Upload
liluye
View
41
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
DESCRIPTION
The Flower and Sexual Reproduction. Chapter 13. Significance of the Flower. Flowers and fruit least affected by environment Appearance of flowers and fruits important to understanding evolutionary relationships among angiosperms. Function of Flowers. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
Citation preview
The Flower and Sexual Reproduction
Chapter 13
Significance of the Flower
• Flowers and fruit least affected by environment
• Appearance of flowers and fruits important to understanding evolutionary relationships among angiosperms
Function of Flowers
• To facilitate the important events of gamete formation and fusion
Steps in Sexual Cycle
• Production of special reproductive cells after meiosis
• Pollination
• Fertilization
• Seed and fruit development
• Seed and fruit dissemination
• Seed germination
Flower Parts
• Four whorls of modified leaves– Sepals– Petals– Stamens– Carpels
Flower Parts
Part DescriptionCollective Term
Function
SepalsUsually green, encloses other flower parts
Calyx Protect reproductive parts inside flower
PetalsColored, attractive flower parts Corolla Catch attention of
pollinators
StamensJust inside corolla, male flower part, made up of anther and filament
Androecium Produces pollen
Carpels (pistil)
Modified leaves folded over and fused to protect ovules, usually in center of flower, made up of stigma, style, and ovary
Gynoecium Contains ovules
Flower Parts
• Perianth– Collective term for calyx and corolla– Protects stamens and pistil(s)– Attracts and guides movements of some
pollinators
Androecium
• Whorl of stamens– Consists of
• Filament• Anther
– Made up of four elongated lobes called pollen sacs
Androecium
• Pollen sac– Contains microsporocytes– Each microsporocyte
• Divides by meiosis to produce four haploid microspores
• Each microspore nucleus divides mitotically to form two-celled pollen grain (male gametophyte)
Pollen
• Contains tube cell and generative cell
• Elaborate cell wall– wall pattern genetically determined– Varies among plants– Contains sporopollenin
• Resists decay• Reason pollen grains make good fossils
Mature Pollen
• Anther wall splits
• Releases pollen
• Pollen transported to stigma (pollination)
• Pollen absorbs water
• Secretes proteins– Some involved in pollen recognition and
compatibility reactions
• Pollen grain germinates
Gynoecium
• Female organs
• Simple pistil– Single folded carpel
• Compound pistil– Several separate carpels or a group of fused
carpels
• Ovary– Chambers called locules
Gynoecium
• Placenta– Tissue within ovary to which ovule is attached
• Types of placentation– Parietal
• On ovary wall
– Axile• On axis of ovary
– Central placentation• Ovules form on central column
Gynoecium
• Style– Often withers after pollination
• Stigma – May have hairs that help hold pollen grains– Sometimes secretes sticky fluid that
stimulates pollen growth
Gynoecium
• Ovule– Structure that eventually becomes the seed– As it matures, forms 1 or 2 outer protective layers
called integuments• Micropyle – small opening in integuments where pollen tube
enters
– Consists of 1 or 2 outer protective integuments, micropyle, megasporocyte, and nucellus
– Megasporocyte• Enlarges in preparation for meiosis• Embedded in tissue called nucellus
Gynoecium
• Embryo sac– Female gametophyte plant (haploid)
• Megasporocyte – Undergoes meiosis– Produces 4 megaspores (1n)
• 3 megaspores nearest micropyle disintegrate• 1 remaining megaspore develops into mature
embryo sac
Gynoecium
• Stages in embryo sac development– Series of 3 mitotic divisions form 8 nucleate
embryo sac– Nuclei migrate– Cell wall forms around nuclei
Gynoecium
• Within embryo sac– At micropylar end of embryo sac
• Egg cell and 2 synergic cells – All 3 of the above cells sometimes called egg apparatus
– Center• Polar nuclei lie in center of central cell
– Opposite end• 3 antipodal cells
Double Fertilization
• Generative cell within pollen grain divides by mitosis to form 2 sperm cells– 1 sperm cell fuses with egg to form diploid
(2n) zygote– 1 sperm fuses with the 2 polar nuclei
• Forms triploid (3n) primary endosperm nucleus– Divides to become food reserve tissue called endosperm
Double Fertilization
• Double fertilization actually refers to– Fusion of egg and sperm– Fusion of sperm with polar nuclei
Flower Development
• Shoot apex transformed into floral apex– Broadening of apical dome– General increase in RNA and protein
synthesis– Increase in rate of cell division in apical dome
• Bracts– 1st organs to form from floral apex
• Flower itself is really a shortened and modified stem.
