a proper liaison between agriculture, forestryand stock raising, as the animals could be maintained on pasture during the greater partof the year and especially during summer, because of the abundant and regular rains whichassure a continuous growth of the green pasturage necessary for economical beef pro-duction.

6 DlMITEnTS ATH. PANOS

In this brief reference to eoological divisions, the types of soils may be clearly dis-tinguished in respect to their productive capacity in the difiFerent climatic groups. Forexample, the terra rossa type of the lowlands of south-eastern Greece has a different pro-ductive value from those of lowlands in other zones and especially in south-west Greece,where conditions of precipitation and temperature are at the same time more favourable.

The Rendzinas are also more suitable for wheat production in the highlands of south-east Greece than in north-west Greece and on the other hand less suitable than the highparts of south-west Greece for the production of potatoes, etc.

Thus the outline of ecological conditions facilitates the evaluation of such conditionsfor the choice of appropriate plants and methods for their cultivation, and thus assistsgreatly in the agricultural rehabilitation of the country. Since most of the experimentsnow to be described were made imder the conditions obtaining at Larissa on the plain ofeastern Thessaly, it may be interesting to give more detailed information on the climateof this region (Table 2).

Month

JanuaryFebruaryMarchApril . .May . . . . . .JuneJulyAugust . .September . .October . .NovemberDecember

Mean average

Meantemp.

Degrees C.

4.06.59.9

14.319.224.228.927.122.516.911.25.7

15.9

Absolute temp.

Max.Degr

20.521.527.529.035.040.544.642.037.334.524.520.5

Min.sesC.

.—17.5—9.0—7.0—2.4

2.06.08.07.42.00.0

—5.4—13.0

Rainfallin

mm.

81.848.440.242.544.840.817.19.4

21.166.563.991.5

568.0

Daysof

rain

117878642488

12

85

Hours ofsun in1940

64.40'137.05'186.55'221.45'207.50'286.55'368.30'328.05'308.15'160.00'132.35'81.10'

2383.45'

TABLE 2. Mean monthly distribution of temperature, sunshine and rain at Larissa duringthe period 193^-42.

EXPERIMENTS AT LABISSA

Soil. The soil of the experimental fields at Larissa belongs to the steppe-like chest-nut soils of Greece, which characterize the principal plains of north-east Greece, and whichhave an extreme tenacity and a low lime content.

Plani maierial. It was necessary for the satisfactory initiation and conduct of thisresearch to collect suitable plant material. This was carried out on a large scale, some1240 lots of legume seeds being collected from 30 countries.

Selections were made within this plant material to separate the interesting types.Por the creation of new tsrpes, crosses were made in 367 combinations involving sixdififerent species. The material selected was included in comparative trials in plots 2.5,5, 10 and 20 metres square, the total number of plants being 145,426 in 1367 differentexperiments for the years 1933-43.

THE FORAGE RES0T7RCES OF GREECE 7

Comparisons were made on the basis of several replications and with detailed obser-vations in order to counteract great inequalities in composition of soils because of theircomplex geological origin, varied relief, and other special conditions. The jdelds obtainedhave been calculated according to the method of probable error and the application ofknown types.

After the initial triak at Larissa and the multiplication of seed reserves, experimenta-tion was extended to other regions of north-eastern Greece and especially at Salonika,seat of the Institute for Crop Improvement; at Serres in eastern Macedonia; NeaMoudania in Chalcidonia, and Orestia in western Thrace. There were also substationsat Kaillaria of western Macedonia, and at Jannina in the Epirus, for north-western Greece;at Tripoli for the high parts of south-western Greece ; and on the Messara plain in Cretefor south-eastern Greece.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the work were briefly to determine :1. the best annual or biennial plants for the exclusive production of hay or of

pasturage, to replace the existing sources of fodder on uncultivated land, andto fertilize the soil by their organic residues and nitrogen,

2. the annual plants, especially dry legumes, which are suitable for soil improve-ment and for the production of seeds high in protein and fats, which may beused exclusively or in various combinations for food, industrial purposes, andfor forage, and

3. the perennial plants capable of being established on the meadows or in pasturesfor the complete feeding of worldng and producing animals.

The results obtained in each of these directions are given below.

