The Environmental Performance of Adobe Construction: A Case Study in a Typical Traditional Mexican House

AA SED MSc/MArch Sustainable Environmental Design 2014-15Term 1 Research PaperArchitectural Association School of ArchitectureGraduate SchoolDaniel Zepeda Rivas

The Environmental Performance of Adobe Construction: A Case Study in a Typical Traditional Mexican House

January 2015

Authorship Declaration Form AA SED ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION GRADUATE SCHOOL

PROGR AMME: MSc / MArch SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN 2014-15

SUBMISSION RESEARCH PAPER 1

TITLE : THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF ADOBE CONSTRUCTION: A CASE STUDY IN A TYPICAL TRADITIONAL MEXICAN HOUSE

NUMBER OF WORDS: 3022 (excluding footnotes and references) STUDENT NAME: DANIEL ZEPEDA RIVAS

DECLARATION:

I certify that the contents of this document are entirely my own work and that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of others is duly acknowledged. Signature: Date: 16 January 2015

Abstract

The purpose of this research is to analyse the thermal performance of an adobe construction through a case study of a

Mexican traditional adobe house in the town of Ejutla in the state of Jalisco in Mexico. The historical relevant data of the

town is explained as well as the general and specific physical and climatological conditions of it covering the elements

and the phenomena they create. The different aspects of the specific house of the case study were also analysed

covering the construction specifications, architectonical layout and their interaction and performance in the

environment. The thermal performance of the subject was calculated through soft computations and fieldwork using

dataloggers.

Conclusions were made stablishing connections between the physical specification, soft computations and fieldwork.

The results and the qualitative and quantitative aspects of them are explain according the basic concepts of building

physics.

Table of contents

Index of figures

Introduction 01

Ejutla: Where the water flows 03

The Mexican traditional courtyard house as a case study 09

The thermal performance of a Mexican traditional adobe house 13

Conclusions 15

References 17

AA SED Architectural Association School of Architecture MArch Sustainable Environmental Design 2014-15

Term 1 Research Paper - Daniel Zepeda Rivas

Introduction

While in most developed countries, especially in those in Western Europe, the constant emergence of new materials and construction systems is a common subject, meanwhile in rural areas of Latin America; all over from the south of the united states to the Patagonia construction systems in praxis have not change so much since the discovery of the new world. Modernization in construction systems seems to be only somehow contained within the biggest urban centres of each country. Even though the answer to this last statement seems to be a complicated subject due to the involvement of many influential specific local conditions such as economics, social, political and cultural realities the in reality ancient traditional construction systems such as cub, stone or adobe are still used.

The intention to focus this paper in a rural area of Mexico and therefore Latin America comes as a consequence of a concern of the current precarious dwelling conditions in Mexican rural areas and the lack of applied information in the subject is highly noticeable within the newer local construction tendencies show a new tendency where is pretended to build in rural areas with the same technics and materials used in urban areas. The main problem within this new trend it is neither the sudden loss of regionalism values nor the economic cost of the constructions themselves. The real future problem is that by bringing the new construction technics we are indirectly bringing in the problems of those constructions in urban areas such as the need of heating on the winter and the need of air conditioner on spring. All these by unconscious measurements such as the indiscriminate application of glazing areas. Which in the Latin American context is more expensive than a regular tradition masonry wall. Generally speaking the main concern is the future projection of the increase of consumption of more non-renewable energy in locations where it was not consumed because there was no need.

In the other hand the constantly growing population within a developed country with several dwelling problems such as Mexico brings as a latent and continuous problem within the lack of economic resources and sustainable projects to provide a quality dwelling. A big part of this Problem could be solved by the implementation of more affordable construction systems and materials.

The main propose of the present research is to analyse the thermal capabilities of adobe and the possibilities with it taking in consideration the ease in which it could be self-fabricated at a very low cost and therefore dwellings can be also self-constructed. All this under the question: Is the performance of adobe Mexican traditional constructions with in comfort zone on yearly average?

01



Tropic of Cancer

Equator

Mexico Ejutla, Jalisco

1954'N 10409'W

500m500m500m0m0m0m 125m125m125m

Ejutla: (org. from Nahuatl Auxtla) Where the water flows.

