The End of Colonialism in AfricaReview of Issues

Problems

Taxation

Land Alienation

Violence

Exploitation

Divide and Rule Tactics

Laws and regulations restricting rights of Africans

Impact of Education post WWI

Increased Nationalism

The End of Colonialism in AfricaReview of Issues

Impact of WWII

Military Service

Raw materials and war effort

Growing gap between rich and poor

White Settlers

South Africa

Smuts and Britain

1948 elections. D.F. Malan

Atlantic Charter- Clause Three

“We (Britain and US) respect the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self-government restored to those who had it forcibly taken from them”

Cost of the war and Empire

Decolonization in Africa

End of Colonialism in North Africa

Road to independence in North and Northeast Africa

Egypt during the war

1936 agreement

British troops left in 1946

Egypt independent- under King Farouk

Problems

Nationalism

Creation of Israel

1948 Arab-Israeli War

Corrupt government

1951 declaration – 1936 agreement voided

July 23, 1952 Coup

Col. Gamal Abdul Nasser

General Neguib

Egypt

Gamal Nasser

End of Colonialism in North Africa

Egypt and the Sudan

British forced to allow elections in Sudan in January 1956

Neguib ousted in 1954, Nasser in complete control

Foreign aid

Seizure of Suez Canal 1956

Sir Anthony Eden- PM Britain- resigns

Problems in Sudan

1958 Military Coup

General Abboud

Internal divisions

Religious, ethnic, geographical

“Anyanya”- Snake Poison formed in 1963- Southern Sudanese military- Non Muslim

Civil War

Sudan

Anthony Eden, PM Britain

General Abboud

End of Colonialism in North Africa

The Horn of Africa

Ethiopia and WWII

Haile Selassie restored in 1942

Pan-African Freedom Movement of East and Central Africa 1962

British Somaliland to Somalia in 1960 Military Coup 1969

General Siad Barre “

1963 OAU Organization of African Union

Eritrea

Problems, Independence or Ethiopian province, or complete division

Ethiopia win 1952- Eritrea internal independence

Muslim Eritrean Liberation Movement

Eritrean Peoples Liberation Front

H.I.M. Haile Selassie

Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia

General Siad Barre

End of Colonialism in North Africa

Libya

Independence resulted from WWII

Allies- Sayyed Idris of Sansui Brotherhood

Italy out 1943- Idris “king of Libya”

Officially independent 1951

Oil discovered 1965

Military Coup 1969 Col. Muhamar Gadhafi- 27yrs

Morocco

1953- France deposed Sultan Muhammad V- exiled to Corsica and Madagascar

War vs. Army of Liberation

Muhammad V returns 1955

Independence granted 1956

Issue with Rio de Oro and Mauritania - Polisario and partition 1979

Muhamar Gadhafi

Morocco, Western Sahara

End of Colonialism in North Africa

Tunisia

Independent 1962 after ten year long war between France and nationalist under

Habib Bourgiba’s nationalist Neo-Destour Party

France still influential

Algeria- Nasty struggle

Muslims vs. Settlers in Setif

Impact of Indo-China 1945-1953

October 1954- Algerian nationalist form National Liberation Front (FLN)

Revolt launched 1 November 1954, lasts 8 years

heavy cost in lives

De Gaulle and FLN made a deal in 1962

independence granted

Civil War- Muhammad Ben Bella

Coup 1965 under Col. Boumedienne

Algeria and Tunisia

End of Colonialism in Sub-Saharan Africa

Pan-African movement

W.E.B. Dubois

Marcus Garvey

Kwame Nkrumah and the Gold Coast

1935-1945 Lincoln University in Pennsylvania

1945- Manchester- Fifth Pan-African Congress

Jomo Kenyatta- Kenya

Leopold Senghor- Senegal

Felix Houphouet-Boigny- Cote d’Ivoire

PAC Resolution

“We are determined to be free. We want education. We want the right to earn a decent living, the right to express our thoughts and emotions, to adopt and create forms of beauty. We demand for Black Africa autonomy and independence. We will fight in every way we can for freedom, democracy and social betterment.”