ANNUAL FORAGE AND HAY PLANTS

Crimson Clover {TrifoUum incarnatum). We have had to turn to crimson clover toreplace the West European red clover, the development of which is hindered by the highmean temperatures (July isotherm above 22' C.), and the excessive dryness of the summers.Fifteen varieties have been tested from different sources including France, Grermany,

Botanical type

T. airopurpureum . .T. airopurpureum ..T. atropurpureum ..T. vilmorini . .T. vilmorini aUnts ..T. cameum, . .

Origin

ItalyHungaryItalyFranceFranceGermany

Forage yields

kg. perhectare

green dry18570 512018300 436024000 595015920 531014880 470518306 5660

Flowercolour

redredwhiteredwhiterose

Floweringdate

May 2May 2May 2May 27May 27June 5

TABLE 3. Results of experiments on TrifoUum incarnatum. at Larissa1934-1940.

8 DIMITRItrS ATH. PANOS

Italy, Hungary and Australia; these from the point of view of development belong tofour botanical tjrpes, and are aJso distinguished by their flower colour. Table 3 showsthe results received from the most productive varieties from early monthly sowings up tomiddle of November. Yields fall with later sowings. Two early varieties. Ml 92 andM1269, have also been tried in both northern and southern Greece. Production in thenorth was 4260 kg. per hectare dry weight and in south Greece 2125 kg. per hectare.*

Crimson clover can also produce 2.7 times more fodder than the natural vegetation,and leaves greater quantities of organic residues in the soil. Hulled or unhulled seedcan be used equally well for sowing, if the quantity of unhulled seed used is doubled.Results show that the seed of this clover can be extended on the plains of north-easternGreece to replace red clover as a rotation crop, as it shows good adaptability to alkalinesoils when sown early in October.

TrifoUum alexandrinum. This clover is widely cultivated in the rich region of theNile, as a classic rotation plant for enrichment of the cotton lands ; we have thereforecommenced its experimental cultivation to determine its value in Greece also.

Five varieties from different sources tested at Larissa gave mediocre yields becauseof their sensitivity to cold and drought, and also because of the compactness of the soilsand their low fertility and dry conditions. This legume is very inferior in yield in bothnorthern and south-eastern Greece to other legumes such as lucerne, sweet clover, crim-son clover and vetch.

For good growth it requires humid and warm conditions and well-watered soils witha high natural fertility. Such conditions are foimd in south-west Greece, and the cropcan be cultivated there with advantage.

TrifoUum pratense. Red clover is t3rpical of European agriculture but it is notadapted for use as a rotation crop in Greece, even in the principal plateaux of the coolerecological zones, because of the summer drought and the slight and irregular rainfall dur-ing the summer. It therefore requires to be studied as a meadow and pasture plant forhigher altitudes in the ecological zones only where other conditions favour its growth.Results of trials show, however, that there are other species better adapted to cold anddrought which can be used with greater advantage in the establishment of meadows andpastures.

Sweet clover. A collection of 43 varieties of sweet clover was made, 7 of the annualand 36 of the biennial type. Nearly all these varieties were received from the UnitedStates of America and from Canada.

Table 4 gives results obtained from the most productive biennial varieties tried. Intrials at Larissa, the annual sweet clover, Hubam, was the most productive. It has beenestablished that sweet clover can be utilized &s a soil-improving plant even in the freshsoils of south-east Greece, where the annual varieties succeed better than the biennialvarieties, and the desired improvement can be assured when suitable varieties are used.In this zone, as also in the other zones, sweet clover with lucerne can become the basis fora greater production of fodder and pasturage during the summer period, especially whenthere is a very noticeable scarcity of feed.

* kg. per hectare=approximately lb. per acre.

THE FORAGE BES0TJB0E8 01" GEEEOE

Species

Melilotus alba biennisMelilotua alba biennisMelilotus alba biennis . .Mdilotu8 alba bienniaMelilotus alba biennieMelilotus officinalisMeliloPu8 offldnalisMelilotus officinalis

Melilotus officinalisMelilotus offydnalis

Variety

No. 22156Arctic No. 18809Arctic

Redfield"Gruhdy-County"No. 16125"Erector""Zouave 88"

Source

AustraliaHungaryUnited StatesUnited StatesCanadaUnited StatesUnited States

United StatesCanadaCanada

Yield

2490267034501210117036301820

160023802350

No. ofyears

7564464

444

TABLE 4. Average yields in kg. per ha. of biennial sweet clover, 1935-1941.

