The excepts below contain information. Facts, lists, concepts (definitions, examples), rules, and maybe routines (such as logical arguments, declarations, theories).

To teach this information, you have to identify it. And, if it is spread out (e.g., items for a list or propositions in a theory), you have to find it and organize it.

And you have to state it clearly and completely.

You also have to teach your students to do the same thing.

Dogs: humankind’s friend.Categorical rule. Things in the category dogs are in the category humankind’s friends.

Simple statement. Dogs are humankind’s friends.

Diagram. All things that are humankind’s friends.

All things that are dogs.

All nondogs (cheeseburgers, beer, mashed potatoes) that

are humankind’s friends.

Hope is a comfort of our imperfect condition. Does this tell a categorical rule? If so, what categories does it connect?

Say it as a categorical rule. Make it a simple statement.Diagram it.

...a state (political that rules a specified territory) is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. [Max Weber. "Politics as a vocation." 1918]

A definition for the concept, state. The form of this definition is genus and difference. First the definition tells the larger category (genus) in which state exists---human community. Then the definition tells the difference between the state (as an example of human community) and other kinds of human communities---a human community that claims the monopoly of….

Here’s a definition of suicide. What is the genus and what is the difference?

...the term suicide is applied to all cases of death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result. An attempt is an act thus defined but falling short of actual death. [Emile Durkheim, Suicide. 1897]

This next definition’s a bit tougher. Just look for the concept to be defined, the genus, and the difference.

There is the authority of the extraordinary and personal gift of grace (charisma), the absolutely personal devotion and personal confidence in revelation, heroism, or other qualities of individual leadership. This is charismatic domination... [Max Weber. "Politics as a vocation." 1918]

"...they are crises, that is, disturbances of the collective order."

What concept us being defined? What’s the genus? What’s the difference?

State it properly. Crises are (genus____________________) of (difference______________).

"(A) religious society cannot exist without a collective credo."

This is a categorical rule. It connects two categories. What are the categories? (1) things that are religious societies and (2) things that have a collective credo (common beliefs). Collective credo is said to be a necessary condition for the existence of a religious society. Let’s restate it:

All_________________________ have a ________________.

Diagram it.

Let’s make a deduction from the rule. What happens if a religious society loses its collective credo? State is as a causal rule:

If/when/whenever __________________________, then ______________________.

If the state is to exist, the dominated must obey the authority claimed by the powers that be. [Max Weber. "Politics as a vocation." 1918]

This sentence says that something (what?) is a necessary condition for the existence of another thing (what?).

State it. In all ______________________, ______________________.

Let’s make a deduction from the rule. What happens when the dominated no longer obey the authority claimed by the powers that be.

(If, when)__________________________, then ________________________.

No living being can be happy or even exist unless his needs are sufficiently proportioned to his means. [Emile Durkheim, Suicide. 1897]

Beings that are happy are inside the category of beings whose__________________.

What kind of knowledge does this sentence tell? It is a rule. But is it about how one category is inside or outside another, or is it about how one thing causes another?

Notice the second rule. Beings that exist are inside the category of beings whose_______________.

If therefore industrial or financial crises increase suicide, this is not because they cause poverty, since crises of prosperity have the same result; it is because they are crises, that is, disturbances of the collective order. [Emile Durkheim, Suicide. 1897]

Something (an antecedent event) increases the rate of suicide (a consequent event). [Something changes something else. So, this is a causal rule.] Suicide goes up during industrial and financial crises, but it’s not because they are industrial or financial. It’s because they are __________________. But what is a crisis? So, this sentence includes a definition. Crises are (genus ______________) of (difference __________________).

Make a prediction (deduction) from this rule. What changes if/when there is increased prosperity? What happens if there is increased unemployment?

Why?

6. Where the State is the only environment in which men can live communal lives, they inevitably lose contact, become detached, and thus society disintegrates. [Emile Durkheim. The Division of Labor in Society. 1893]

Do you see a causal chain?

9. Average of Suicides per

Million Inhabitants [Do you see a range of orthodoxy here?]

_________________________________________________________

190 Protestant States

96 Mixed States (Protestant and Catholic)

58 Catholic States

40 Greek Catholic States

So, you could say “The more….., the higher the….”

10. Provs with Suicides/ Provs with Suicides/ Provs with Suicides/

Cath Minor Million Cath Major Million More Than Million

(<50%) Inhab (50-90%) Inhab 90% Cath Inhab

Rhenish 167 Low. Franc 157 Upp. Palatin. 64

C. Fracon. 207 Swabia 118 Upp. Bavaria 114

Upp. Franc 204 Low. Bavaria 19

________________________________________________________________

Ave. 192 Ave. 135 Ave. 75

What empirical generalizations can we draw from the above table?