Marcus Garvey

Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana

Jomo Kenyatta, Leopold Senghor, Felix Houphouet-Boigny

Ghana

End of Colonialism in Sub-Saharan Africa- Ghana

The United Gold Coast Convention 1947

issue- 1946 Constitution and African representation in LegCo

Elected vs. appointed

Accra riots February 1948

response and spread

Nkrumah arrested

Forms the radical Convention People’s Party (CPP) upon release several months later

1951 elections and results

Negotiations with Gov. Arden-Clarke

1954 Elections

Nkrumah is PM- Gold Coast has internal self-rule

1957 Ghana is independent with Nkrumah as head of state

Problems

National Liberation Movement (NLM)- Asante peoples

End of Colonialism in Sub-Saharan Africa

Nigeria

Problems

ethnic, religious divisions

North vs. South

National Congress of Nigeria and Cameroons- formed 1944

Nnamdi Azikiwe

Yoruba Action Group (YAG) Formed 1949

Northern Peoples Congress (NPC)- largely Fulani/Hausa formed 1949

Which Direction? 1. one state 2. 2-3 states 3. Federal system

Independence October 1960- under Abubakar Tafawa Balewa

Tensions grow

Sierra Leone – 1961

Gambia- 1965- issue of Senegal

Nigeria

Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa

Sierra Leone, Gambia, Senegal

Independence in French West Africa

French Assimilation

1946 Reforms

Felix Houphouet-Boigny- Cote d’Ivoire

Senegal

Leopold Senghor

Bloc Democratique Senegalais 1948

1951 elections

French and African relations

internal self-rule rule 1956

Federalism vs. nationalism

De Gaulle in power 1958

the “yes” or “no” to the referendum

Cote d’Ivoire

Felix Houphouet-Boigny

Sierra Leone, Gambia, Senegal

Leopold Senghor of Senegal

French West Africa and British East Africa

Guinea

Sekou Toure led Guinea to vote no in1958 and becomes First French colony

To attain independence

By 1960- The year of independence from France

13 French West African Colonies get independence

Independence in British East Africa

Tanganyika- Mandate to protectorate

Nationalism

1951 Meru protest

Tanganyikan African Association (TAA)

Julius Nyerere forms Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) 1954

Uses Kiswahili = power and unity

Multi-racial constitution 1956

Guinea- Sekou Toure

Tanganyika

Julius Nyerere

British East AfricaTANU and 1958 elections

Tanganyika Independence 1961 under Julius Nyerere and TANU

Zanzibar – Independence December 1963 under the Sultan of Zanzibar

Sultan overthrown a few weeks later

April 1964- Tanganyika and Zanzibar unite into Republic of Tanzania

Independence for Uganda

Buganda and Uganda- the Legacy of “Indirect Rule”

The role of the Kabaka

Kabaka Mutesa II

1961 Independence- the strange place of Buganda and role of Kabaka

Political divisions

Kabaka Yekka (King Alone) vs. Uganda People’s Congress-

Milton Obote- PM 1962

Uganda

Kabaka Mutesa II

Milton Obote

British East AfricaUganda

April 1966- Obote’s Constitution

May 1966- the storming of the Kabaka’s palace

Kabaka Mutesa II in exile

Col. Idi Amin January 1971, Coup, Amin in power

Civil war

Idi Amin

Idi Amin

Decolonization in KenyaDevonshire White Paper 1923

Harry Thuku

appointed to LegCO in late 1940s

Mau Mau Rebellion

Roots: Kikuyu, Embu, Meru squatters in White Highlands

Ejected from farms in late 1930s

Overcrowding reserves

joblessness in Nairobi

Mau Mau started in early 1940s

taking of Oaths

KAU and Kenyatta’s response

Gov. Philip Mitchell

Kenyatta finally denounced Mau Mau in August 1952 at speech in Kiambu

Mau Mau in Kenya

Mau Mau fighters

Gov. Sir Philip Mitchell

Mau Mau Detainees

Mau Mau Detainees

KenyaViolence erupts in 1952 and got worse

focused on Central Province, Rift Valley and Nairobi

Mitchell retire early 1952, replaced by Sir Evelyn Baring

The assassination of Chief Waruhiu

Violence against Europeans increased

Baring declared “State of Emergency” in October 1952

Kenyatta arrested on October 20,1952- sent to prison camp in NFD

Land Freedom Army (LFA) picked up arms and moved to the Aberdare Mountains and Mau Forest