Sorghum, Panicum, Seiaria. Several varieties of sorghums and millets have beentried for the production of green and dry feed. Sorghum, the most productive of these,cannot be considered more valuable than the sweet clover varieties, which have a higherprotein content and a capacity to improve the soil and to conserve more moisture than ispossible with crops of sorghum. Sudan grass gives a better production of hay in dry soilsthan sweet clover.

DRY LEGUMES

Dry legumes for mixed use as grain or as feedThe Grasspeas. The so-called grasspea is found in Greece in difiFerent varieties of

three different species : Lathyrus cicera, L. sativiis, aand L. ochrusFrom the forage point of view, Lathyrus cicera is the most interesting, because of its

great resistance to both drought and dry cold. Tables 5 and 6 give the comparative resultsof sowing grasspea in autumn at two different distances between plants.

Identity

Lathyrus cicera L-40Lathyrus cicera L-92Lathyrus ochrus ^-SlLathyrus saiiims L-17

Yields of grain

Distance between plantsin metres

0.40 X 0.10 0.20 X 0.05

753 14301169 2079506 780

Averageresistance

to cold(—16°C.)100 = 5

3.74.21.90.0

Date offlowering

April 14AprU16April 17

Sun-hour8

678.14593.2600.26

TABLE 5. Average yields in kg. per ha. of grain from different species and varieti&s of grass-pea at Larissa, 1940. Sown Nov. 13, 1939.

It has been established that the grasspea responds to dense sowing in early autumn,being then a most certain crop especially in south and north-east Greece but also at lowerelevations in north-east Greece. The grasspea was compared with other plants for grainand feed in three experiments in 1943, when the total rainfall from September 1, 1942 to

10 iJIMITRIUS ATH. PANOS

Species

Lathyrus ciceraLathyrus ciceraPiaum arvenaeVicia aativaVida sativaErvum ervilia

StrainNo.

M-245L-92M-10M-246M-366M-26

Type

Local variety of BitiraLathyrus-EphtichiaPois gris de VilmorinEarly vetchLate vetchLocal variety (Larissa)

YieldsKg. perhectare

1360200012801230590

1420

Number ofyears of

experiment

858867

TABLE 6. Grain yield3 (in kg. per ha.) of grasspea, compared with other forage planta atLarissa, during the years 1934-1941. Sown in autumn.

August 31, 1943 was 282 mm. compared with an average of 568 mm. for 1933-1942. Itwas found that:

1. For the production of seed of dry legumes, the various crops can be listed in thefollowing order of importance :

(a) early varieties of ervil (bitter vetch), which generally show the greatest re-sistance to drought;

(b) even earlier varieties of grasspea follow next, and still lower are common earlyvarieties of vetch ;

(c) the late varieties of common vetch and those of late forage peas may neverreach the grain stage, because of their sensitivity to drought;

(d) the late varieties of ervil (bitter vetch) give yields inferior to the grasspea andlittle above those of late vetch.

2. For the production of feed it has been established that the yields of early grasspea,early bitter vetch, and early vetch are about equal. The grasspea gives greater yieldsthan crimson clover, barley, oats, lentils and especially late forage peas and later vetch.

Vetch. Vetch was, until the Second World War, the most widely cultivated annuallegume in crop rotations, because of the frequent introduction from foreign lands ofquantities of seed which have been sown especially in spring for the production of feed.The varieties of Vicia pannonica and of V. villosa which have been tried are very poorlyadapted because of their low resistance to the drought which prevails during spring andsummer, and which reduces their vegetative growth and their grain production con-siderably. Selected indigenous varieties sown in autumn produced the best yields offodder and seed (Table 7). These varieties have good resistance to winter cold.

M-246 (early local variety)

Bi-22 (early selections)

M-366 (late local variety)

Grain yield

Autumnsowing

1200

1394

527

Springsowing

510

286

120

Fodder yield

Autumnsowing

4181

5545

4704

Springsowing

2587

4304

3458

TABUB 7. Average yields (in kg. per ha.) of grain and forage varieties of Vicia sativa during1934-1942.

THE FOEAGE BESOtTROES OF "GREECE 11

The future extended use of these varieties will increase the yields of vetch in Greece,and at the same time contribute to a replacement of the late varieties introduced fromRoumania and Bulgaria which by their sensitivity to cold when sown in autumn, and bytheir xmknown origin and identity are not adapted to Greek conditions. Vetch gavesmaller yields than the grasspea and ervil in the lowlands of south and north-east Greece,which are lacking in humidity and fertility.