Ejutla is a town in Mexico in the state of Jalisco. It is around 140 kilometres away from the west coast and it is located on an altitude of 1,500 meters above mean sea level. It was stablished on the following years after the conquest of Mexico while indigenous groups sought refuge on the mountains. The location was chosen considering the proximity with the river and the inaccessible of the land (Government of the state of Jalisco 2014 ) (figure 1).

The singular geographical location and the surrounding physical conditions of the context surrounding the town generate a set of specific conditions creating some sort of rural natural microclimate. The town is surrounded by high mountains leaving as an access a single open gap towards south east of it. Where the entrance to the town is located (figure 2). Meanwhile in the surrounding areas prevail conditions within the same range such as wind and temperature, in Ejutla conditions vary due to the geographical confinement of the town, most of the time affecting by decreasing the wind speed and rinsing the mean local temperature (figures 3.1 and 3.2). The local natural conditions (figure 4) are the typical conditions within biomes contained inside the tropics of the American Continent. Due to altitude, vegetation and distance to the ocean conditions are always fluctuating and they tend to encompass a wide range.

Figure 1. Location map

Figure 2. Aerial view of Ejutla. (Source: google earth)

03



322824201612

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During the year temperatures can fluctuate from around 5 to 12 K (figures 5 and 6) being sometimes above comfort band during the day and below comfort band during the night. The main reason for this fluctuations are the high insolation levels (figure 7) and the radiation provided with it (figures 8 and 9). Another reason that intervenes is the rain and the amount of it during the year it rains during three seasons and during one out of those three seasons rain is very copious and constant (figure 10).

As a result of the rain vegetation grows during most part of the year enlarging the mean humidity levels during all year long keeping the landscape green most of time (figures 11 and 12).Taking in consideration the town only occupies an small portion on land which is the valley at the bottom of the mountains a microclimate created an heat island is created. Most of the town's constructions had prevail for the last couple of centuries (figures 13,14 and 15) and most of the new constructions (such as the one analysed in this paper) were refurbished or rebuilt with the traditional construction methods.

Before the conquest of Mexico vernacular architecture was mainly composed cob and stone buildings (Romero, 1994) Adobe was introduced during the conquest and it was quickly adopted in view of the similarity with the previous system and taking in consideration functional advantages over cob and stone buildings (Woolley, 2006) it is stated by previous researches that cob and adobe held no significant differences regarding thermal capabilities and the proliferation of adobe it is mainly attributed to the benefits of the thermal mass it provides reducing the thermal fluctuations in the indoors. (Asquinth, 2005) In the other hand the economical factor is also a determining factor specially in a developing country. Consequently of the low cost and the ease of its production, over the years it have been and still is the most used construction material and technique on rural areas in Mexico. Therefore speaking of larger areas occupied by urban blocks made of adobe constructions among the concrete sidewalks and roads made of stone within town settlements small rural heat islands are created like the one where this investigation subject is located. In this case study the heat island phenomenon is even more notorious due to the physical conditions created by the perimeter surrounded by mountains acting as a blockage against strong winds decreasing the time rate of heat loss.

Figure 3.2. View of Ejutla from the mountains from west to east Figure 3.1. View of Ejutla from the mountains from northwest to southeast

Figure 4. General climatic conditions of Ejutla, Jalisco.

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Sunshine duration [h] Astronomical sunshine duration [h]

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Figure 5. Mean daily maximum and minimum temperature. Data interpolated from surrounding stations. (source: meteonorm v7)


30

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ture

[C

]

Figure 6. Mean Monthly maximum and minimum temperature. Data interpolated from surrounding stations. (source: meteonorm v7)

Figure 7. Mean Monthly Sunshine duration temperature. Data interpolated from surrounding stations. (source: meteonorm v7)

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Figure 8. Mean Monthly solar radiation. Data interpolated from surrounding stations. (source: meteonorm v7)


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Figure 9. Mean Daily global radiation. Data interpolated from surrounding stations. (source: meteonorm v7)

Figure 10. Mean monthly precipitation. Data interpolated from surrounding stations. (source: meteonrom v7)

Figure 11. Prevailing winds. Data interpolated from surrounding stations. (source meteonorm v7)

Figure 12. Psychometric chart with comfort band on red. Data interpolated from surrounding stations. (source meteonorm v7)

07



Figure 14. View of the main street of the town heading the east outer limits of the town.

Figure 13. View of the main street of the town heading the north outer limits of the town.

Figure 15. View of the main street of the town heading the west outer limits of the town.