Major General Erskine commander of the repressive military containment

Gov. Sir Evelyn Baring

General Erskine

KenyaScapegoats: Kenyatta and KAUApril 1953,Kenyatta and 8 KAU leaders tried for inciting Mau Mau and found guilty

“Operation Anvil”- April 1954

Mau Mau fizzles out late 1955-early 1956Dedan KimathiWaruhiu Itote: aka “General China”Stanley Mathenge

Emergency lifted 1959Impact of Mau Mau

20 million pounds used to crash the rebellion• 500+ African KAR and Police, 63 British Soldiers, 3 Indians- slightly more

wounded• Mau Mau supporters-10,500 killed, 5,000 captured or surrendered, 126,000

arrested and/or detained (mostly Kikuyu from Nairobi Area)• Deaths -Civilians: 2700 killed or wounded African (some estimates as high

as 50,000), 60 Asians, 60 Europeans

Dedan Kimathi

Waruhiu Itote aka. “General China”

KenyaAlan Lennox-Boyd replaced as Colonial Secretary in 1959 by

Iain McLeod

Changes

PM Harold Macmillian (1957-1963)• Made the “Wind of Change” speech, 3 February 1960 to SA Parliament

“The wind of change is blowing through this continent. Whether we like it or not, this growth of national consciousness is a political fact.”

Lancaster House Meetings 1960, 1962, 1963

Kenyan African Political Parties in 1960s

KANU (Kenya African National Union)- Kenyatta – Kikuyu, Embu, Meru

KADU (Kenya African Democratic Union)- Oginga Odinga, Tom Mboya

Kenyatta released in 1961

12 December 1963- Kenya independent. Kenyatta Pres. Many problems

PM Harold Macmillian

Jomo Kenyatta

Oginga Odinga

Tom Mboya

Kenyatta and Mboya

Mboya Speech 1963?

Belgian CongoLegacy of Belgian rule

No African Political parties until 1957

No African Newspapers until 1957

Elections 1957-1958

MNC- Congo National Movement

Patrice Lumumba

1959 rallies to riots

May 1960 elections

120 parties, 137 seats

Federalism vs. Centralization

Lumumba as PM and collapse of government- Katanga independence, UN

The Belgian Congo

Patrice Lumumba

Congo, Rwanda and BurundiThe Assassination of Lumumba- November 1960-Jaunuary 1961

Who?

CIA

General Mobutu- November 1965- Mobutu’s bloodless Coup

Rwanda and Burundi

Hutu vs Tutsi aristocracy in colonial period

Hutu response to Rwandan independence in 1962

Burundi- Tutsi remain in power even after independence in 1962

General Mobutu Sese Seko

Rwanda and Burundi

Decolonization in British Central Africa: Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia and Nyaasaland

Independence in British Central Africa

Nyassaland (Malawi)

Northern Rhodesia (Zambia)

Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)

Impact of white settlers

Big issue in Southern Rhodesia

150,000 in 1950

200,000 in 1960

Federation question- starts in 1940s

White domination

African protests:

Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda and Harry Nkumbula

Federation granted in 1953

British Central Africa

Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda

Harry Nkumbula

British central AfricaImpact of Federation

Whites

Africans

African response to Federation:

Miners’ strike in 1956

Southern Rhodesia and Kariba Dam

30,000 Africans displaced

New round of protests

NRANC (Northern Rhodesia African National Congress)- Nkumbula

NAC (Nyasaland African Congress)

British Central AfricaNew Political Parties developed

ZANC (Zambia African National Congress)- Banned in 1959

ZAPU (Zimbabwe African People’s Union)- formed early 1960s by Joshua Nkomo

Macmillian and “Winds of Change Speech”