Ervil (Bitter vetch). Ervil has been cultivated in Greece since ancient times, thanksto its resistance to drought, which increases with autumn sowings in north-east Greece.Table 8 gives results from autumn and spring sowing, showing that it is possible to increaseyields considerably by changing the sowing date. This fact has been confirmed atLarissa.

SoTiroe

Greece M-26

Greece M-392

France M-1008

Grain yield in kg. per ha.

Autumnsowing

1376

1532

1542

No. ofyears

8

7

6

Springsowing

1045

1120

1020

No. ofyears

7

5

5

TABLE 8. Average grain yields of ervil varieties during 1934-1942.

Dry Legumes for mixed use as human food and forage, sown in autumn or in spring

Lentil. The lentil has long been cultivated in Greece ; it is a very valuable drylegume and familiar all over the country, where it is generally sown in spring, except inthe south where it is also partly sown in autumn. Experiments have established that it ispossible to cultivate the lentil throughout Greece with autumn sowing, for the productionof seed as well as of excellent feed.

The Asiatic type is especially suited to autumn sowing; it has red cotyledons, redflowers, and reddish grains, is up to 40 cm. in height, and has an adequate resistance tocold, which in the winter of 1942 was 17.5°C. below zero. Western European varietieshave a much lo'wer cold resistance, but a better grain quality.

Peas. The cultivation of peas on a wide scale was almost unknown in Greece untilrecently; 15 years ago peas began to be used in north Greece for the production of seed andmore especially of fodder. The culture of peas should be of value in northern Greece, inconnexion with the replacement of the grain farming system and the introduction of moreintensive rotations. In the south, yields are small because of drought and insect pests.As table food, peas are replaced in Greece by lentils, haricot beans, cowpea and more rarelyby chickpeas, legumes used here more than in Western Europe or elsewhere. Table 9indicates results obtained with a comparison of several varieties.

The " Vilmorin gray pea" (M.IO) gives constant and satisfactory yields of fodderand seed in the north. It could there with advantage replace the grasspea and the earlyvetch, which are more sensitive to the cold humidity.

Peas do not succeed in the south-east because of the lack of sufficient coolness dur-ing their early period of growth, and because of the spring drought, which checks their

12 DIMITRrUS ATH. PANOS

StrainNo.

M-10K-157K-1558M-1560M-1937

M-2U3B-88

Botanical type

Piaum arvense var. occidentalePisum arvense var. navalePisum sativum var. grandiaemineumPisum sativum var. grcUiosumumPisumsativumvar. mesomelan

Pisum sativum var. mUgatumPisum sativum var. grandisemineum

Source

FranceGreeceGermanyItalyUnited

StatesCanadaGreece

No. ofyears

94653

35

Yieldkg. i er

ha.

1210119312621088493

5041119

Notes

Sibiricum

Victoria

"Chang "K1998

Cuinivere

TABLE 9. Average grain yields of peas at Larissa during 1934-1942.

development and makes the production of both feed, and more especially grain, inferiorto that of the early vetch, the grasspea, and the ervil.

Chickpea. The chickpea (Cicer arietinum) represents the grasspea of the edible drylegumes as far as resistance against drought and poor soil conditions are concerned, and isconsidered to be inferior only to the lentil and the grasspea. Thus the use of the mostproductive varieties will greatly facilitate the extension of its cultivation, and will alsoincrease the value of mediocre soils. Results indicate (Table 10) that it is possible toincrease considerably the production of chickpea by using adapted varieties which are cold-resistant and which can be sown also in autumn, especially in southern Greece, withadequate yields.

Soin-ce

M.547 Greece

M-1690 Hungary

M-2169 Italy

M-2174 Italy

E-21 Greece

Grain yield. 1934-42spring sowing

1020

1126

1236

1453

1194

No. ofyears

7

4

3

3

4

Date ofmaturity,harvesting

June 15

June 20

June 18

June 19.

June 19

Seedcolour

white

white

reddish

black

white

TABLE 10. Comparative yields (in kg. per ha.) of different varieties of chickpea during1934-1943.