"(S)uicides are found to be in proportion to

and in proportion to " (p. 153)

11. "(W)hen religious intolerance is very pronounced, it often produces an opposite effect. Instead of exciting the dissenters to respect opinion more, it accustoms them to disregard it." (p. 156)

12.

13. "(T)he more extensive the credo the more unified and strong is the society." (p. 159)

14. "(T)he greater concessions a confessional group makes to individual judgment, the less it dominates lives, the less its cohesion and vitality." (p. 159) Causal sequence?

15. "Man seeks to learn and man kills himself because of the loss of cohesion in his religious society; he does not kill himself because of his learning." (p. 169)

16. "(T)he desire for knowledge wakens because religion becomes disorganized." (p. 169)

17. "(T)he density of a group [rate of interaction] cannot sink without its vitality diminishing." (p. 201)

18. "Excessive individualism…frees man's inclination to do away with himself from a protective obstacle… (p. 210)

19.

20. "...more depressed and anxious pregnant teenagers, who perceive their social relationships to be less satisfying, and who have less knowledge of child development,

have more negative expectations for their infants." J.M. Contreras et al. (1995). Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 16, 283-295. Do you see the intervening variables?

21. High mother support was associated with more secure infant attachment only for those adolescents living with partners." S.J. Spieker (1994). Developmental Psychology, 30, 1, 102-111. Do you see an intervening variable?

In the second century of the Christian Aera, the empire of

Rome comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the most

civilized portion of mankind. The frontiers of that extensive

monarchy were guarded by ancient renown and disciplined valor.

The gentle but powerful influence of laws and manners had

gradually cemented the union of the provinces. Their peaceful

inhabitants enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth and

luxury. The image of a free constitution was preserved with

decent reverence: the Roman senate appeared to possess the

sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the

executive powers of government. During a happy period of more

than fourscore years, the public administration was conducted by

the virtue and abilities of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two

Antonines. [History Of The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Vol.1

Edward Gibbon,1782]

That public virtue, which among the ancients was denominated

patriotism, is derived from a strong sense of our own interest in

the preservation and prosperity of the free government of which

we are members. Such a sentiment, which had rendered the legions

of the republic almost invincible, could make but a very feeble

impression on the mercenary servants of a despotic prince; and it

became necessary to supply that defect by other motives, of a

different, but not less forcible nature - honor and religion.

The peasant, or mechanic, imbibed the useful prejudice that he

was advanced to the more dignified profession of arms, in which

his rank and reputation would depend on his own valor; and that,

although the prowess of a private soldier must often escape the

notice of fame, his own behavior might sometimes confer glory or

disgrace on the company, the legion, or even the army, to whose

honors he was associated. On his first entrance into the

service, an oath was administered to him with every circumstance

of solemnity. He promised never to desert his standard, to

submit his own will to the commands of his leaders, and to

sacrifice his life for the safety of the emperor and the empire.

^33 The attachment of the Roman troops to their standards was

inspired by the united influence of religion and of honor. The

golden eagle, which glittered in the front of the legion, was the

object of their fondest devotion; nor was it esteemed less

impious than it was ignominious, to abandon that sacred ensign in

the hour of danger. ^34 These motives, which derived their

strength from the imagination, were enforced by fears and hopes

of a more substantial kind. Regular pay, occasional donatives,

and a stated recompense, after the appointed time of service,

alleviated the hardships of the military life, ^35 whilst, on the

other hand, it was impossible for cowardice or disobedience to

escape the severest punishment. The centurions were authorized

to chastise with blows, the generals had a right to punish with

death; and it was an inflexible maxim of Roman discipline, that a

good soldier should dread his officers far more than the enemy.