Federation broke 1963

Zambia and Malawi gain independence in 1964

African majority w/ very small white minority

The case in Southern Rhodesia: Zimbabwe

White domination continues

ZANU (Zimbabwe African National Union) formed in 1963

Ndabaningi Sithole and Robert Mugabe

Ian Smith (Rhodesia Front Party) UDI in November 1965

ZANU commits to armed resistance- civil war breaks out

Joshua Nkomo, founder of ZAPU

Ndabaningi Sithole

Dr.Robert Mugabe

Ian Smith, PM Southern Rhodesia

British Central AfricaFirst clash in Southern Rhodesia- April 1966

Trains with FRELIMO 1971-1972, 1974-1975

Mugabe takes control of ZANU 1975

Soviet backed ZAPU invades in 1977

Smith regime’s response- attack ZANU and ZAPU bases in Mozambique

1978 compromise- Bishop Abel Muzorewa- Zimbabwe-Rhodesia

Rejected by ZANU and ZAPU

December 1979- London agreement

Elections to be held in February 1980

Mugabe and ZANU win- Zimbabwe gains Independence under African majority rule with Mugabe as President

Independence in Portuguese Africa

Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde, Angola, Mozambique

Lead taken by Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde

PAIGC (Party for African Independence in Guinea and Cape Verde)

Formed 1956 by Cape Verdean Nationalist, Amilcar Cabral

1959 dockworkers strikes and harsh crackdown = 50 Africans killed, and spread of protest

Cabral decides on war

War begin 1963 that lasted 10 years

September 1973 PAIGC declares independent state on mainland

Cabral assassinated January 1974 by Portuguese fear of being a communist

Portugal pulls out in September 1974

Why? General Spinola- Military Coup April 1974, didn’t want colonies – need to consolidate his power

Guinea-Bissau

Amilcar Cabral

Portuguese AfricaAngola

MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola)

Formed December 1956 by Agostino Neto

1961 revolt erupts in Luanda and major cities

Revolt spreads to northern Angola

FNLA (National Liberation Front of Angola)- Holden Roberto

War continues until 1975 when independence is won

Big problem in Angola was the intervention of foreign states and Cold War politics

That forced Cuba to rescue Angola

Angola

Agostino Neto

Holden Roberto

Portuguese AfricaForeign intervention in Angola

MPLA did most of fighting – Soviets support

FNLA – based in Zaire – Little fighting until war near end

- Backed by US and Mobutu in Zaire

When war was almost over, FNLA attacks MPLA

Enter UNITA (United National party for the Total Independence of Angola)

Jonas Savimbi – based in eastern Angola – attack MPLA as well

backed by South Africa – Namibia (Southwest Africa)

1974 – UNITA forms anti-MPLA pact with the Portuguese

Portuguese pull out troops in 1975 and civil war erupts

Jonas Savimbi

Portuguese AfricaAngola-

MPLA controlled capital and most rural districts

received small shipment of arms from Guinea-Bissau – early 1975

Independence set for November 1975

South Africa makes a move – invades from Namibia and pushes to Luanda

At same time, US backed FNLA invades from north

supported by troops from Zaire, Portugal and mercenaries

Neto and MPLA declare independence

13,000 Soviet equipped Cuban soldiers arrieve to help restore order

South Africans and FNLA expelled by early 1976 after thrashing by Cuban forces

UNITA retreated to remote hills of southeastern Angola and

continued to fight until 1980s, supported by US money and periodic South African invasions

Portuguese AfricaMozambique-

unified nationalists movements in 1962

FRELIMO (Front for the Liberation of Mozambique) –

- founded in Dar-es-Salaam

September 1964 – FRELIMO leaders declare war on Portugal

Eduardo Mondlane and Samora Machel

Socialist agenda

February 1969 – Mondlane assassinated

Machel takes total control fights

FRELIMO wins independence in 1975

Eduardo Mondlane (L) and Samora Machel (R)

South Africa and Apartheid1910 Act of Union

South Africa has internal self-rule w/ British monarch as nominal head of state

Lasts from 1910 to 1961 (hence loyalty of Botha-Smuts governments during

both world wars)

1910 to 1936 – only very small number of Africans have the right to vote

only in Cape Province and parts of Natal Province

1936 – Law passed – no voting rights for any Africans (despite reservation made by Smuts) – Hard-line, conservative Afrikaners in SA Parliament gain support

Whites retain all power is SA

Gold, Diamonds, manufacturing, self-sufficient

Post-WWII and National Party – politics of fear – “Black domination”

South Africa

South Africa and Apartheid1948 Elections

National Party – 70 seats

Union Party – 65 seats

D.F. Malan and political alliance with conservative Afrikaner parties = total control