Soum in Spring

Fidd and Garden bean {Haricot bean). In Greece the field bean replaces the peaand is a very popular food. Because of its importance in human nutrition, it has beengiven great attention in experiments which have been made exclusively under irrigation(Table 11). The cultivation of the kidney bean can be largely extended in the cool regionsof north-east, south-west, and north-west Greece, by using adapted varieties.

For the south-east, as well as for the drier regions, the white variety of Pkaseolusa:CtUifoUu8 is of more interest. Its performance varies widely according to conditions.

THE FOEAGB RESOURCES OF GREECE 13

Botanical tyjie

Pliioseohus vulgari8 ellipticus albus

Phaaeolu8 acutifolms ctlbusPhaseolus vulgaris ellipticus aUma

Phaseolus aureusPlxaseolus vulgaris ellipiicus albusPhaseolus acuiifolius var. flavusPhaseolus vulgaris oblonffus ellipticus

PiMseolus ellipticus cretneo bruneus

Pltaseolus ellipticus eremeo bruneusPhaseolus vulgaris oblongus albus

Soui-oe

UnitedStates

RvissiaUnited

StatesGreeceHungaryManchuriaUnited

StatesUnited

StatesAustraliaGreece

Grainyield

1141

10851001

1003952921798

804

632758

No. ofyearsgrown

4

44

4344

4

42

Observations

Micliigan robust

Tepary No. 1537Hungarian large

white

Galganasca

KentuckyWonder

Kentucky Wonder

TABLE 11. Comparative yields (in kg. per ha.) of varieties of beans under irrigation at Larissa.

Although it has great resistance against drought everywhere, it can be utilized to greateradvantage in more favourable conditions. Thus at Larissa it gave, with 28 replicatesand without irrigation, 610 kg. per hectare, and in the year 1940, 917 kg. per hectare withfoxir waterings. During the same year, its yields ranged from 558 kg. at Cilkis to 2533kg. at Serres, on fresh and fertile but non-irrigated soils. TMB bean varies in height from13 to 95 cm.

There are great possibilities for the extension of its cultivation in Greece, which willlead incidentally to the improvement in the nutrition of the population so far as proteinis concerned.

Cowpea. The cowpea {Dolichos sinensis) has like the kidney bean been cultivatedin Greece since the time of Alexander the Great, and is still maintained on a small scale,especially in mixed cultures with maize in northern Greece. Its cultivated varieties are,however, low in yield compared with foreign and especially American varieties; itscultivation in U.S.A. has been intensified in connexion with its multiple uses for food,forage, soil improvement and industrial purposes.

Research in Greece shows that the potential value of the cowpea is considerable ifadapted varieties are used. The cowpea should become a crop of primary importance forthe suitable regions of the country and especially for northern and south-western Greece,where its cultivation will provide a basis for the rational development of its multiple use.

Soybean. The soybean has not yet for many reasons become a commercial crop,especially because the tentative cultures which were made during the installation of therefugees did not succeed, because of the unsuitable varieties used. However, believingstrongly in the future of this crop in Greece, we have proceeded with tho necessary experi-ments to select the varieties required for its extended cultivation. Ten years of com-parative trials with more than 300 varieties have established the fact that its cultivationcan also be remunerative in Greece if suitable varieties are chosen. Mixed cultures ofmaize and soybean frequently assure better and more constant jdelds than pure cultures,other conditions being equal, which makes it probable that the initial propagation

14 DIMITRIUS ATH. PANOS

of soybean culture should be through mixed cultures, these being more applicable tothe existing state of mind of the farmers, as the culture of maize already (1938) occupies277,500 hectares in Greece.

PERENNIAL PLANTS FOR PEED OR PASTCTRAGE

To deal successfully with the third problem of increasing meadow and pasture yieldsin both quantity and quality, we have proceeded with experiments comparing importedvarieties with species of indigenous origin. The principal results are noted below alongvery general lines.

iMceme. This is a famiUar plant in the Mediterranean lands ; thanks to its highproduction of protein, it is admirably suited to the close integration of stock-raiising withagriculture, thus contributing to the general progress of the country. Thanks to thehelp received from many quarters, we have been able to collect 89 different varieties,mostly from Mediterranean countries, including Greece, Italy, Spain, France and Portugal,as well as the United States of America, Russia, Canada, Australia, etc. Tables 12 and 13give comparative data for different varieties of the genus Medicago, and for other forageplants. Lucerne can be cultivated even without irrigation in the lower lands of northernand south-eastern Greece, as our experiments on perennial crops have shown for the firsttime. Its cultivation may also be extended considerably and the production of foddergreatly augmented to the benefit of agricultural revenue and soil fertility.