From such laudable arts did the valor of the Imperial troops

receive a degree of firmness and docility unattainable by the

impetuous and irregular passions of barbarians. [History Of The

Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Vol.1

Edward Gibbon,1782]

The camp of a Roman legion presented the appearance of a

fortified city. ^60 As soon as the space was marked out, the

pioneers carefully levelled the ground, and removed every

impediment that might interrupt its perfect regularity. Its form

was an exact quadrangle; and we may calculate, that a square of

about seven hundred yards was sufficient for the encampment of

twenty thousand Romans; though a similar number of our own troops

would expose to the enemy a front of more than treble that

extent. In the midst of the camp, the praetorium, or general's

quarters, rose above the others; the cavalry, the infantry, and

the auxiliaries occupied their respective stations; the streets

were broad and perfectly straight, and a vacant space of two

hundred feet was left on all sides between the tents and the

rampart. The rampart itself was usually twelve feet high, armed

with a line of strong and intricate palisades, and defended by a

ditch of twelve feet in depth as well as in breadth. This

important labor was performed by the hands of the legionaries

themselves; to whom the use of the spade and the pickaxe was no

less familiar than that of the sword or pilum. Active valor may

often be the present of nature; but such patient diligence can be

the fruit only of habit and discipline. ^61 [History Of The

Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Vol.1

Edward Gibbon,1782]

It was scarcely possible that the eyes of contemporaries

should discover in the public felicity the latent causes of decay

and corruption. This long peace, and the uniform government of

the Romans, introduced a slow and secret poison into the vitals

of the empire. The minds of men were gradually reduced to the

same level, the fire of genius was extinguished, and even the

military spirit evaporated. The natives of Europe were brave and

robust. Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Illyricum supplied the legions

with excellent soldiers, and constituted the real strength of the

monarchy. Their personal valor remained, but they no longer

possessed that public courage which is nourished by the love of

independence, the sense of national honor, the presence of

danger, and the habit of command. They received laws and

governors from the will of their sovereign, and trusted for their

defence to a mercenary army. The posterity of their boldest

leaders was contented with the rank of citizens and subjects.

The most aspiring spirits resorted to the court or standard of

the emperors; and the deserted provinces, deprived of political

strength or union, insensibly sunk into the languid indifference

of private life. 61 [History Of The

Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Vol.1

Edward Gibbon,1782]

What is the average size of a galaxy?

The Answer

Thank you for your question. Our Milky Way galaxy is a pretty typical large galaxy. Most of the stars are in a disk that is about 100,000 light years across in diameter and 3000 light years thick. Most of the galaxies in the universe are actually smaller than the Milky Way. For example, most of the dozens of galaxies in our Local Group are at least ten times smaller in diameter. http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/001205a.html

Make a list of facts.

How would you teach students to make a list? Hint. Model model model. Test.

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The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is just a name that scientists give a bunch of types of radiation when they want to talk about them as a group. Radiation is energy that travels and spreads out as it goes-- visible light that comes from a lamp in your house and radio waves that come from a radio station are two types of electromagnetic radiation. Other examples of EM radiation are microwaves, infrared and ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma-rays. Hotter, more energetic objects and events create higher energy radiation than cool objects. Only extremely hot objects or particles moving at very high velocities can create high-energy radiation like X-rays and gamma-rays. http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html

Actually, the electromagnetic spectrum can be expressed in terms of energy, wavelength, or frequency. http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html

Use the above to develop a definition of electromagnetic spectrum.

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Electromagnetic radiation can be described in terms of a stream of photons, which are massless particles each traveling in a wave-like pattern and moving at the speed of light. Each photon contains a certain amount (or bundle) of energy, and all electromagnetic radiation consists of these photons. The only difference between the various types of electromagnetic radiation is the amount of energy found in the photons. Radio waves have photons with low energies, microwaves have a little more energy than radio waves, infrared has still more, then visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, and ... the most energetic of all ... gamma-rays. http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html

Concept—photon. Define.

Categorical rule about electromagnetic radiation

Make a ranked list regarding energy waves.

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A light curve is a graph which shows the brightness of an object over a period of time. In the study of objects which change their brightness over time, such as novae, supernovae, and variable stars, the light curve is a simple but valuable tool to a scientist.

The plot shows the brightness of a certain astronomical object viewed through a telescope every 6 days over the course of a few months. This gives us a light curve of the object we have measured. http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/how_l1/light_curves.html

Ringworm (tinea corpora). This is caused by a microscopic fungus, not a worm. Warmth, humidity, sweating, and poor air circulation all help bring about these fungal infections. http://quickcare.org/skin/fungus.html

By liberty I mean the assurance that every man shall be protected in doing what he believes his duty, against the influence of authority and majorities, custom and opinion. [John Emerich Edward Dalberg Acton. Lord Acton. 1834-1902]

The English word baroque is derived from the Italian barocco, meaning bizarre, though probably exuberant would be a better translation more accurately reflecting the sense. The usage of this term originated in the 1860s to describe the highly decorated style of 17th and 18th century religious and public buildings in Italy, Germany and Austria, as typified by the very baroque angelic organist adorning the Gottfried Silbermann organ completed in 1714 for the Cathedral in Freiberg, Saxony (illustrated above). Later, during the early-to-mid 1900s, the term baroque was applied by association to music of the 17th and early 18th century, and today the term baroque has come to refer to a very clearly definable type or genre of music which originated, broadly speaking, around 1600 and came to fruition between 1700 and 1750. http://www.baroquemusic.org/bardefn.html