Apartheid implemented

Four parts to Apartheid

1. Four races in SA: White, Black, Colored, Indian

2. Whites only “civilized” race and had complete political power over others

3. White interests were always put before African interests

4. All whites, European or Afrikaner, were considered “white”

Africans divided into nine groups

Xhosa, Tswana, Zulu, South Sotho, North Sotho,

Venda, Swazi, Tsonga, Ndebele

Indians considered aliens in SA

D.F. Malan

South Africa and ApartheidThree Phases of Apartheid

- Phase One: started in 1948 with the NP election victory and ended in 1959 when the government introduced separate development and self government for the African reserves…….This is the classical, or BAASSKAAP (White supremacy) phase, during which apartheid ideology became law

– Phase Two: Lasted from 1960 until the early 1970s, and witnessed the implementation of separate development. This period was the high point of the Apartheid state and Afrikaner nationalism…During this phase as well, anti-apartheid organizations adopted violent means for affecting change

– Phase Three: Mid 1970s to 1994. This phase witnessed a shift away from complete racial segregation, the granting of limited political rights to coloreds and Indians, and a relaxation of the color bar in business and industry…..After the mid 1970s, anti-apartheid groups both inside and outside the country put increasing economic and political pressure on the government to change…..Apartheid came to an end, officially, with Nelson Mandela’s election as South African president in 1994

South AfricaApartheid Legislation

Most hated: Bantu Education Act (1953)

ANC (African National Congress founded c. 1912)

Nelson Mandela, Oliver Tambo, Walter Sisulu

“Defiance Campaign” 1952

Crackdown- Most leaders arrested January 1953

“Congress Alliance” 1955 – “Freedom Charter”“SA belongs to all who live in it, Black and White, and that no government can justly claim

authority unless it is based on the will of the people”

Government response – planted “communist document” - 156 arrested and tried for treason

None guilty

Pan African-Congress (PAC) – formed 1959 – Robert Sobukwe

Nelson Mandela

Oliver Tambo

Walter Sisulu

South AfricaFebruary 1960 – Harold Macmillian – “Winds of Change Speech”

March 1960 – Protests

ANC (31st) vs. PAC (21st) – Sobukwe arrested with hundreds of others

Sharpeville massacre

69 killed – 180 wounded

World condemnation

SA govt cracks down harder

ANC and PAC – illegal under Unlawful Organizations Act 1960

Public meetings banned

18,000 arrested – 6,500 remained detained and placed on trial

Sobukwe jailed 3 years on Robben Island

“Umkhonto we Sizwe” (Spear of the Nation) – founded 1960 – Mandela, Tambo, Sisulu

First act of violence- 16 December 1961

Leadership Arrested 1962-1963, trials 1963-1964

South AfricaMandela’s Speech

“During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.”

PM Hendrick Verwoerd (PM 1958-1966) “The Brains of Apartheid”

June 12, 1964, 8 Umkhonto leaders found guilty of sabotage – Included: Mandela, Walter Sisulu, Govan Mbeki, Raymond Mhlaba, Elias Motoaledi,

Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed Kathrada and Dennis Goldberg

• All but Goldberg went to Robben Island

• The men’s defense attorney, Bram Fischer, was later sentenced to life in prison for belonging to the South African Communist Party

Dr. Henrick Verwoerd, PM 1958-1966

South AfricaDuring this mess, SA Parliament passed Bantu-Self Government Act (1959)African independence in 1960 (Congo)Verwoerd calls for vote on separate development

90% of all whites voted52% supported the idea

Commonwealth’s Prime Minister’s Conference – March 1961 – Verwoerd asks for Republic – complaints – denied

May 31,1961 – Verwoerd announced the existence of Republic of South Africa

The Turbulent 1970sBantu Homelands Constitution Act 1971

Government control of everything

Steve Biko and Black Consciousness Movement South African Student Organization (SASO) formed 1969

Steve Biko

South AfricaSteve Biko –

Black Peoples Convention 1972

May 1976 – Archbishop Desmond Tutu warns PM John Vorster

Soweto uprisings

June 16,1976 – 15,000 students of Orlando West Junior Secondary School

Issue: Languages in school instruction

2 killed and demonstration spreads

By years end – 575 dead, 2,389 wounded – thousands more arrested

18 August 1977 – Biko arrested under Terrorism Act

Died 12 September 1977 pushed to fall from 24th floor

Donald Woods

Archbishop Desmond Tutu

PM John Vorster

Soweto Uprisings

South AfricaChanges made to tactics of ANC – bombing campaigns

SA Defense Minister P.W. Botha – militarization

Botha’s “Total Strategy”

“Win the trust and faith of Africans” – “Hearts and Minds?”