Botanicaltype

salivasativasativasalivasativavariasativasativavariasativavariasativasativasativasativavariasativasativasativasativasativa

Source

AustraliaGreeceGreeceGreeceItalyGermanyRussiaFranceFranceFranceGermanyU.S.A.S. AustraliaU.S.A.U.SA.U.S.A.HungaryRussiaU.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.

Averageyield

kg. per ha.762569767320673575407905711076356735749081707870837075407490643075007360669068456700

Averageproteincontent

per cent24.0222.1922.4320.76

—22.7025.2423.7923.21

25.8222.32

23.1624.4223.6221.1123.8422.1722.70—

No. ofyearsgrown

666666666666666666666

Observations

PoitouRustiqueProvenceUnterfranken No. 719Kansas AA. No. 20091

Dakota Common AA 16083Arizona AA 21940Grimm AA 19967MagyszeuacaK 1836 Middle TurkestanHairy Peruvian AA No. 21941Arizona Common No. 22027California Common No. 22035

TABLE 12. Average yields of forage and protein from lucerne varieties grown withoutirrigation at Lariesa during 1937—42.

THE FORAGE RKSOXJROES OP GREECE 15

Plants compared

Medicago sativaMelilotus aUbus biennisOnobryckis persica . .Onobrychia sativaHedyaarum coronariumLotus comiculaitcs ..Trifolium pratense ..Trifolium repensTrifolium subterraneumTrifolium hybridum. .Anthyllis vulnerariaPhalaris tuberosaAvena datiorDactylis glomerataLolium perenne ..Paapalum dilatatumEragrostis curmila ..Panicum proVutum .".Poterium sanguisorba .. . .Native herbage

Non-irrigated

44503716357539752792330012852070189010252780131210721743843

31103030—

32541591

Irrigated

10270564281908400121259766475667087003718,

22903036222522684050514620373617

TABLE 13. Yields (in kg. per ha.) of lucerne compared with other forage plants grown with andwithout irrigation at Larissa during 1938-1942.

Lotxis corniculatTis. This is a common element of the native flora of the cotmtry onthe poorest and driest soils ; it possesses a great capacity for adjustment to severe con-ditions. We have tried 21 different varieties, of which varieties number M372, M464,M1064 were the most productive.

Onobrychis. Sainfoin is a characteristic plant of the flora of the calcareous andxerothermic regions of Mediterranean lands and is adapted for use in mixtures to producehay or pasturage. Nineteen varieties of different origin, more especially from Italy,Germany, Hungary, Greece, Portugal, and Russia, have been tried. Experience in-dicates that the most productive varieties of sainfoin are adapted for use on soils of amedium productivity where lucerne cannot compete.

Hedysarium coronarium. Sulla is one of the native forage plants of the Mediterraneanand has therefore been tried as a rotation crop for the production of green or dry feed.Under irrigation it displays a remarkable sensitivity toward cold. Its low jdelds and itsremarkable inconsistency limit its probable agricultural value to the region of the IonianIsles where it grows naturally.

Trifolium repens. White clover has been tried in Greece only in meadows and pas-tures and not in crop rotations. It cannot be recommended as a rotation plant becauseits yields are much lower than those of other rotation plants such as crimson clover andsweet clover, and also lower than the other annual grain and forage legumes which arebetter adapted to the conditions of the old agricultural system which prevails in Greece.Its cultivation might be of value in more advanced regions where intensifled cropping withirrigation is practised.

16 DIMITRnJS ATH. PAN08

Trifolium 8vbterraneum. This clover also occurs naturally in the Mediterraneanregion, and has been widely used abroad, especially in Australia, for the improvement ofmeadows and pastures. Experience indicates that it may be possible to utilize thisspecies for the improvement of meadows and pastures in humid moimtainous regions,and for the progressive increase of soil fertility, which would then lead to an improvementin the native flora. This clover has proved to be particularly sensitive to the mechanicalconstitution of the soil; in compact soils, its multiplication, persistence, and yields aregreatly diminished as compared with Ught soils, wbere its development may be four timesas great.