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xozvnMZ7Jq4

I am not one of those who think that the people are never in the wrong.[Edmund Burke. 1730-1797. Selections from the Speeches and Writings of Edmund Burke]

When popular discontents have been very prevalent, it may well be affirmed andsupported, that there has been generally something found amiss in theconstitution, or in the conduct of government. [Edmund Burke. 1730-1797. Selections from the Speeches and Writings of Edmund Burke]

Dr. Witherspoon was of opinion, that the value of lands and houses wasthe best estimate of the wealth of a nation, and that it was practicableto obtain such a valuation. This is the true barometer of wealth. [Memoir, Correspondence, And Miscellanies, From The Papers Of Thomas Jefferson.]

[Regarding difficulty of southern and northern states reaching agreement on confederation] That our importance, our interests, our peace required that we should confederate, and that mutual sacrifices should be made to effect a compromise of this difficult question. [Memoir, Correspondence, And Miscellanies, From The Papers Of Thomas Jefferson.]

Should the idea get abroad that there is likely to be no union among us, it will damp the minds of the people, diminish the glory of our struggle, and lessen its importance; becauseit will open to our view future prospects of war and dissension amongourselves. [Memoir, Correspondence, And Miscellanies, From The Papers Of Thomas Jefferson.]

Political correctness is communist propaganda writ small. In my study of communist societies, I came to the conclusion that the purpose of communist propaganda was not to persuade or convince, nor to inform, but to humiliate; and therefore, the less it corresponded to reality the better. When people are forced to remain silent when they are being told the most obvious lies, or even worse when they are forced to repeat the lies themselves, they lose once and for all their sense of probity. To assent to obvious lies is to co-operate with evil, and in some small way to become evil oneself. One’s standing to resist anything is thus eroded, and even destroyed. A society of emasculated liars is easy to control. I think if you examine political correctness, it has the same effect and is intended to. [Theodore Dalrymple. http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=7445]

The first settlers of this colony [Virginia] were Englishmen, loyal subjects totheir king and church; and the grant to Sir Walter Raleigh containedan express proviso, that their laws should not be against the trueChristian faith, now professed in the church of England.' As soon as thestate of the colony admitted, it was divided into parishes, in each ofwhich was established a minister of the Anglican church, endowed witha fixed salary, in tobacco, a glebe house and land, with the other

necessary appendages. To meet these expenses, all the inhabitants ofthe parishes were assessed, whether they were or not members of theestablished church. Towards Quakers, who came here, they were mostcruelly intolerant, driving them from the colony by the severestpenalties. [Memoir, Correspondence, And Miscellanies, From The Papers Of Thomas Jefferson.]

Be it enacted by the General Assembly, that no crime shall be henceforth punished by deprivation of life or limb… This takes away the punishment of cutting off the hand of a person striking another, or drawing his sword in one of the superior courts of justice. [Memoir, Correspondence, And Miscellanies, From The Papers Of Thomas Jefferson.]

Manslaughter is the killing a man with design, but in a sudden gust of passion, and where the killer has not had time to cool. [Memoir, Correspondence, And Miscellanies, From The Papers Of Thomas Jefferson.]

Society in every state is a blessing, but government even in its best state is but a necessary evil in its worst state an in tolerable one; for when we suffer, or are exposed to the same miseries by a government, which we might expect in a country without government, our calamities is heightened by reflecting that we furnish the means by which we suffer! [Thomas Paine. Common Sense, 1776]

Here then is the origin and rise of government; namely, a mode rendered necessary by the inability of moral virtue to govern the world; [Thomas Paine. Common Sense, 1776]

Oppression is often the consequence, but seldom or never the means of riches; [Thomas Paine. Common Sense, 1776]

Male and female are the distinctions of nature, good and bad the distinctions of heaven; [Thomas Paine. Common Sense, 1776]

The nearer any government approaches to a republic the less business there is for a king. [Thomas Paine. Common Sense, 1776]

Were the continent crowded with inhabitants, her sufferings under the present circumstances would be intolerable. The more sea port towns we had, the more should we have both to defend and to loose. [Thomas Paine. Common Sense, 1776]

THESE are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph. What we

obtain too cheap, we esteem too lightly: it is dearness only that gives every thing its value. [Thomas Paine. American Crisis, 1776]

God Almighty will not give up a people to military destruction, or leave them unsupportedly to perish, who have so earnestly and so repeatedly sought to avoid the calamities of war, by every decent method which wisdom could invent. [Thomas Paine. American Crisis, 1776]

There is no retreat but in submission and slavery! [Patrick Henry. Give Me Liberty Or Give Me Death speech, given at meeting of Virginia delegates regarding resolution to prepare for war. March 23, 1775.]

Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death! [Patrick Henry. Give Me Liberty Or Give Me Death speech, given at meeting of Virginia delegates regarding resolution to prepare for war. March 23, 1775.]

This Constitution is said to have beautiful features; but when I come to examine these features, sir, they appear to me horribly frightful. Among other deformities, it has an awful squinting; it squints toward monarchy, and does not this raise indignation in the breast of every true American? Your president may easily become king. Your Senate is so imperfectly constructed that your dearest rights may be sacrificed to what may be a small minority; and a very small minority may continue for ever unchangeably this government, altho horridly defective. Where are your checks in this government? Your strongholds will be in the hands of your enemies. It is on a supposition that your American governors shall be honest that all the good qualities of this government are founded; but its defective and imperfect construction puts it in their power to perpetrate the worst of mischiefs should they be bad men; and, sir, would not all the world, from the Eastern to the Western Hemisphere, blame our distracted folly in resting our rights upon the contingency of our rulers being good or bad?...Away with your president! we shall have a king: the army will salute him monarch; your militia will leave you, and assist in making him king, and fight against you: and what have you to oppose this force? What will then become of you and your rights? Will not absolute despotism ensue? [Patrick Henry, anti-federalist, speech against ratifying Constitution. 1788]

State control, however, is always necessary for national action in the family of nations and to prevent plunder by others, and men have never yet succeeded in getting it without falling under the necessity of submitting to plunder at home from those on whom they rely for defense abroad. [William Graham Sumner. http://mises.org/story/3692]

It appears, from the best evidence we possess, according to the most reasonable interpretation which has been given to it, that the internal organization of society owes its cohesion and intensity to the necessity of meeting pressure from without. A band of persons, bound by ties of neighborhood or kin, clung together in order to maintain their common interests against a similar band of their neighbors. The social bond and the common interest were at war with individual interests. They exerted coercive power to crush individualism, to produce uniformity, to proscribe dissent, to make private judgment a social offense, and to exercise drill and discipline. [William Graham Sumner. http://mises.org/story/3692]

The Emperor [of Rome] was the State. He was a mortal who had been freed from all care for the rights of others, and his own passions had all been set free. Any man or woman in the civilized world was at the mercy of his caprices. Anyone who was great enough to attract his attention, especially by the possession of anything which mortals covet, held his life at the utmost peril. Since the Empire was the world, there was no escape save to get out of the world. Many seemed to hold escape cheap at that price. [William Graham Sumner. http://mises.org/story/3692]

At first under the Empire [Roman] the obscure people were safe. They probably had little to complain of, and found the Empire gay and beneficent; but it gradually and steadily absorbed every rank and interest into its pitiless organization. At last industry and commerce as well as all civil and social duties took the form of State functions. [William Graham Sumner. http://mises.org/story/3692]

Slavery, as we ordinarily understand the term, died out, but it gave way to a servitude of each to all, when each was locked tight in an immense and artificial organization of society. Such must ever be the effect of merging industry in the State. Every attempt of the Roman handicraftsmen to better themselves was a breach of the peace; disobedience was rebellion; resistance was treason; running away was desertion.

Here, then, we have a long history, in which the State power first served the national interest in contest with outside powers, and then itself became a burden and drew all the life out of the subject population. [William Graham Sumner. http://mises.org/story/3692]

Party is a body of men united, for promoting by their joint endeavoursthe national interest, upon some particular principle in which they areall agreed. [Edmund Burke. 1730-1797. Selections from the Speeches and Writings of Edmund Burke]

[Why did the patriots dump tea in the harbor rather than pay the tax?]No man ever doubted that the commodity of tea could bear an impositionof threepence. But no commodity will bear threepence, or will bear apenny, when the general feelings of men are irritated, and two millionsof people are resolved not to pay. The feelings of the colonies wereformerly the feelings of Great Britain. Theirs were formerly thefeelings of Mr. Hampden when called upon for the payment of twentyshillings. Would twenty shillings have ruined Mr. Hampden's fortune? No!but the payment of half twenty shillings, on the principle it wasdemanded, would have made him a slave. [Edmund Burke. 1730-1797. Selections from the Speeches and Writings of Edmund Burke]