Relaxing of Apartheid legislation

- “decolonization” scheduled

Vorester resigns 1978 – P.W. Botha is PM

1979- National press Club meeting in DC, Piet Koornhof – “apartheid is dying”

1983 – Botha announces new Constitution – 3 separate Parliaments

House of Assembly for Whites (178 members)

House of Reps for Colored (85 members) – August 1984

House of Delgates for Indians (45 members) – Sept 1984

UDF – United Democratic Front – boycott elections

P.W. Botha

South AfricaThe end of Apartheid

September 3,1984 Sharpeville again

Necklacing

“Comrades”

the world responds

Order restored by 1987

43 dead, 263 hospitalized

Repeal of Apartheid legislation Most repealed by June 1990

Botha has stroke January 1989

Replaced by F.W. de Klerk

Mandela released 11 February 1990 President 10 May,1994

F.W. de Klerk

Africa 1980-2000Angola

Jonas Savimbi (UNITA) continued his war against the MPLA through 1980-2002 when he was assassinated

Cease fire signed shortly after

3 million dead and a little more than 3 million displaced

The Horn of Africa

September 1974 – Halie Selassie of Ethiopia was deposed

The Derg - Soviet Backed Military government replaced him

Cuban Troops

Derg led by Mengistu Halie Mariam – ruled 1974 to 1991

End of Cold war meant end of Soviet support for Mengistu

Jonas Savimbi

Post independence Political Challenges in Africa 1980-2000

Angola

Jonas Savimbi (UNITA) continued his war against the MPLA through 1980-2002 when he was assassinated

Cease fire signed shortly after

3 million dead and a little more than 3 million displaced

The Horn of Africa

September 1974 – Halie Selassie of Ethiopia was deposed

The Derg - Soviet Backed Military government replaced him

Cuban Troops

Derg led by Mengistu Halie Mariam – ruled 1974 to 1991

End of Cold war meant end of Soviet support for Mengistu

Ethiopia

Mengistu Mariam

Africa 1980-2000Mengistu in Ethiopia

rise of Eritrean nationalism and Tigre nationalism

Mengistu fled to Zimbabwe in 1991

replaced by Meles Zenawi (Tigrean nationalist leader)

1993 – Zenawi recognizes Eritrean independence

1998 – Ethiopian-Eritrean war starts

war is over by end of 1998

30,000 dead

Meles Zenawi

Africa 1980-2000Somalia

begins to tear itself apart in 1980s

Siad Barre loses control

When Mengistu fled Ethiopia in 1991, Barre leaves Somalia for Kenya in 1992

Rise of Warlords in Somalia

Old British Somaliland (north) break away and forms Somaliland

- under the leadership of Muhamed Egal

1992 – serious drought hit Somalia

UN sends relief

Warlords confiscate relief

December 1992 – First US troops arrive in Mogadishu

Somalia

Muhamed Egal

Africa 1980-2000Somalia

Mogadishu

President Bill Clinton

“Black Hawk Down”

American troops pulled out by end of 1994

Total cost of UN Mission – 1.6 Billion

Results – Nothing but pirates

- America reluctant to get involved in Africa again

in

Rwanda, Burundi and the Congo 1990-2000

Tutsi vs. Hutus – Rwanda and Burundi

Following independence – Hutus chased Tutsis out of Rwanda to Uganda

In Burundi – struggle for control, Tutsi aristocracy remained

In 1988 – Tutsi government of Burundi begins killing educated Hutus – threat

War continued to 1993- thousands of Hutu fled to Rwanda, Tanzania and Zaire

Somalia

Rwanda

Africa 1980-2000Rwanda

Hutu controlled government faced war against Tutsi rebels since late 1980s

Based in Uganda

Led by General Paul Kagame

Fought against Milton Obote’s govt in Uganda since 1979

Formed the RPF (Rwandan Patriotic Front) in 1985

Fight Hutu government of Rwanda under Juvenal Habyariman

April 6,1994 – President Habyariman of Rwanda and President Cyprien Ntaryamira

of Burundi were killed when their plane was shot down

while landing in Kigali airport

Who did it?