The Mexican traditional courtyard house as a case study

As a result of the European heritage during the conquest and the climatic conditions of the land, the central roman courtyard housing configuration was brought and adopted all over Latin America and it still prevails. In Mexico it was combined with adobe and regional customs and came out as the Mexican traditional courtyard house. Because of the advantages it provides regarding functionality and within the economics the Mexican traditional courtyard configuration it is still used mostly in rural areas where traditions and customs prevail even though the new construction techniques and the modernity of our times. (Smith,1967)

It is impossible to speak of Mexican traditional rural houses without speaking of adobe and the traditional construction systems. The average adobe brick measures 10x15x30 due to the ease of the method of elaboration in which measures can vary depending of the criteria of the fabricant who in order to fabricate the bricks first creates his own molds made of timber there is a variance range of measures among the different fabricants of the product (Romero, 1994). The bricks that comprise the subject analysed in this investigation were manufactured during different times but most of them with the previous mentioned measures. The traditional criteria for the construction of a wall followed as a thumb rule in these sort of constructions states that the walls composing the building envelope must be built with a Flemish bond configuration delivering a wall width that goes from 30 to 60 centimetres while the inside walls or load bearing walls of it must be built with an English bond configuration delivering a wall width that goes from 15 to 30 centimetres. The house used as a subject of this research follows the traditional criteria whereas the building envelope walls are 60cm width and the indoor load bearing walls are 20cm width. All walls are made of adobe with an external sand based mortar rendering on both sides with an average thick of 2.5 centimetres (figure 16).

Figure 16. Ground level of the house used as a subject

09



Specifically speaking of the research subject. The height and construction system of the roofs are also constructed considering the severity of the weather through the year keeping in mind spring season as warmest season with temperatures above 30 with a monthly mean irradiance of global radiation horizontal of nearly 300 W/m and the amount of precipitation of above 250 mm during summer months when is the rain season. Roofs are constructed with a one way slope of 30% where in the top of it counterposed ceramic shingles of 45x22x12 rest on plain ceramic tiles of 60x30x2 glued with concrete based mortar and all these are rested on a timber structure supported by walls or columns. Depending of the width of the space the lower end has a height of 2.7m and the higher part around 5.0m. (Figure 16). Thanks to the pronounced slope of the roof rain is naturally drained by gravity to the lower part of the roof without the need of sealing products therefore decreasing and almost disappearing the need of maintenance.

Window openings are done in a high vertical layout to provide natural illumination and ventilation during daytime and ventilation during night time. The openings were done keeping a window to floor ratio below 10% providing cross ventilation when possible as a consequence of the general layout of the house and the land. On previous times due to the high cost of glass and complications regarding transport crystal was not used on windows and it was rarely used at all on settlements like the one in this research. Only wooden night shutters were used and they were divided in order to provide adaptive opportunities to the occupants. Nowadays fixed frames on windows are still rarely used, wooden frames are still used and they are wooden night shutters fractionated with operable smaller windows with crystal (figure 17).

Speaking of the Mexican traditional courtyard layout, it provides a stepped exposure surrounding the courtyard. Where the courtyard is always in the middle and around it depending of the land or on the architectonical layout of the house the construction surrounds the courtyard in a complete perimetric way, or in a U shape or on an L shape as it is the case of the research subject. The immediate space of to the courtyard is mostly an open roofed corridor and then after the corridor are the main sheltered habitable spaces such as kitchen, living room, dining room and bedrooms. Other spaces such as washrooms, warehouses and pantries sometimes are in direct contact with the courtyard (Figures 18,19 and 20).

Figure 16. View of the roof tiles of the house from the second floor.

Figure 17. View of the closed night shutters of the bedroom window.

Figure 18. View of the west corridor of the house.

Figure 19. View of the south corridor of the house.

Figure 20. View of the courtyard of the house.

11



The thermal performance of a Mexican traditional adobe house.

After analysing on site the physical qualities of the subject of study some values where assumed (Szokolay, 2004) in order to measure the thermal capacity and therefore performance of them. Soft computations where done in order to determine the thermal transmittance and the heating storage capacity of the envelope (tables 1 and 2). The soft computations were calculated out of the thickness of the elements measured on site and the thermal conductivity (Szokolay, 2004) of each element on the construction. Thus a U value for each part was calculated. After the calculations were done the lowest U value was from the Adobe exterior walls having a total U=0.778 as a result, the calculated value for the room was U=2.08 and the calculated value for the wooden night shutters and doors was U=5.4. The thermal storage capacity of each part is hierarchized in the same previous order.