[Restate this in If X, then Y form]

…he who would reform the Institutions of a free State, must retain at least the semblance of old Ways. [Niccolo Machiavelli, Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livius]

What, then, is law? It is the collective organization of the individual right to lawful defense. [Frederick Bastiat, The Law, 1850]

Each of us has a natural right—from God—to defend his person, his liberty, and his property. These are the three basic requirements of life, and the preservation of any one of them is completely dependent upon the preservation of the other two. [Frederick Bastiat, The Law, 1850]

If a nation were founded on this basis {that is, the law protects persons, liberties, and properties; maintains the right of each, and causes justice to reign over us all], it seems to me that order would prevail among the people, in thought as well as in deed. [Frederick Bastiat, The Law, 1850]

But, unfortunately, law by no means confines itself to its proper functions. And when it has exceeded its proper functions, it has not done so merely in some inconsequential and debatable matters. The law has gone further than this; it has acted in direct opposition to its own purpose. The law has been used to destroy its own objective: It has been applied to annihilating the justice that it was supposed to maintain; to limiting and destroying rights which its real purpose was to respect. The law has placed the collective force at the disposal of the unscrupulous who wish, without risk, to exploit the person, liberty, and property of others. It

has converted plunder into a right, in order to protect plunder. And it has converted lawful defense into a crime, in order to punish lawful defense. [Frederick Bastiat, The Law, 1850]

The decrease of absolute power [of the force of an attack in war] arises—

(1) Through [success in] the object of the attack, the occupation of the enemy’s country; this generally commences first after the first decision, but the attack does not cease upon the first decision.

(2) Through the necessity imposed on the attacking Army to guard the country in its rear, in order to preserve its line of communication and means of subsistence.

(3) Through losses in action, and through sickness.

(4) Distance of the various depôts of supplies and reinforcements.

(5) Sieges and blockades of fortresses.

(6) Relaxation of efforts.

(7) Secession of allies.[Carl von Clausewitz, On War, vol. 3 [1832]

A portion of the notions which prevail in Europe concerningPopular Government [that is, democracy] are derived…from observation of its practical working; a larger portion merely reproduce technicalrules of the British or American Constitutions inan altered or disguised form ; but a multitude of ideas on this subject…have been conceived a priori. They are, in fact, another set of deductions from the assumption of a State of Nature… (T)hey are well known to have sprung from the teaching of Jean- Jacques Rousseau, who believed that men emergedfrom the primitive natural condition by a process which made every form of government, except Democracy, illegitimate. [Henry Sumer Maine. Popular Government, 1886]

Life, liberty, and property do not exist because men have made laws. On the contrary, it was the fact that life, liberty, and property existed beforehand that caused men to make laws in the first place. [Frederick Bastiat, The Law, 1850]

[Extract the propositions or rules. Elaborate.]

as a matter of fact, Popular Government, since its reintroduction into the world, has proved itself to be extremely fragile. …(T)he perpetual change which, as understood in modern times, it [popular government] appears to demand, is not in harmony with the normal forces ruling human nature, and is apt therefore to lead to cruel disappointment or serious disaster. If I am in any degree right, Popular Government, especially as it approaches the democratic form, will tax to the utmost all the political sagacity and statesmanship of the world to keep it from misfortune. [Henry Sumer Maine. Popular Government, 1886]

Victory is the retirement of the enemy from the field of battle. [Carl von Clausewitz, On War, vol. 3 [1832]]

[Restate in the form, “The (more, greater)…then,...]

(16) The importance of the victory depends on the importance of the object which it secures to us. The conquest of an important position may make an insignificant victory very important. [Carl von Clausewitz, On War, vol. 3 [1832]]

(30) Every fight is an expression of hostility, which passes into combat instinctively.

(31) This instinct to attack and destroy the enemy is the real element of War.

(32) Even amongst the most savage tribes, this impulse to hostility is not pure instinct alone; the reflecting intelligence supervenes, aimless instinct becomes an act with a purpose.

(33) In this manner the feelings are made submissive to the understanding.

(34) But we can never consider them as completely eliminated, and the pure object of reason substituted in their place; for if they were swallowed up in the object of reason, they would come to life again spontaneously in the heat of the combat.[Carl von Clausewitz, On War, vol. 3 [1832]]

[What is Glusckmann’s definition of terrorism. State the genus (bigger category) and then the specifics.]