OTHER PLANTS TESTED

In addition to the legumes tested for their suitability for meadows and pastures,other plants have also come vmder review.

Poterium sanguisorba. Bumet is quite common in the native flora of light, warm,and often poor permeable soils, being distinguished by its remarkable resistance to dryand arid conditions.

Its agricultural value in Greece has now been demonstrated for the first time, thisbeing one of the original results of the work accomplished. It has been found to have,under irrigated conditions, a sensitivity to watering which may possibly be due to thecooling of the soil. Bumet in mixture with Lotits comiculatys may possibly greatlyincrease yields in the poor, hot and dry regions, especially in southern Greece.

Dactylis glomerata (orchard grass or cocksfoot) also occurs naturally in Greece, beingadapted for the production of fodder and the improvement of meadows and pastures inshady places. Some 28 varieties have been tried, obtained from Greece, Australia,Germany, Italy, the United States, Canada, and Hungary.

Other plants which were tried, generally in several varieties, were found to be in-ferior to those plants referred to above. These included: Avena ekUior, Agropyroncristatum, Agrostis alba, Bromus inermis, Brachypodium pinnaium, Eragrostis curwla,Festucapratensis, Festuca datior, F. rubra, Lolium italicum, L. perenne, Paspalum dilatatumand Bromus.

Jerusalem artichoke. Another plant tried mostly for forage is the Jerusalem arti-choke, Hdianihus tvberosus. This " potato of the dry countries" can often provide asatisfactory yield with a dry matter content higher than mangels. The tubers contain16.4 per cent of starch equivalent compared with 6.3 per cent in mangels, 72 per centin barley, and 59.7 per cent in oats. Thus an average crop of Jerusalem artichokesamounting to 20,000 kg. of tubers per hectare corresponds to 52,600 kg. of mangels, 5,000kg. of barley grain, and 7,500 kg. of oat grain yields, which can hardly be attained inthe extensive conditions of Greek agriculture.

The Jerusalem artichoke also provides foliage, and the dry stalks may during thesummer constitute combustible matter for many parts of the country. Trials made foryears in various regions confirm our preliminary opinion that its introduction in theriparian or lightly inundated soils, and in lands of medium production may considerablyincrease their productive values. The Jerusalem artichoke may help to create a betterbalance in the Greek national economy, as between agriculture, forestry, arboriculture,and stock raising. It may also provide raw material for different industries producingsugar, alcohol, fabrics, paper, etc.

THE FOBAGE EESOTTBOES OF GREECE 17

CONOLTJSION

Greece is a rural country, most of the population being engaged in agriculture, whichmoreover furnishes the greatest contribution to the national economy of the country.The generally poor agricultural conditions, the low average returns, and the inadequatenutrition of the population all combine to produce undesirable economic and social mani-festations.

The existing poverty as "a symptom of faulty economic organization" indicated byHoward R. Tolley, Chief, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, U.S. Department of Agricul-ture (1944), in discussing the general causes of economic unbalance in the world is truefor Greece also : "In a world where trade to all parts of the earth, near or far, is swiftand easy, we will persist in producing locally with inefiBcient methods and insufficient toolsand frequently on impoverished soils the agricultural products that might better beproduced elsewhere. That is not good economics ; that is not good nutrition."

For this reason, the data given in this paper are of importance in showing that im-provements are possible in the existing agricultural situation. Several problems whichhave long awaited a solution may now be satisfactorily solved. By the greater use of thenew varieties and species of forage and edible legumes, the agricultural production maybe developed towards the greater production of fats and proteins. As the production ofcarbohydrates in its present extent is undesirable in Greece, it may be reduced at leastin area by the use of correct crop rotation, and by the development of new methods ofusing the agricultural products so made available.

The results may also provide a basiB for the realization in Greece of the objectives ofthe Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, especially as concerns" The conservation of natural resources and the adoption of improved methods of agricul-tural production", as set forth in Article 1, par. 2 (c) of its constitution.

SUMMARY

It now becomes possible to achieve an increase of productivity of agricultural land aswell as an increase in the income of the grower. These objectives may be achieved by :

(a) The determination of those forage legumes which jdeld larger and more certaincrops as compared with the hay from natural flora produced on fallow and grazed land.The yield data provided show the plants which may contribute to greater production offodder, conservation of soil and increase of soil fertility for other crops in the rotation.