Roof's soft computation Tickness Conductivity Resistance

m w/mK mK/m 1. Inside surface resistance - - 0.1252. Ceramic shingles 0.03 0.4 0.0753. Air gap - - 0.184. Flat ceramic tile 0.02 0.4 0.055. Outside surface resistance - - 0.05

R= 0.48 m K/WU= 2.08 W/m K

Walls' soft computation Tickness Conductivity Resistance

m w/mK mK/m 1. Inside surface resistance - - 0.1252. Inside rendering (sand based) 0.02 0.71 0.0283. Adobe brick 0.6 0.57 1.0534. Outside rendering (sand based) 0.02 0.71 0.0285. Outside surface resistance - - 0.05

R= 1.284 m K/WU= 0.78 W/m K

Element

Element

In order to test step by step and discover the real influence of the different constructive elements that take place within the thermal performance of the house three dataloggers where placed on the site (figure 21). The first one was placed in a single bedroom (figure 22) with a floor to ceiling high of 2.70m. Which is a completely sheltered area with a door, one window and a second story with bedrooms above it (figure 23). During daytime the door and windows were half open and during night time they were completely close. (figure 24) The bedroom was in use by two persons on their early thirties. The room was oddly used only for a time lapse from around 8:00am to 3:00pm. The second datalogger was placed on a semi-sheltered area (figure 25) at the end of the corridor that is used as a family or Television room. It also has the same second story with bedrooms on top of it. It is described as semi-sheltered because of has 5 out of the 6 possible walls. The third datalogger was placed on the centre of the courtyard amidst of vegetation carefully protected from direct solar radiation 1.5meters above the ground level (figure 20).

The data was gathered and analysed was cross referenced with the weather data obtained from the two nearest weather stations. Because of the remoteness of the location there is not a weather station near the site, thus the weather data was obtained from the two nearest weather stations belonging to the two closest urban areas. One in the west coastal city of Puerto Vallarta 0.3 kilometres away from the sea with an altitude of 15 meters above mean sea level, located135 kilometres to the northeast of Ejutla and the other one in Guadalajara, the capital city of the state which is 195 kilometres away from the sea with an altitude of 1,700 meters above sea level and located 115 kilometres to the northwest of Ejutla. Due to the distance and the specific contextual setting of the location of the analysed site specifically regarding the mountains around it and the phenomena they create; the weather data out of these stations can only be taken in consideration as reference of the surrounding conditions. After computing the readings obtained from the dataloggers it can be infer the performance of the two sheltered spaces comparing it with the performance of the external space. It can also be inferred more information an it can be created idea about the conditions of the microclimate created by the natural geophysical circumstances and the heat island of the urban area covered by the town (figure 26 and table 03).

Table 01. Roof's soft computation

Table 02. Walls' soft computation

13



Courtyard

Entrance Hall

Kitchen

Datalogger 03 Courtyard

Datalogger 02 T.V. Room

Datalogger 01 Bedroom

Figure 21. Plan of the house with the location of the dataloggers.

Figure 22. View of the bedroom where the datalogger was placed. Figure 23. View of the second storey of the house.

Figure 24. View of the door and the bedroom with open doors and open windows.

Figure 25. View of the TV room where the datalogger was placed.

Conclusion

As a result of the fieldwork and the soft calculations it can be inferred that Adobe walls are still used because of the high mass thermal capabilities of them. In which combined with the other elements such as windows, night shutters, doors and roofs the physical environment built of the users becomes balanced and harmonized according to the conditions where the constructions are located. Elements such as doors and windows provides adaptive opportunities to the users allowing them to manipulate the conditions and therefore the heat loss and heat gains coefficients. (Yannas, 2013)

On sheltered spaces during the cold season keeping the windows and doors closed, solar heat gains are gathered during the day, mainly through the tiles of the roof as a reaction of its horizontal orientation, then due to the physical qualities of the construction of the roof it absorbs the radiation heat waves from the sun and it transmits them through the materials in the construction by conductivity. Heat also gets irradiated by convection to the surrounding elements, therefore the adobe walls, furniture, indoor air space and floor heat up and store the heat during the day and it all gets liberated during the night creating an indoor microclimate minimizing the temperature fluctuations keeping the temperature readings flat with in comfort band. During the warm seasons of the year the heat gains get dissipated mainly through ventilation during daytime and during night time through the roof as well as the doors and windows become sources of heat loss irradiating the heat to the air and then to the outdoor. (figure 26 and table 03)