1. RPF 2. Hutu Military commanders 3. nobody knows

General Paul Kagame

Juvenal Habyariman of Rwanda

Cyprien Ntaryamira of Burundi

Africa 1980-2000Upon the deaths of 2 presidents, Hutu militia, backed by Hutu dominated Rwandan military

started an anti-Tutsi campaign

Rwanda Free Radio & TV of the Thousand Hills

Rise up and kill the Tutsi cockroaches

Interahamwe =More than 800,000 killed over 100 day period between April and July 1994

What could have been done to stop or limit the violence?

UN Commander – General Romeo Dallaire (Canada)

Asked for more troops and change to rules of engagement early April

“Peacekeepers” vs. “Peacemakers”

“Shake Hands with the Devil”

Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Secretary General of UN 1992-1997, does nothing

General Romeo Dallaire

Boutros Boutros-Ghali, UN Sec. General 1992-1997

Africa 1980-2000Clinton Administration

Nothing done – does not use the term genocide until end of May 1994, and never when referring to what was happening in Rwanda

- only gave definition of “genocide”

US Ambassador to UN – Madeleine Albright- did nothing

She actually led efforts to convince the world that what was happening in Rwanda was NOT genocide and worked against greater UN involvement

Later Said to PBS Documentary crew:

“it was a very, very difficult time, and the situation was unclear. You know, in retrospect, it all looks very clear. But when you were [there] at the time, it was unclear about what was happening in Rwanda” – Ghosts of Rwanda – April 2004

US Ambassador to UN, and Later Secretary of State, Madeleine Albright

Africa 1980-2000Albright did not admit it was genocide until after she became Secretary of State

Thousands of Tutsi forced to flee Rwanda

RPF advance ended the killings, July 1994 – Kagame enters Kigali

1-2 million Hutus fled the RPF advance and were pushed by Hutu Military and “Interahamwe”-militia into Kivu province of Zaire

Problems for Hutu refugees

By July 1994 – 1/3 of 7.5 million Rwandans were still alive and living in Rwanda

UN aid begins to arrive in September 1994

Kagame government and Hutus

Rwanda

Africa 1980-2000Impact of Rwanda on Zaire

- Mobutu’s government in decline

Problems

- Rwandan refugees

- Sudanese warlords

- Zairean warlord- Laurent Kabila

- resurge of insurgency started in 1964

In 1997, Kabila pushed hard towards Kinshasa

- reached Kinshasa in May 1997

- help of Ugandan, Rwandan, Burundian and Angolan troops

Mobutu fled to Togo then Morocco where he died a few weeks later

Zaire – Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

Mobutu

Laurent Kabila

Africa 1980-2000Kabila declares Zaire’s got a new name: Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

Problems for Kabila

- Not a capable leader

- very corrupt

- not charismatic as Mobutu

Turned his back on his supporters

In 1999, Rwanda and Uganda support an insurgency against Kabila

- Eastern provinces fall quickly

- Kabila turns to Angola, Zimbabwe and Namibia for help – they all send troops

- Kabila also got help from Sudan and Chad – not much

Basically there were six nations that had armies in DRC

Africa 1980-2000The Congolese Civil War 1999-2011

- raping, pillaging, plundering in the DRC

- Laurent Kabila shot and killed by his bodyguard in early 2001- Replaced by his 29 year old son, Joseph Kabila

Joseph Kabila is nothing like his father

Overhauled governmentWorld Banks gives loan - $400 Million to stabilize DRC

UN and SA (Thabo Mbeki) try to get resolution and end conflictUganda pulls out April 2003

- Lendu and Hema begin fighting- French force sent in to maintain peace

Estimated that 4.7 million died in Congolese Civil War – most since WWII

Joseph Kabila

South African President Thabo Mbeki

UN Secretary General Kofi Annan