Flower Types
• Complete flower– Has all four sets of floral whorls (sepals,
petals, stamens, carpels)
• Incomplete flower– Lacks one or more of the sets of floral whorls
Flower Types
• Perfect flower– Bisexual flowers– Have both male and female flower parts
• Imperfect flower– Unisexual flowers– Flowers will be either
• Staminate (stamen bearing) male• Pistillate (pistil bearing) female
Flower Types
• Monoecious– Plant with staminate and pistillate flowers on
one individual plant
• Dioecious – Staminate and pistillate flowers on separate
individual plants
Flower Symmetry
• Regular symmetry– Any line drawn through center of flower
divides flower into two similar halves
• Irregular symmetry– Only one line can divide flower into two similar
halves
Fusion of Flower Parts
• Connation– Union of parts of same whorl
• Adnation – Union of flower parts from different whorls
Ovary Position
• Superior ovary– Ovary located above the points of origin of the
perianth and androecium
• Inferior ovary– Ovary located below the points of attachment
of the perianth and stamens
Inflorescences
• Clusters or groups of flowers
• Types– Raceme– Spike– Umbel– Head– Cyme
Types of Inflorescences
Type Description Example
RacemeSimple type of inflorescence, main axis has short branches called pedicels, panicle → branched raceme
Radish
SpikeMain axis elongated, no pedicels, catkin → spike that usually bears only pistillate or staminate flowers
Walnut, willow
UmbelShort floral axis, flowers arise umbrella-like from approximately same level
Onion, carrot
HeadFlowers lack pedicels, crowded together on short axis
Sunflower
Cyme Main axis produces flower that involves entire apical meristem so axis does not elongate, other flowers arise on lateral branches farther down axis
Chickweed
Self-Pollination and Cross-Pollination
• Joseph Koelreuter– 1760s– 1st to demonstrate importance of pollen to
plant reproduction
• Christian Sprengel– Correctly distinguished between self-
pollinating and cross-pollinating species– Described role of wind and insects as pollen
vectors
Self-Pollination and Cross-Pollination
• Koelreuter and Sprengel – Founders of study called pollination ecology
Self-Pollination and Cross-Pollination
• Two types of pollination– Self-pollination
(selfing)– Cross-pollination
(outcrossing)
Self-pollination or selfing
No genetic recombination
Only one plant involved
Cross-pollination or outcrossing
Genetic recombination
Transfer of pollen from one plant to stigma of another plant
Self-Pollination and Cross-Pollination
• Outcrossing or cross-pollination– Insured by separation of sexes into different
individual plants
• Self-pollination prevented by– Different maturation times for stigma and
anther of same plant– Inhibition of pollen tube growth through style– Inhibition of zygote formation
Self-Pollination and Cross-Pollination
• Advantages of self-pollination– Means of reproduction for scattered
populations in extreme habitats– Common among plants in disturbed habitats– Saves pollen and the metabolic energy to
produce it– Increases probability that pollen will reach
stigma because distance traveled and travel time are short
Apomixis
• Sexual reproduction in which no fusion of sperm and egg occurs– Parthenogenesis
• Embryo develops from unfertilized egg
– Adventitious • Embryo arises from diploid tissue surrounding the
embryo sac
Pollination Syndrome
• Unique set of pollen traits that adapt a plant for pollination
Flower Trait Beetle Fly Bee Butterfly
Color
Dull white or green Pale and dull to dark brown or purple; sometimes flecked with translucent patches
Bright white, red, yellow, blue, or ultraviolet
Bright including red and purple
Nectar guides
Absent Absent Present Present
OdorNone to strongly fruity or fetid
Putrid Fresh, mild, pleasant
Faint but fresh
NectarSometimes present; not hidden
Usually absent Usually present; somewhat hidden
Ample; deeply hidden