Speaking of numbers. On the bedroom during day time dataloggers (datalogger number 1 on the completely sheltered space) registered a temperature swing of 13K between the bedroom and the courtyard (datalogger number 3 on the completely exposed unsheltered space) at the coldest point of the night and meanwhile during the warmest part of the day a swing of 4K compared to the other datalogger on the TV room during day time dataloggers (datalogger number 2 on the semi sheltered space) registered a temperature swing of 11K between the TV room and the courtyard at the warmest part of the daytime meanwhile during coldest point of the night a swing of 3K.

Speaking of typological qualities of the house. It can inferred that in addition to the thermal mass the house typology with a courtyard on the middle provides enclosure enough to store heat during cold seasons and dissipate heat during warm seasons providing to the user a range of specific adaptive opportunities in different spaces of the house meanwhile the multifunctional nature of the open spaces surrounding the courtyard become as well adaptive opportunities themselves.

Figure 26. Computed data from dataloggers with combined with weather stations. 15



Station 01 Station 02 0.3Km from

sea195Km from

sea05/01/2015 20:30 20.497 C 20.272 C 20.503 C 24.600 C 14.000 C 05/01/2015 20:00 005/01/2015 21:30 20.388 C 19.773 C 18.523 C 24.300 C 12.000 C 05/01/2015 21:00 005/01/2015 22:30 20.477 C 19.653 C 17.943 C 24.100 C 10.000 C 05/01/2015 22:00 005/01/2015 23:30 20.473 C 19.469 C 17.447 C 23.500 C 11.000 C 05/01/2015 23:00 006/01/2015 00:30 20.500 C 19.468 C 17.874 C 23.000 C 12.000 C 06/01/2015 00:00 006/01/2015 01:30 20.529 C 19.401 C 17.718 C 22.600 C 13.000 C 06/01/2015 01:00 006/01/2015 02:30 20.525 C 19.318 C 17.632 C 22.000 C 13.000 C 06/01/2015 02:00 006/01/2015 03:30 20.495 C 19.174 C 17.540 C 22.000 C 11.000 C 06/01/2015 03:00 006/01/2015 04:30 20.451 C 19.014 C 16.819 C 22.000 C 10.000 C 06/01/2015 04:00 006/01/2015 05:30 20.400 C 18.782 C 16.398 C 22.000 C 10.000 C 06/01/2015 05:00 006/01/2015 06:30 20.339 C 18.702 C 16.668 C 21.800 C 9.000 C 06/01/2015 06:00 006/01/2015 07:30 20.256 C 18.445 C 16.086 C 21.700 C 9.000 C 06/01/2015 07:00 406/01/2015 08:30 19.893 C 18.616 C 17.393 C 22.300 C 12.000 C 06/01/2015 08:00 3206/01/2015 09:30 19.982 C 18.968 C 18.603 C 24.500 C 14.000 C 06/01/2015 09:00 8806/01/2015 10:30 20.017 C 19.234 C 19.077 C 29.000 C 15.000 C 06/01/2015 10:00 11406/01/2015 11:30 20.102 C 20.817 C 23.298 C 28.000 C 17.000 C 06/01/2015 11:00 21606/01/2015 12:30 20.266 C 21.885 C 27.221 C 28.000 C 19.000 C 06/01/2015 12:00 31606/01/2015 13:30 20.485 C 22.415 C 31.836 C 28.000 C 20.000 C 06/01/2015 13:00 25106/01/2015 14:30 20.683 C 23.155 C 33.860 C 29.000 C 21.000 C 06/01/2015 14:00 23006/01/2015 15:30 21.080 C 23.531 C 32.495 C 30.000 C 23.000 C 06/01/2015 15:00 19206/01/2015 16:30 21.832 C 23.649 C 34.815 C 29.000 C 23.000 C 06/01/2015 16:00 15306/01/2015 17:30 21.807 C 23.386 C 26.602 C 27.700 C 22.000 C 06/01/2015 17:00 4406/01/2015 18:30 21.741 C 22.894 C 23.641 C 26.900 C 18.000 C 06/01/2015 18:00 006/01/2015 19:30 21.636 C 22.245 C 21.745 C 26.000 C 15.000 C 06/01/2015 19:00 006/01/2015 20:30 21.464 C 21.620 C 20.200 C 25.000 C 16.000 C 06/01/2015 20:00 006/01/2015 21:30 21.158 C 21.065 C 19.104 C 24.000 C 15.000 C 06/01/2015 21:00 006/01/2015 22:30 21.212 C 20.996 C 19.470 C 23.000 C 15.000 C 06/01/2015 22:00 006/01/2015 23:30 21.070 C 20.394 C 18.361 C 22.000 C 13.000 C 06/01/2015 23:00 007/01/2015 00:30 20.589 C 19.805 C 17.419 C 22.000 C 12.000 C 07/01/2015 00:00 007/01/2015 01:30 20.283 C 19.391 C 16.819 C 21.000 C 12.000 C 07/01/2015 01:00 007/01/2015 02:30 20.082 C 19.120 C 16.520 C 21.000 C 13.000 C 07/01/2015 02:00 007/01/2015 03:30 19.641 C 18.452 C 15.498 C 20.000 C 12.000 C 07/01/2015 03:00 007/01/2015 04:30 20.272 C 18.552 C 15.913 C 20.000 C 10.000 C 07/01/2015 04:00 007/01/2015 05:30 20.585 C 18.623 C 16.244 C 20.000 C 10.000 C 07/01/2015 05:00 007/01/2015 06:30 20.703 C 19.218 C 17.701 C 21.000 C 10.000 C 07/01/2015 06:00 007/01/2015 07:30 20.789 C 19.285 C 17.726 C 20.000 C 9.000 C 07/01/2015 07:00 607/01/2015 08:30 20.824 C 27.822 C 19.137 C 20.000 C 13.000 C 07/01/2015 08:00 4407/01/2015 09:30 20.868 C 25.279 C 20.956 C 22.000 C 17.000 C 07/01/2015 09:00 13607/01/2015 10:30 20.986 C 23.875 C 24.066 C 25.000 C 19.000 C 07/01/2015 10:00 20707/01/2015 11:30 21.161 C 23.991 C 26.944 C 25.000 C 22.000 C 07/01/2015 11:00 25007/01/2015 12:30 21.378 C 24.282 C 32.599 C 26.000 C 23.000 C 07/01/2015 12:00 313