A better definition of terrorism is a deliberate attack by armed men on unarmed civilians. Terrorism is aggression against civilians as civilians, inevitably taken by surprise and defenseless. Whether the hostage-takers and killers of innocents are in uniform or not, or what kind of weapons they use—whether bombs or blades—does not change anything; neither does the fact that they may appeal to sublime ideals. The only thing that counts is the intention to wipe out random victims. [André Glucksmann, From the H-Bomb to the Human Bomb, City Journal, Autumn, 2007]

Only God and man's folly are eternal.

When political systems, nations or civilizations fail, they collapse in a welter of blood and carnage, usually ending in mountains of bodies, slavery and a long dark night of tyranny. [http://sipseystreetirregulars.blogspot.com/2009/12/fatal-errors-and-big-die-off.html]

Life, liberty, and property do not exist because men have made laws. On the contrary, it was the fact that life, liberty, and property existed beforehand that caused men to make laws in the first place. [Frederic Bastiat. The Law. 1850]

A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the People to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. [Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Restate it as separate propositions.]

What, then, is law? It is the collective organization of the individual right to lawful defense. [Frederic Bastiat. The Law. 1850]

Each of us has a natural right—from God—to defend his person, his liberty, and his property. These are the three basic requirements of life, and the preservation of any one of them is completely dependent upon the preservation of the other two. [Frederic Bastiat. The Law. 1850]

Man can live and satisfy his wants only by ceaseless labor; by the ceaseless application of his faculties to natural resources. This process is the origin of property. But it is also true that a man may live and satisfy his wants by seizing and consuming the products of the labor of others. This process is the origin of plunder. [Frederic Bastiat. The Law. 1850]

No society can exist unless the laws are respected to a certain degree. [Frederic Bastiat. The Law. 1850]

[Of persons and groups in power] Flattering themselves that their power is become necessary to the support of all order and government, everything which tends to the support of that power is sanctified, and becomes a part ofthe public interest. Edmund Burke. 1730-1797. British orator, statesman, and patriot.]

Bad laws are the worst sort of tyranny. [Edmund Burke]

[Construct a sequence. Also, state a proposition that explains why one form leads easily to the next.]For a Monarchy readily becomes a Tyranny, an Aristocracy an Oligarchy, while a Democracy tends to degenerate into Anarchy. So that if the founder of a State should establish any one of these three forms of Government, he establishes it for a short time only, since no precaution he may take can prevent it from sliding into its contrary, by reason of the close resemblance which, in this case, the virtue bears to the vice. [Niccolo Machiavelli, Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livius]

Heraclitus (c.500 BCE)

“Listening not to me but to the Word (Logos) it is wise to agree that all things are one. In differing it agrees with itself, a backward-turning connection, like that of a bow and a lyre. The path up and down is one the same."

"War is father of all, king of all. Some it makes gods, some it makes men, some it makes slaves, some free."

"We must realize that war is universal, and strife is justice, and that all things come into being and pass away through strife."

"It is not good for men to get all that they wish to get. Whatever our desire wishes to get, it purchases at the cost of soul."

"This world, which is the same for all, no one of gods or men has made; but it was ever, is now, and ever shall be eternal fire."

"Fire lives the death of air, and air lives the death of fire; water lives the death of earth, earth that of water. Measures of it kindling and measures of it going out." (Diogenes Laertius)

The people [of a city] should fight for their laws as they would for their city wall.

All is flux, nothing stays still.

You could not step twice into the same river; for other waters are ever flowing on to you.

Anaximander [Miletus, 610 - 546 BC]

“Everything has an origin or is an origin. The Boundless has no origin. For then it would have a limit. Moreover, it is both unborn and immortal, being a kind of origin. For that which has become has also, necessarily, an end, and there is a termination to every process of destruction.” (Aristotle, Physics 203b6-10).

Protagoras [ca. 490– 420 BC]

"Man is the measure of all things: of things which are, that they are, and of things which are not, that they are not"

"Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not or of what sort they may be, because of the obscurity of the subject, and the brevity of human life.”

Anaxagoras [Clazomenae, 500-428 BC]

"Together were all things, infinite both in quantity and smallness - for the small too was infinite. And when all things were together, none was patent by reason of smallness; for air and ether covered all things, being both infinite - for in all things these are the greatest both in quantity and size. For the small there is no smallest, but there is always a smaller.