(b) The determination of those annual legumes which, by replacing the fallow orsoil-exhausting crops, may secure a higher income for the grower, and at the same timelead to the use of proper rotations in the existing extensive grain-producing farmingsystem (see Table 15).

The greater use of legume varieties for grain and especially of lathyrus, vetch, broadbean, and lentil makes possible :

(i) an increase in wheat yields, making it possible to maintain the present wheatproduction with less land ;

(ii) better and more regular feeding of live stock ;(iii) improvements in food supply and in the economic conditions of the popula-

tion ;(iv) more intensive use of the land for the benefit of the national economy as a

whole.

18 DIMITBIUS ATH. PANOS

(c) In addition it has been possible to determine the perennial legumes moreadapted to Greek conditions, which may be used in the establishment of meadows,and in the improvement of grazing lands. Table 13 gives comparative figures for differentcrops and for native herbage, and shows that, with the proper use of these species, it will

Species

Natiiral floraCrimson cloverTrifolium, alexandrinum . .MelUotus (annual)Mdilotus alba (biennial)Lentils (autumn culture)Vetch (late)Vetch (early)Peas-forage (late)Grasspeas

Yield inkg. per ha.

1591512023602880249044064370390042704488 (yield of 1940)

TABI.E 14. Comparative yields of the natural flora andcultivated forage plants at Larissa.

be possible to improve the composition of the natural flora of the meadows and grazinglands; qualitative and quantitative yields will thereby be increased and a contributionmade towards improvements in animal husbandry. The present composition of thenatural herbage is very poor because of elimination of the legumes by intensive over-grazing and the multiplication of poor and unpalatable plants. Among the species pre-vailing in the Larissa area are Hordeum murinum, Lolium perenne, Sinapis arvensis,Avena elatior, Carduus, Onopordon, Tribulv^, Euphorbia, Cichorium, Sonchv^, Papaverrhoeas, Bellis, Hypericum, Agrostemma, and Agropyron B]^]^.,Polygonum avicvlare,Cynod<mdactylon, Centaurea solsticialis, Setaria vertidUata, Hypericum crispum, Fumaria officinalis.Convolvulus arvensis, Oladiolus segetum, Cirsium, Salvia, Lepidum. These species gen-erally comprise more than 80 per cent of the total cover except in areas where more

Rotationnumber

1

23456789

Kind of rotation

Wheat/wheat

Fallow (half tilled)/-wheat . .Fallow (tilled)/wheatPeas/wheatBroad beans/wheatCrimson clover/wheatVetch/wheat . . . . . .Peas (as green nianure)/wheatBitter vetch (Ervum ervilia)/Mvhea,t

Average yieldgrain in lb.per acre

wheat

900

13001380135014601400136016201310

legume

890(wheat)

6701170

820

730

Average yieldstraw in lb.per acre

wheat

1930

28503060293031403030291034602790

legume

1930

1300119019101770

1090

15. Results of using various non-irrigated rotations in the Larissa area (1938 to 1947).

THE rORAGE BESOUECES OF GREECE 19

soil moisture is available or during wetter years when legumes grow, especially Trifoliumsuhterraneum, Medicago denticulata, Lathyrus aphaca, Vicia spp., Trifolium hirtum, T.echinatum, T. resupinatum, and others which increase at the expense of the non-legumes,and which mostly occupy the lower storey of the ground cover. Any improvements inmanagement which may favour those species are very desirable in the improvement ofthe natural grazing areas.

ACKNOWIJIDGEMBNTS

I should like to take this opporttinity of thanking everyone who contributed to the canying outof the work done in Larissa. Also do I owe my special thanks to : Dr. Roland McKee, SeniorAgronomist of the United States Department of Agriculture, for his great help in sending valuableseeds and giving very experienced advice, and also by helping in the translation of the original manu-script ; Dr. Norman C. Wright, who EIS member of the Mission of F.A.O. for Greece, in May, 1946,visited the Station and gave very useful advice about the future direction of the work; ProfassorA. A. Johnson, who visited Larissa in May and June, 1948, and who gave decisive help in the pub-lication of this article, as well as many and very useful criticisms; Dr. R. O. Whyte, who has givenconsiderable help by bringing together in the ablest way the above-mentioned contributions and whohas helped very much in the preparation of this article for publication.Larissa, August 25th, 1949.