Hour w/mDate Time Datalogger 01 Bedroom

Datalogger 02 TV Room

Datalogger 03 Courtyard

Date

Table 03. Datalogger's and weather station's data.

17

References

Government of the state of Jalisco (2014) Governmental Services [Online]. Available at www.jalisco.gob.mx/es/jalisco/municipios/ejutla (Accessed 5 January 2015)

Woolley, T. (2006) Natural Building. A guide to materials and techniques. The Crowood press.

Romero, O., Larking (1994), D. Adobe: Building and living with earth. Sfera/Garzanti, Milan.

Asquinth, L., Vellinga, M. (2005) Vernacular Architecture in the 21st Century: Theory, Education and Practice. Taylor & Francis.

Smith, C., (1967) Builders in the sun: five Mexican architects. New York architectural book.

Szokolay, S.(2003) Introduction to architectural science. Routledge.

Yannas, S. (2013). Adaptive Architecturing. Architecture and Energy. Routledge.

Weber, w. And S. Yannas (Eds 2013). Lessons from vernacular Architecture. EarthScan/Routledge.

Berge, B. (2009). The Ecology of Building Materials. Architectural press.

De Wit, Martin H. (2004) Built environments and environmental buildings. International PLEA Conference (21st : 2004 : Eindhoven, Netherlands).

Diaz, Camilo. (1994) Optimisation of Thermal Mass for indoor Cooling. PhD Dissertation. Environment & Energy studies programme, AA Graduate School , London.

Yannas, S. (Ed. 2000) Designing for summer comfort. EC Altener Programme. Environment and Energy Studies Programme, AA Graduate School, London. ASHRAE. Handbook of fundamentals. American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers.



http://www.jalisco.gob.mx/es/jalisco/municipios/ejutla

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The Environmental Performance of Adobe Construction: A Case Study in a Typical Traditional Mexican House