PollenAmple Modest in amount Limited; often
sticky and scentedLimited
Flower shape
Large, regular dish-like; erect
Funnel-like or a complex trap
Regular or irregular; often tubular with a lip; erect
Regular; tubular with a lip; erect
ExamplesTulip tree, magnolia. dogwood
Skunk cabbage, philodendron
Larkspur, snapdragon, violet
Phlox
Trait Moth Bird Bat Wind
Color
Pale and dull red, purple, pink, or white
Scarlet, orange, red, or white
Dull white, green, or purple
Dull green, brown, or colorless; petals may be absent or reduced
Nectar guides
Absent Absent Absent Absent
OdorStrong and sweet; emitted at night
None Strong and musty; emitted at night
None
NectarAbundant; deeply hidden
Abundant; deeply hidden
Abundant; somewhat hidden
None
PollenLimited Modest Ample Abundant; small,
smooth, and not sticky
Flower shape
Regular; tubular without a lip; closed by day; pendant or horizontal
Regular or irregular; tubular without a lip; pendant or horizontal
Regular; trumpet-like; closed by day; pendant or borne on trunk
Regular; small; anthers and stigmas exserted
ExamplesTobacco, Easter lily, some cacti
Fuchsia, hibiscus Banana, agave, sausage tree,
Walnut, grasses
Pollinators
• Animals – Visit flowers for some reward– Incidentally transfer pollen– Rewards include
• Pollen • Nectar
Pollinators
• Pollen– Excellent food for animals
• Contains– 15-30% protein– 15% sugar– 3-13% fat– 1-7% starch– Trace amounts of vitamins, essential elements,
secondary substances
– Highly noticeable– Distinctive odor
Pollinators
• Nectar– Sugary water transported by phloem into
secretory structures called nectaries– Contains
• 15-75% sugar• Minor amounts of amino acids
– All 13 essential amino acids needed for insects are present
Biotic Pollen Vectors
• Beetles– Among oldest insect groups– Flowers pollinated by beetles typically have
primitive traits• Regular symmetry• Large, simple flowers• Bowl shaped architecture• Floral parts not fused
– Many beetle-pollinated species are tropical
Biotic Pollen Vectors
• Flies– No single syndrome of floral traits for fly
pollination
• Bees and butterflies– Active by day– Need landing platform– Harvest nectar as reward
Biotic Pollen Vectors
• Moths– Active by night or at dawn and dusk– Harvest nectar as reward– Moth pollinated flowers
• White or faintly colored• Emit heavy odors• Fringed blossom rim• Are pendant or horizontal• Have no nectar guides• Often closed during day• Have long, narrow tubes with pools of nectar at their base
Biotic Pollen Vectors
• Butterflies– Flowers pollinated by butterflies
• Vividly colored• Emit faint odors• Have broad blossom rim• Are erect • Exhibit prominent nectar guides
Biotic Pollen Vectors
• Birds– Not recognized by botanists as pollinators
until relatively recently– Bird pollinated flowers
• Scarlet to red to orange in color• Generally lack nectar guides• Deep tubes usually without a landing platform• Are pendant or horizontal• Have abundant nectar• Emit no odor
Biotic Pollen Vectors
• Bats– Bat pollinated flowers
• Open at night• Positioned below foliage of parent tree hanging
pendant or attached to trunk or low limbs• Drab white, green, or purple• Strong musty odor at night• Large, tough flowers• Lots of pollen and nectar
Abiotic Pollen Vectors
• Wind-pollinated flowers– Small– Colorless– Odorless– Nectarless– Petals often lacking or reduced to small scales– Positioned to dangle or wave in open– Stigmas enlarged and elaborate and often extend
outside of flower
Abiotic Pollen Vectors
• Pollen from wind-pollinated flowers– Generally smoother, smaller, drier than
animal-pollinated species– Often changes shape from spherical to
Frisbee shape on release to dry air– More pollen grains/ovule than animal-
pollinated flowers
Aquatic Plants
• Many aquatic plants produce flowers that project above water surface– Vectors are usually wind and insects
• Some produce flowers at water surface– Pollen floats from anther to stigma