In everything there is a share of everything - except mind - and in some things mind is present, too. Other things possess a share of everything, but mind is something infinite and self-controlling, and it has been mixed with no thing. It is the finest of all things and the purest, and it possesses all knowledge about everything, and it has the greatest strength. And mind controls all those things, both great and small, which possess soul. " (Simplicius, Commentary on the Physics, 300.27 - 301.10)

[This is the second paragraph of the Declaration of Independence, written by Jefferson. It presents a theory of representative government by asserting a sequence of logically-connected statements (propositions). Restate the lengthy sentences in propositional form. Note that one sentence may assert more than one proposition.]

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness

Plato, Republic [428/427 BC – 348/347]

Conversation between Thrasymachus and Socrates. What are the propositions and definitions in the argument by Thrasymachus?

Thras. Listen, then, he said; I proclaim that justice is nothing else than the interest of the stronger. And now why do you not me? But of course you won't.

Soc. Let me first understand you, I replied. justice, as you say, is theinterest of the stronger. What, Thrasymachus, is the meaning of this?...

Well, he said, have you never heard that forms of government differ;there are tyrannies, and there are democracies, and there are aristocracies?

Soc. Yes, I know.

Thras. And the government is the ruling power in each state?

Soc. Certainly.

Thras. And the different forms of government make laws democratical, aristocratical, tyrannical, with a view to their several interests; and these laws, which are made by them for their own interests, are the justice which they deliver to their subjects, and him who transgresses them they punish as a breaker of the law, and unjust. And that is what I mean when I say that in all states there is the same principle of justice, which is the interest of the government; and as the government must be supposed to have power, the only reasonable conclusion is, that everywhere there is one principle of justice, which is the interest of the stronger.

*******************************What are the definitions proposed by Socrates?

Soc. I am speaking, as before, of injustice on a large scale in which the advantage of the unjust is more apparent; and my meaning will be most clearly seen if we turn to that highest form of injustice in which the criminal is the happiest of men, and the sufferers or those who refuse to do injustice are the most miserable --that is to say tyranny, which by fraud and force takes away the property of others, not little by little but wholesale;…

*********************************

What definitions does Socrates propose? He explains the origins of the state. Put the propositions and definitions in a logical order.

A State, I said, arises, as I conceive, out of the needs of mankind; no one is self-sufficing, but all of us have many wants….Then, as we have many wants, and many persons are needed to supply them, one takes a helper for one purpose and another for another; and when these partners and helpers are gathered together in one habitation the body of inhabitants is termed a State. …And they exchange with one another, and one gives, and another receives,under the idea that the exchange will be for their good….Then, I said, let us begin and create in idea a State; and yet thetrue creator is necessity, who is the mother of our invention.

**********************

[Boil this down to two or three propositions of the kind, “When/If X, then Y” and “Things that are X, are/are not/are partly in Y.”]

But the possession of unlimited power, which corrodes the conscience, hardens the heart, and confounds the understanding of monarchs exercised its demoralizing influence on the illustrious Democracy of Athens. It is bad to be oppressed by a minority; but it is worse to be oppressed by a majority. For there is a reserve of latent power in the masses which, if it is called into play, the minority can seldom resist. But from the absolute will of an entire people there is no appeal, no redemption, no refuge but treason. The humblest and most numerous class of the Athenians united the legislative, the judicial, and in part, the executive power. The philosophy that was then in the ascendant taught them that there is no law superior to that of the state, and that, in the state, the law-giver is above the law. [Lord Acton]

…government by the whole people, being the government of the most numerous and most powerful class, is an evil of the same nature as unmixed monarchy, and requires, for nearly the same reasons, institutions that shall protect it against itself, and shall uphold the permanent reign of law against arbitrary revolutions of opinion. [Lord Acton]

To them [Greece and Rome], indeed, may be tracked nearly all the errors that are undermining political society—Communism, Utilitarianism, the confusion between tyranny and authority, and between lawlessness and freedom. [Lord Acton]

It followed that the sovereign people had a right to do whatever was within its power, and was bound by no rule of right and wrong but its own judgment of expediency. On a memorable occasion the assembled Athenians declared it monstrous that they should be prevented from doing whatever they chose. No force that existed could restrain them; and they resolved that no duty should restrain them, and that they would be bound by no laws that were not of their own making. In this way the emancipated people of Athens became a tyrant;

IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America

When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:

For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.

Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States, that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. — And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.

— John Hancock

New Hampshire:Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton

Massachusetts:John Hancock, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry

Rhode Island:Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery

Connecticut:Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott

New York:William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris

New Jersey:Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark

Pennsylvania:Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross

Delaware:Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean

Maryland:Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton

Virginia:George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton

North Carolina:William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn

South Carolina:Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton

Georgia:Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton