The Emotional Intelligence Profile of Academics in a Merger

http://eus.sagepub.com

Education and Urban Society

DOI: 10.1177/0013124504265862 2004; 36; 482 Education and Urban Society

Jacobus G. Maree and Riette J. Eiselen The Emotional Intelligence Profile of Academics in a Merger Setting

http://eus.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/36/4/482 The online version of this article can be found at:

Published by:

http://www.sagepublications.com

can be found at:Education and Urban Society Additional services and information for

http://eus.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Email Alerts:

http://eus.sagepub.com/subscriptions Subscriptions:

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.navReprints:

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.navPermissions:

© 2004 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. by Viorel Nedelcu on November 5, 2007 http://eus.sagepub.comDownloaded from

http://eus.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts

http://eus.sagepub.com/subscriptions

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav


10.1177/0013124504265862ARTICLEEDUCATION AND URBAN SOCIETY / August 2004Maree, Eiselen / EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OF ACADEMICS

THE EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCEPROFILE OF ACADEMICS IN AMERGER SETTING

JACOBUS G. MAREEUniversity of Pretoria

RIETTE J. EISELENRand Afrikaans University

In the past perceived cognitive potential, more than any other factor, was viewed as a predictor fora stable life and future success. The concept of “emotional intelligence” (EI), however, providesa useful instrument to describe the intricate configuration of interrelated factors that play a role inpredicting a person’s success in life. Using the merger between the former Pretoria Teacher’sTraining College and the University of Pretoria as a backdrop, the research reported in this articleattempts to establish the emotional intelligence profiles of academics in a merger setting. Thequalitative section of the research involves a study of the literature on certain aspects of the phe-nomenon “emotional intelligence”, whereas the quantitative part of the research involves the ad-ministration of the BarOn EQ-i™ measure to 53 participants who have all been involved in theabove-mentioned merger. The results of the study provide statistical evidence of how a drasticlife-changing event, such as a “merger” between two higher education institutions, may hamperthe actualization of academics’intellectual potential. The research accentuates the importance oftimeous and continued assessment of the ongoing functioning and well-being of academics whohave been involved in a merger and it underlines the need for tailor-made training programs thatmay help improve the emotional skills and functioning of such academics.

Keywords: emotional intelligence and merger (setting)

The concept of “emotional intelligence” has emerged from the growingrealization that there are a number of other additional factors besides cogni-tive performance that play a role in a person’s life success. For many yearspsychologists, teachers, and the public alike have been focusing on the intel-lectual potential of individuals. In the past, perceived cognitive potential,more than any other factor, has been seen as a predictor of a stable life andfuture success. It has, however, been established that despite an individualhaving the intellectual potential to succeed, he/she may experience difficultydealing with emotional issues, have poor interpersonal relationships, and beineffective in his/her decision making. These observations, among others,

EDUCATION AND URBAN SOCIETY, Vol. 36 No. 4, August 2004 482-504DOI: 10.1177/0013124504265862© 2004 Corwin Press, Inc.

482



have led to the realization that humans require more than purely intellectualabilities to exist and survive as both physical and spiritual beings. An intri-cate configuration of interrelated factors plays a role in predicting success inlife. The concept of “emotional intelligence” provides an extremely usefulinstrument to describe this configuration of factors. As a result, extensiveresearch is currently being conducted in the various fields of intelligence andalso with regard to the concept of “emotional intelligence” (Goleman, 1996,pp. 36-39). The term emotional intelligence represents a move away from anexclusive focus on cognitive processes and abilities, based on the fact thateven intellectually “weak” individuals often progress through life success-fully and purposefully. General intelligence, which includes emotional aswell as cognitive intelligence, facilitates a more comprehensive and holisticapproach with which to assess individuals (Brady, 1998, p. 19).

THE NEED FOR THE STUDY

Two primary factors prompted the present study. On one hand, the impor-tance of the EI concept in 21st-century research is accepted as a given.Although, for many years, social-emotional education considerations wereregarded as “soft” and dismissed as unimportant and not really scientificallybased, over the past 5 or so years “the interlinkage of cognitive and emotionalskills and behavioural functioning” has received due recognition (Cohen &Sandy, 2003, p. 44). The findings of the present study may therefore be bene-ficial and applicable to current management practices in a variety of tertiarysettings, especially in an urban context. On the other hand in South Africa,recent government plans to change the academic landscape of higher educa-tion in South Africa through strategies that include institutional mergers,have affected in various ways the staff that are involved (Becker et al., inpress). When the former Pretoria Teacher’s Training College (Normal Col-lege of Pretoria or Onderwyskollege Pretoria NCP/NKP) was incorporatedinto the University of Pretoria in 1999 to 2001, it soon became clear that theprocess of incorporation was experienced as a most traumatic and severelydisruptive event in the lives of (especially) former staff attached to the NCPOnderwyskollege Pretoria (Becker et al., in press). Many staff membersexperienced the process of merging as an act of betrayal by top managementand expressed the view that the administration and supervision of theincorporation had been handled in a most insensitive manner.

In light of the aforementioned, it was decided to allocate funding towardfinancing the administration of the The BarOn Emotional Quotient–

Maree, Eiselen / EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OF ACADEMICS 483



Inventory™ (The BarOn EQ-i™) as part of a strategy in group and team devel-opment to

• evaluate the ongoing functioning and well-being of staff at these critical stagesof transformation;

• function as an instrument to gauge the impact and effectiveness of the currentorganizational change and restructuring (i.e., before and after organizationalchanges);

• create tailor-made guidelines to improve the emotional skills and functioningof employees in the newly constituted and augmented Faculty of Education atthe University of Pretoria; and

• identify and benchmark those factors that have been shown to be directlyrelated to continued success within an academic environment.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The general problem statement of this study can be formulated as follows:What are the emotional intelligence profiles of academics in a merger set-ting? The study, however, also attempts to further investigate and understandthe relatively new concept of emotional intelligence and an attempt will bemade to correlate the EIs of various sex and age groups in a tertiary settingafter a merge between institutions has taken place.

ELUCIDATION OF KEY CONCEPTS

The term intelligence quotient (IQ) will be discussed first.

IQ

Phares (1992, p. 182) classifies intelligence theories in three main classes,namely (a) definitions that emphasize adjustment to the learner’s environ-ment, (b) definitions that focus on the learner’s ability to learn, and (c) defini-tions that emphasize abstract reasoning ability and the ability to use a wideseries of symbols and concepts, including verbal and numerical symbols.This classification largely agrees with that of Van den Berg (1995), accordingto whom the following themes figure prominently in the definition of

484 EDUCATION AND URBAN SOCIETY / August 2004



intelligence: the ability to adjust to new situations, the ability to learn, theability to handle abstract relationships and symbols, and the ability to solvenew and divergent problems.

Naglieri and Reardon (1993, p. 128) define the concept of intelligencefrom an information-processing perspective as “one’s ability to attend, pro-cess information, and utilize those processes to solve problems.”

Sternberg’s (1984) triarchic model of intelligence implies that intelli-gence develops and evolves through dynamic interaction between individu-als and their environment. According to him, intelligence is relative to a cer-tain particular context and it is impossible to measure intelligence(objectively). Furthermore, intelligence is a most dynamic (metastable) trait.Interaction between individuals and their environment inevitably has animpact on their intelligence. A child who develops late, a psychologist whoexperiences an “off day,” fluctuating home and other circumstances, emo-tional factors—these are all examples of circumstances that may affect themeasurement of IQ on a specific day and that confirm the fact that this scoreshould be interpreted with great care.

From the above, it should be clear that, regardless of what one’s view ofintelligence actually comprises, IQ alone does not account for the variance inachievement and, indeed, the degree to which individuals deal with everydaylife problems. In fact, researchers have long been interested in identifyingother contributing factors instead of merely relying on a solitary IQ score.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI)

Salovey and Mayer (1990) note that intelligence should be redefined toinclude a person’s capacity to monitor his or her own and others’emotions, todiscriminate between these emotions and to use this information to guide hisor her thinking and actions. Passow and Schiff (1989, p. 5) contend thatresearchers will have to “attend to another dimension of giftedness: thedevelopment of caring, concerned, compassionate, committed individualswho develop and use their giftedness for society’s behalf as much as for self-fulfillment.”

According to Brady (1998, p. 3), there has been a move toward a moreinclusive definition of intellectual functioning, mainly “as a result of the lim-ited predictability of cognitive potential in determining success in life.”There has been a move toward a more inclusive definition of intellectualfunctioning. This shift has given rise to the definition of the concept of emo-tional intelligence. Brady (1998, p. 19) aptly states that the concept of




emotional intelligence represents “a move away from an exclusive focus oncognitive processes, in the examination of the ability of an individual tonavigate life successfully and purposefully.”

A few years before the phrase “emotional intelligence” (EI) was officiallycoined, Hoffman, Wasson, and Christianson (in Newell, 1989, p. 98) pro-vided the following checklist as a yardstick to identify gifted underachievers:A typical underachiever has a high IQ but shows a discrepancy betweenexpected and actual performance, is inconsistent in accomplishing goals, dis-plays impaired levels of self-confidence, reveals feelings of inferiority,blames others for his or her own troubles, and provides evidence of with-drawal. This checklist already supplies ample proof that a measured high IQalone does not “guarantee” satisfactory achievement.

Many definitions of the concept EI have been proposed during the pastfew years. Mehrabian (2000, p. 134) for instance states that the term is widelyused to explain “individual differences associated with life success that arenot specifically measured with traditional intelligence measures.” Goleman(1996, p. 34), on the other hand, defines EI as the ability “to motivate oneselfand persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay gratifica-tion; to regulate one’s moods and keep distress from swamping the ability tothink; to empathize and hope.” Kapp (2000, p. 152), on the other hand,defines emotional intelligence as “that part of the human spirit which moti-vates us to perform, which gives us energy to demonstrate behaviours such asintentionality, persistence, creativity, impulse control, social deftness, com-passion, intuition and integrity.” Goleman (1996, p. 34) maintains that EI isindeed more powerful than IQ when it comes to predicting achievement andsuccess in life. Kapp (2000) concludes that emotional intelligence providespeople with the capacity for a positive outlook and it also facilitates theability to trust other people and to do one’s best.

Lam and Kirby (2002, p. 132) are of the opinion that emotional intelli-gence involves perceiving, understanding, and regulating emotions:

• Perceiving emotions consists of recognizing and interpreting the meaning ofvarious emotional states as well as their relation to other sensory experiences.

• Understanding emotions involves the comprehension of how basic emotionsare blended to form complex emotions, how emotions are affected by eventssurrounding experiences, and whether various emotional reactions are likely ingiven social settings.

• Regulating emotions encompasses the control of emotions in oneself and inothers.




It was, however, Mayer and Salovey (1993), Goleman (1996), and BarOn(1996) who, to a greater or lesser extent, supplied satisfactory proof of thepositive correlation between emotional intelligence and adequate achieve-ment. Mayer and Salovey (1993, p. 433) define emotional intelligence as “atype of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s ownthinking and actions.” Salovey and Mayer (1990, pp. 185-211) state thatemotional intelligence entails both inter- and intrapersonal intelligences.According to Cherniss and Goleman (2001), “emotional intelligence” refersto the abilities to recognize and regulate emotions in ourselves and in others.This description suggests four major EI domains: Self-Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness, and Relationship Management.

In summary then, BarOn (1996), Salovey and Mayer (1990, pp. 185-211),and Cherniss and Goleman (in press) all (directly or indirectly) state thatemotional intelligence entails both inter- and intrapersonal intelligences.Although different authors emphasize different aspects of emotional intelli-gence, it can be safely stated that the following categories of emotional intel-ligence are (to a greater or lesser extent) stressed in their different workingdefinitions of the concept of emotional intelligence:

Emotional self-awareness or an awareness of one’s own emotions. This impliesthe ability to observe, recognize, and understand one’s own emotions, to reactappropriately to these emotions and to be able to identify causes of certainemotions, to appropriately acknowledge feelings when they occur and to un-derstand how one’s feelings affect the people around you.

Self-regulation (managing or regulating one’s emotions). This entails one’s abil-ity to control or handle (most of) one’s emotions so that they are appropriate.This also entails the ability to understand and identify situations that can causecertain emotions to occur as well as to be aware of the factors that may underliesuch emotions. In the event of negative emotions arising (anxiety-provokingsituations), one should be able to let certain emotions go (switch to other, lessanxiety-provoking emotions) and to use emotions effectively. This also in-cludes finding ways to handle fears and anxieties, anger, and sadness (Young,1996, p. 2).

Self-motivation or self-efficacy is potentially the most effective aspect of EI. Thisincludes the ability to channel emotions in the direction of a goal and to focusone’s enthusiasm, self-confidence, and concentration on the achievement ofgoals. This also implies that words are followed by actions, and that time limitsare set for the achievement of certain goals. Obviously postponing the gratifi-cation of short-term needs in favor of longer-term needs and stifling impulsesare important aspects of self-motivation (Young, 1996, p. 2).

Relating well (empathy with, or acknowledgement of the emotions of others).This aspect includes the ability to communicate well with others, to be sensi-




tive to the feelings, concerns, and needs of others, and to realize that variouspeople react differently in the same situation. This also implies that one shouldbe able to react appropriately to the subtle signals that others send out, and torealize that encountering people who are hard to communicate with is a givenfact of life.

Emotional mentoring (coping with, handling, or managing relationships). Al-though one is unable to control the emotions of others, one should be able to re-alize when they are experiencing negative emotions (e.g., anxiety or distress)and to reach out and (try to) help such persons (to manage their emotions). Es-tablishing, promoting, and retaining sound relationships (not only with others,but also with oneself) is a crucial aspect of EI. This aspect comprises socialskills and competence (Young, 1996, p. 2).

A WORKING DEFINITION OF EI

The term emotional intelligence was coined by Dr. Reuven BarOn in 1985to describe his approach to assessing this aspect of general intelligence.Broadly speaking, emotional intelligence addresses the emotional, personal,social, and survival dimensions of intelligence, vitally important in dailyfunctioning. This less cognitive part of intelligence is concerned with under-standing oneself and others, relating to people, and adapting to and copingwith our immediate surroundings. These factors increase our ability to bemore successful in dealing with environmental demands. EI is tactical andimmediate, and as such reflects a person’s “common sense” and ability to getalong in the world (BarOn, 1996, p. 1; BarOn in Van Rooyen, 2002, p. 19).

In summary, EI is the “street smarts” in a person, reflecting on one’s abil-ity to deal successfully with other people, one’s feelings, and one’s everydaysocial environment. By dealing with these pressures successfully, one will bebetter able to positively influence one’s overall well-being (Van Rooyen,2002).

MEASURING INSTRUMENT: THEBARON EMOTIONAL QUOTIENT–INVENTORY™

Based on 17 years of research by Dr. Reuven BarOn and tried out on manythousands of individuals worldwide, the BarOn EQ-i™ is the first scientifi-cally developed and validated measure of EI.




WHAT DOES THE BARON EQ-I™ MEASURE?

The BarOn EQ-i™ consists of 133 items and takes approximately 30 min-utes to complete. It is based on the most comprehensive theory of EI to dateand renders an overall EI score as well as scores for the following five com-posite scales and 15 subscales:

Intrapersonal Scales: Self-Regard, Emotional Self-Awareness, Assertiveness, In-dependence and Self-Actualization;

Interpersonal Scales: Empathy, Social Responsibility and Interpersonal Relation-ship;

Adaptability Scales: Reality Testing, Flexibility and Problem Solving;Stress Management Scales: Stress Tolerance and Impulse Control; andGeneral Mood Scales: Optimism and Happiness.

These important areas of emotional intelligence are measured with the aidof four validity indices and a sophisticated correction factor.

USES OF THE BARON EQ-I™

The BarOn EQ-i™ (J. De Beer, personal communication, 2003) can beemployed in many ways and in a variety of settings. It is appropriate for use incorporate, clinical, educational, medical, and research settings. Potentialusers of the EQ-i include human resources professionals, organizationaldevelopment consultants, career counselors, guidance counselors, psycholo-gists, psychiatrists, physicians, and social workers. The BarOn EQ-i™ can beused by organizations for screening as part of the recruiting process to aid inidentifying potentially successful employees. It can also be employed inidentifying those emotional and social skills that are important to develop inemployee training programs, team building, and enhancing managerial com-petencies at work.

The BarOn EQ-i™ can be used in a variety of settings. It is particularlyappropriate in corporate, educational, counseling, medical, and researchenvironments. The following is an indication of the way in which the BarOnEQ-i™ can be used in different settings.

CORPORATE SETTING

• Assist in hiring emotionally intelligent and potentially successful personnel.• Supplement other sources of information—other tests or an interview.




• Identify and benchmark those factors that have been shown to be directlyrelated to success in specific jobs.

• Evaluate the ongoing functioning and well-being of current staff at criticalstages of employment or change.

• Function as an instrument to gauge the impact and effectiveness of organiza-tional change and restructuring (i.e., before and after organizational changes).

• Create tailor-made training programs to improve the emotional skills and func-tioning of employees and the company.

• Use in group and team development.

COUNSELING OR CLINICAL SETTING

• Assess a patient’s general degree of emotional well-being, potential for emo-tional health, and present psychological well-being.

• Map out areas that need further exploration and attention.• Formulate clear therapeutic goals.• Decide on when to terminate therapy and/or evaluate the successfulness of the

therapy or an intervention program.• Predict an individual’s ability to benefit from substance abuse rehabilitation.• Examine prisoners under consideration for parole.

RESEARCH SETTING

The BarOn EQ-i™ can also be used as a comprehensive measure of emo-tional intelligence and can be applied for research in educational, medical,clinical, and particularly in business and management science research.

RELIABILITY OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

The following reliability coefficients were reported for the total emotionalquotient and the composite scales for a South African population (Swart,1997, pp. 79-80):

Total emotional quotient = 0.94Intrapersonal Scale = 0.91Interpersonal Scale = 0.81Adaptability Scale = 0.81Stress Management Scale = 0.80General Mood Scale = 0.83




A reliability coefficient of 0.75 indicates a good level of reliability. As canbe seen from Swart’s study, good reliability coefficients were reported for the15 content scales, the total emotional quotient and composite scales. Thisindicates that the BarOn EQ-i™ can be used for the purpose of the currentstudy.

APPLICABILITY OF THE BARONEQ-I™ IN URBAN SOUTH AFRICA

The BarOn EQ-i™ was recently used to assess 300 corporate executivesemployed in a variety of different leadership positions throughout NorthAmerica (BarOn, 2003). In addition to this, the leadership abilities of partici-pants were also assessed. A very strong correlation between EI and leader-ship was established (Canonical R of .80), implying that “at least 64% ofeffective leadership is based on emotional and social intelligence” (BarOn,2003, p. 8). Clearly this finding has major implications for corporate settingsin urban 21st-century South Africa, where the emphasis on providing strongand responsible leadership is ever-growing. Staff retrenchments place anenormous strain on leaders to deal with potentially volatile situations effec-tively, whereas affirmative action demands the training of newly recruitedleaders to fit into foreign surroundings adequately and to provide responsibleleadership to employees. The BarOn EQ-i™ provides an exciting opportunityfor equipping leaders in a corporate setting with essential EI-skills, includingcommittal to their organizations (social responsibility), a positive attitude(happiness), the ability to handle stress (stress tolerance), and to control theiremotions (impulse control) (BarOn, 2003).

Opening any newspaper, listening to any news broadcast or watching TVon any given day in 21st-century South Africa will attest to the escalating dif-ficulty currently being experienced with regard to promoting emotionalwellness in any urban context in South Africa. Health profession workers(including psychiatrists and psychologists, including the first author of thisarticle), will testify that colleagues from all walks of life are finding itincreasingly difficult to manage their careers, lead a normal family life, andin general, strike a balance between the two and enjoy emotional wellness.Contemporary research indicates that the use of the BarOn EQ-i™ could beused to extremely good effect to facilitate psychological wellness. BarOn,Handley, and Fund’s (in press) research has provided a clear indication that




this instrument could be used to facilitate better adaptation to a new socialenvironment and, indeed, become part of that environment (flexibility), setgoals and strive to achieve these goals (self-actualization), succeed in keep-ing perspective on matters (reality-testing), and especially, deal with thestress that is generated from being involved in functioning on a daily basis(stress tolerance).

Sjölund’s research (BarOn, 2003) revealed that the EIs of employees in acorporate setting improved significantly after attending a workshop on EI(whereas the total EQ score increased by 9, p < .0005, scores in 9 out of the 15subscales increased significantly). BarOn (2003) points out that the two EIcompetencies that increased most after the workshop were emotional aware-ness and empathy and that these two scales are considered by many as the twosingle most important aspects of emotional and social intelligence. A numberof other studies, recently conducted in an urban, corporate setting, supportthese findings (BarOn, 2003).

Schools in 21st-century South Africa are experiencing the same turbulenttimes as corporate settings; racial integration in schools does not always takeplace without growing pains. This is especially the case in urban settings,with the number of learners applying to enroll at certain schools often placingan almost unbearable strain on existing resources. After extensive researchon instruments suitable for assessing emotional and social competence inpre-primary and primary schools, Stewart-Brown and Edmunds (2003) havecome to the conclusion that the measurement of social and emotional compe-tence of children is practical and viable in the near future. The Youth Versionof the BarOn EQ-i™ was identified as one of the instruments with the mostrelevance for the emotional competence of older children and could (accord-ing to these two authors) be used to “assess practitioner/teacher and school/class emotional and social competence with the aim of helping teachers withthis aspect of their development” (Stewart-Brown & Edmunds, 2003, p. 30).Zins, Elias, and Greenberg (2003) refer to the major challenges faced by pro-fessionals in South Africa and elsewhere in the world, including the AIDS/HIV endemic, violence, poverty, the challenges posed by technologicaladvances, the unstable political situation, and the mass media’s (negative)influence on persons’behavior. In conjunction with the aforementioned chal-lenges, however, exciting opportunities become evident to impact positivelyon the lives of people, especially children, who will be the leaders of tomor-row. This necessitates the introduction of social and emotional learning pro-grams in schools, especially in an urban context.




RESEARCH DESIGN

Two supplementary approaches, quantitative as well as qualitative, havebeen implemented in the current research. The qualitative section of the studyinvolves a study of the literature concerning certain aspects of the phenome-non of EI. The quantitative part of the research involves the administration ofthe BarOn EQ-i™ measure to 53 participants.

PROCEDURE

Prior to the administration of the test, testees were allowed to ask ques-tions about it. The test administrators (Jopie van Rooyen & Partners, whohold the exclusive rights to the distribution of the test in South Africa)assured the testees that their responses would be treated with extreme confi-dentiality and that their anonymity would at all times be safeguarded. The testadministrators next explained to the participants how to complete the ques-tionnaire. On average, the completion of the test took 35 minutes. In view ofthe fact that the questionnaire may have aroused questions and anxieties,testees were encouraged to make an appointment with the test administratorsto discuss their feelings and questions. Testees were assured that generalfeedback on the results would be provided within one month. Feedback wassubsequently provided approximately 5 weeks after the initial assessmentand testees’questions were handled professionally by the test administrators.Testees received their reports in sealed envelopes.

ETHICAL ASPECTS

Permission to conduct the research, to publish the research results, and toincorporate the above case studies in this article, was obtained from the aca-demics involved. For the purposes of confidentiality, all recognizable datahave been carefully disguised or omitted. Ethical measures to ensure theresearch participants’ well-being were implemented throughout the study.Due to the extremely sensitive nature of the information, the firm of Jopie vanRooyen and Partners was contracted to provide feedback to each researchparticipant, which allowed for no deception by the researchers. In fact, the




researchers were at no stage privy to the results. The research findings werereleased in an accurate and scientifically accountable manner.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The limitations of this study can be summarized as follows:The range/scope of the study was limited because only one institution was

involved. Due to the high costs involved in the administration and scoring ofthe BarOn EQ-i™ measure, inter alia, it was decided, to limit the currentresearch to one institution only.

The possibility of inference or generalization was likewise limited,because the one single institution study is not representative of the full popu-lation of academics who were involved in mergers.

The subjective interpretation of the researchers can also be seen as limit-ing the study, as the results may well be interpreted differently by otherresearchers.

The staff members participating in this study cannot be considered a ran-dom sample of the faculty and hence generalization cannot be made. The rea-sons why some staff members decided not to participate remain unknown.However, in terms of their EI scores, nonparticipants may very well differfrom those who participated in terms of their EQ scores.

Irrespective of these limitations, a description and discussion of the scoresobtained by the participants is valid, especially in terms of those participantswho obtained unusually low scores in the various dimensions. Theoretically,all dimensions are normally distributed with a mean of 100 and a standarddeviation of 15. Scores below one standard deviation from the mean (i.e.,lower than 85) may therefore be indicative of possible problem areas withinthe faculty.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLE

A total of 53 (i.e., 19 or 35.8% male and 34 or 64.2% female) staff mem-bers participated in the study by completing the EI test. Of these, 56.6% (30)were younger than 45 at the time the test was conducted.




STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) (Kinnear & Gray,1997) was used in analyzing the data. Frequencies, minima, maxima, means,standard deviations, and correlations, were used to describe the samples andindependent sample t tests were used to explore group differences.

RESULTS

The total EI scores of the participants ranged between 42 and 122 with amean of 96.08 (SD = 15.38). The distribution of the total EI scores is slightlynegatively skewed (shown in the box-and-whisker plot: see Figure 1) andthere is one outlier value (42). Of the 53 participants (20.8%), 11 obtained atotal EI score of less than 85.


Total EQ score

130120110100908070605040

Figure 1: Box-and-Whisker Plot of Total Emotional Intelligence Scores



DESCRIPTION OF THE FIVE EI DIMENSIONS

Table 1 shows the minimum, maximum, mean (M) and standard deviation(SD) of each of the 5 dimensions of the EI (i.e., Intrapersonal, Interpersonal,Adaptability, Stress Management and General Mood) in increasing order ofthe mean. The table shows that the lowest mean score was evidenced forStress Management whereas the highest mean score was in terms ofInterpersonal.

The distribution of all of the dimensions of the EI is negatively skewedmainly due to the presence of outlier values (atypically low values) (seeFigure 2).

As a further investigation of the scores obtained, the number (and percent-age) of participants obtaining a score below 1 standard deviation of the mean(i.e., below 85) on each of these dimensions is shown in Table 2. In addition,Table 2 also shows the number (and percentage) of participants within 1 stan-dard deviation of the mean (i.e., with scores between 85 and 115) and above 1standard deviation (i.e., above 115).

Of particular interest is the fact that 15 of the 53 participants (i.e., 28.3%)obtained a score of less than 85 for Stress Management, whereas only 2 par-ticipants (3.8%) obtained a similar score for Interpersonal.

For all dimensions, except Interpersonal, the percentage of participantsbelow 1 standard deviation of the mean exceeds the corresponding percent-age above 1 standard deviation of the mean. This is particularly true for StressManagement and General Mood.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SUBDIMENSIONSOF EACH EI DIMENSION

Each of the five dimensions of the EI consists of a number of sub-dimensions. Table 2 shows the minimum, maximum, mean (M), standard


TABLE 1

Minimum, Maximum, Mean (M), and Standard Deviation (SD)of Each of the Five Dimensions of the EI

Variable Minimum Maximum M SD Skewness

Stress management (sm) 46 131 93.43 19.065 – .470Adaptability (adap) 45 124 95.96 15.178 – .522Intrapersonal (ip) 34 119 96.85 17.631 –1.492General mood (gm) 67 123 97.02 13.548 – .761Interpersonal (ip) 70 125 102.04 11.139 – .333



deviation (SD), and skewness of each of these subdimensions. All of thesesubdimensions have a negative skewness.

CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE DIMENSIONS OF THE EI

To explore the extent to which the various dimensions of the EI are related,the Pearson product moment correlation coefficients were calculated (seeTable 4). The correlation between Stress Management and Interpersonal isnot significantly different from 0 (p value = .169 > .1). All other correlationsare, however, significantly different from 0 (p values < .05). These correla-tions ranged from a low of 0.293, between Interpersonal and Intrapersonal, toa high of 0.742 between Adaptability and Intrapersonal.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GENDER AND AGE GROUPSIN TERMS OF TOTAL EI AND ITS DIMENSIONS

To ascertain whether the two gender groups differ significantly in termsof any of the 5 dimensions of the EI or the total EI score, independent


Intrapersonal

Interpersonal

Adaptability

Stress management

General mood

14012010080604020

Figure 2: Box-and-Whisker Plots of the Dimensions of the EI




TABLE 2

Number and Percentage of Participants Below,Within and Above 1 Standard Deviation of the Mean

Dimension Below 85 Between 85 and 115 Above 115

Intrapersonal (ip)n 9 39 5% 17.0 73.6 9.4

Interpersonal (ip)n 2 46 5% 3.8 86.8 9.4

Adaptability (adap)n 10 37 6% 18.9 69.8 11.3

Stress management (sm)n 15 33 5% 28.3 62.3 9.4

General mood (gm)n 10 42 1% 18.9 79.2 1.9

TABLE 3

Descriptive Statistics of Each of the Subdimensionsof the Five EI Dimensions

Minimum Maximum M SD Skewness

IntrapersonalSelf-regard (sr) 51 118 97.13 15.34 –1.068Emotional self-awareness (es) 53 124 103.00 15.59 –.945Assertiveness (as) 45 126 94.58 16.71 –.749Independence (ind) 30 124 92.06 19.07 –.999Self-actualization (sa) 39 124 101.06 18.09 –1.415

InterpersonalEmpathy (emp) 66 128 106.49 13.10 –.857Social responsibility (soc_r) 68 124 103.36 12.65 –.620Interpersonal relationships (ir) 64 122 100.09 11.92 –.397

AdaptabilityReality testing (rt) 57 129 97.81 15.79 –.248Flexibility (flex) 59 128 95.85 17.04 –.321Problem solving (ps) 48 122 96.72 14.64 –.952

Stress managementStress tolerance (st) 54 128 96.04 17.85 –.248Impulse control (ipc) 48 127 92.81 18.47 –.353

General moodOptimism (opt) 59 121 96.81 14.91 –.750Happiness (hap) 64 120 98.13 13.12 –.580



sample t tests were carried out. No significant differences were evidenced(p values > .1 in all cases). The same holds true for the two age groups (i.e.,younger than 45 and 45 or older). Hence, although these results should beinterpreted with caution due to the fact that the sample was not randomlyselected, there does not seem to be any speculative evidence that one of thegender groups or alternatively one of the age groups differs significantlyfrom the other in terms of mean scores on any of the dimensions of the EI orthe total EI score.

Based on the results obtained from the individual t tests, the decision wastaken not to explore groups’differences further by means of multivariate pro-cedures, such as MANOVA.

DISCUSSION

Despite the limitations of this study (as pointed out earlier) the fact that thetotal EI scores of the participants ranged between 42 and 122, with a mean of96.08, nevertheless seem to support the Sternbergian observation that theinteraction between individuals and their environment inevitably has animpact on their emotional intelligence (Sternberg, 1984). As such, the resultsalso seem to confirm Hoffman, Wasson, and Christianson’s view of “giftedunderachievers” (in Newell, 1989, p. 98), because although the 53 partici-pants may very well all have higher than normal IQs, their EI-scores suggestthat they may experience—perhaps because of their involvement in themerger—a discrepancy between their expected levels of achievement andtheir actual performance. Moreover, the statistical analysis we offer inTable 1 and 2 (see earlier) appears to corroborate Hoffman, Wasson, andChristianson’s opinion that “gifted underachievers” display impaired levelsof self-confidence as well as feelings of inferiority. The same statistical


TABLE 4

Correlations Between the Dimensions of the EI

Stress GeneralInterpersonal Adaptability Management Mood

Dimension (ip) (adap) (sm) (gm)

Intrapersonal (ip) .293 .742 .498 .676Interpersonal (ip) .357 Not significantly

different from 0 .440Adaptability (adap) .683 .644Stress management (sm) .575



analysis also seems to bear out Goleman’s (1996, p. 34) and Kapp’s (2000, p.152) explanations with regard to our ability to control impulses, to regulateour moods, and to keep distress from swamping our ability to think.

The fact that 11 of the 53 participants (i.e., 20.8%) obtained a total EIscore of less than 85 and that 15 participants (i.e., 28.3%) obtained a score ofless than 85 for Stress Management is educationally and psychologically sig-nificant. Although they may have the intellectual potential to succeed, ifmore than one fifth of the participants in this study obtained a total EI scorebelow one standard deviation of the mean, and also scored less than 85 forStress Management in particular, it provides further proof of the positive cor-relation between emotional intelligence and adequate achievement that wasfirst pointed out by Mayer and Salovey (1993), Goleman (1996), and BarOn(1996). It also substantiates the exigency for creating tailor-made trainingprograms to improve the emotional skills and functioning of these 11 staffmembers in particular.

The descriptive statistics of each of the subdimensions of the five EIdimensions offered in Table 3 are likewise informative. Even a cursory com-parison of the mean scores for the subdimensions of (a) self-regard (97.13),(b) assertiveness (94.58), (c) independence (92.06), (d) reality testing(97.81), (e) flexibility (95.85), (f) problem solving (96.72), (g) impulse-control (92.81), and (h) optimism (96.81) seems to reveal educationally sig-nificant support for the conclusion reached by Becker et al. (in press) that“the impact of incorporation on the self-image and self-worth of College staffwas definitive. . . . The emotional lives of the College staff passed through averitable “see-saw” experience.”

The fact that the lowest mean scores were achieved in the subdimensionsof independence and impulse-control probably deserves special mention.These scores seem to suggest that former college staff may have observedand experienced an external locus of control during the merger event and sawthe occurrence as completely beyond their control. Furthermore, the lowscore for impulse-control may suggest that destructive thoughts may havebeen harbored by colleagues. Because no one needs to be reminded of thedire consequences of destructive behavior by disgruntled employees inretrenchment settings (a most unfortunate, but sadly, far too regular occur-rence in the Republic of South Africa), it is suggested that managers take par-ticular note of this finding. Indeed, when questioned on their opinion regard-ing the overall results, the test administrators expressed their utmost concernabout these levels and their destructive potential.

Of particular interest is the fact that 46 of the 53 participants (i.e., 86.8%)obtained a score of between 85 and 115 for the interpersonal dimension, witha mean score of 102.04. These statistics provide further evidence for BarOn’s




belief (in Van Rooyen, 2002, p. 19) that emotional intelligence addresses theemotional, personal, social, and survival dimensions of intelligence that areall vitally important in daily functioning. In particular, these statistics wouldsuggest (at least in the case of the incorporation of the formerOnderwyskollege Pretoria into the University of Pretoria) that despite thetraumatic and depressing circumstances, “social survival,” through the abil-ity to communicate well with others, to be sensitive to the feelings, concerns,and needs of others and to cope with, handle, or manage relationships,remains of paramount importance. By pointing out the emotional distanceand communication gap that was perceived to exist between top managementand the rest of the staff, Becker et al. (in press) also allude to this inference:“An important part of incorporation is the role of corridor gossip and rumour.Gossip creates illusions, shapes perceptions of actions, builds solidarity, andinfluences personal choices, dispositions and emotions.” The above-men-tioned statistics furthermore seem to underscore the overriding importancefor staff who are involved in a merger to make sure that they at least get onwell with each other at all costs and that they experience a sense of security,belonging, and solidarity.

In summary then, this article attempts to provide, for the first time, statisti-cal evidence of how a drastic life-changing event, such as a “merger”between two higher education institutions, may hamper the actualization ofacademics’ intellectual potential. If nothing else, our research accentuatesthe importance of timeous and continued assessment of the ongoing func-tioning and well-being of academics who have been involved in a merger.Furthermore it should be clear that the introduction of tactical and timeousintervention programs could facilitate an enhanced ability to deal with envi-ronmental demands (such as coping with the effects of a merger), to adapt toand to cope with (even radical) changes in a person’s environment.

The literature overview presented in this study implies that persons can beguided by means of therapy or via formal training programs to enhance theirself-efficacy. Various programs are already available that will render the phi-losophy of emotional intelligence accessible (O’Neil, 1996, p. 11; Pasi,1997, p. 41). In such programs, the focal point should be the becoming awareof emotions and the effective regulation of these conscious emotions, basedon motivated, self-oriented coping strategies. The development of such pro-grams serves as relevant research foci for future studies. Clearly the results ofthis study underline the urgent need for tailor-made training programs toimprove the emotional skills and functioning of academics in a merger set-ting. Furthermore, organizations have every reason to expect a significantreturn on their investment in facilitating the emotional intelligence of theiremployees (Katie, 2002).




Becker et al. (in press) appropriately indicate how the incorporation of theformer Onderwyskollege Pretoria into the University of Pretoria could beseen, in many ways, as a silent frontier battle, where the combatants gropedhungrily for the whispers and lies that drifted in from the other side. Byreporting the results of the BarOn Emotional Quotient-Inventory™ that wasadministered to 53 staff members who had all been subjected to the traumaand disruption of this particular merger, our article seeks to add to the limitedbut growing literature on the impact that mergers in higher education mayhave on the personal and emotional experiences of the staff who live throughsuch processes.

The notion of EI tampers with the boundaries of our operational knowl-edge of what constitutes successful or unsuccessful human endeavor. It chal-lenges our existing appreciation of the intellectual potential of human beings.This article suggests that in changing circumstances, such as a merger set-ting, the timeous introduction of a course (or series of workshops) in emo-tional intelligence could significantly improve academics’ ability to betterdeal with change, adapt to and cope with changing surroundings. Managersat all levels should take cognizance of not only the cognitive, but especially,the noncognitive needs of employees and introduce mechanisms (such ascourses in EI) to help them deal more successfully with colleagues, their ownfeelings, their everyday environment, and indeed, their overall well-being (J.De Beer, personal communication, 2003).

REFERENCES

BarOn, R. (1996). A brief description of Reuven BarOn’s EQ Inventory. Toronto: Multi-HealthSystems.

BarOn, R. (2003). How important is it to educate people to be emotionally and socially intelli-gent, and can it be done? Perspectives in Education, 21(4), 3-16.

BarOn, R., Handley, R., & Fund., S. (in press). The impact of emotional and social intelligenceon performance. In V. Druskat, F. Sala, & G. Mount. (Eds.), Linking emotional intelligenceand performance at work: Current research evidence. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Becker, L. R., et al. (in press). The impact of university incorporationon college lecturers. HigherEducation.

Brady, C. G. (1998). The relationship between emotional intelligence and underachievement inadolescence. Unpublished MA Dissertation. Pretoria, South Africa: University of Pretoria.

Cherniss, C., & Goleman, D. (2001). The emotionally intelligent workplace: How to select for,measure and improve emotional intelligence in individuals, groups and organisations. Lon-don: Jossey Bass Wiley.

Cohen, J., & Sandy, S. (2003). Perspectives in social-emotional education: Theoretical founda-tions and new evidence-based development in current practice. Perspectives in Education,21(4), 41-54.




Goleman, D. (1996). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Ban-tam Books.

Katie, D. (2002). Studies in emotional intelligence redefine our approach to leadership. PublicPersonnel Management, 31(4), 523-530.

Kapp, C. A. (2000). Emotional intelligence (EQ) and success in post-graduate studies: A pilotstudy. SA Journal of Higher Education, 14(3), 151-160.

Kinnear, P. R., & Gray, C. D. (1997). SPSS for windows made simple. East Sussex: PsychologyPress.

Lam, L. T., & Kirby, S. L. (2002). Is emotional intelligence an advantage? An exploration of theimpact of emotional and general intelligence on individual performance. Journal of SocialPsychology, 142(1), 133-143.

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1993). The intelligence of emotional intelligence. Intelligence, 17,433-442.

Mehrabian, A. (2000). Beyond IQ: Broad-based measurement of individual success potential or“emotional intelligence”. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 126(2),133-239.

Naglieri, J. A., & Reardon, S. M. (1993). Traditional IQ is irrelevant to learning disabilities—intelligence is not. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26(2), 127-133.

Newell, M. (1989). Adapting the triad model to serve gifted underachievers. Gifted EducationInternational, 6, 98-101.

O’Neil, J. (1996). On emotional intelligence: A conversation with Daniel Goleman. EducationalLeadership, 54(1), 6-11.

Pasi, R. J. (1997). Success in high school. Educational Leadership, 54(8), 40-42.Passow, A. H., & Schiff, J. H. (1989). Educating gifted persons who are caring and concerned.

Gifted Education International, 6, 5-7.Phares, E. J. (1992). Clinical psychology concepts, methods and profession. Pacific Grove, CA:

Brooks/Cole.Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Person-

ality, 9, 185-211.Sternberg, R. J. (1984). Toward a triarchic theory of human intelligence. The Behavioural and

Brain Sciences, 7, 269-315.Stewart-Brown, S., & Edmunds, L. (2003). Assessing emotional and social competence in pre-

school and primary school settings: A review of instruments. Perspectives in Education,21(4), 3-16.

Swart, A. R. (1997). Die verband tussen emosionele intelligensie en die akademiese prestasievan eerstejaarkoshuisstudente [The relationship between emotional intelligence and aca-demic achievement of first-year hostel students]. Unpublished MA dissertation. Pretoria,South Africa: University of Pretoria.

Van den Berg, A. R. (1995). Intelligensietoetse [Intelligence tests]. In K. Owen & J. J. Taljaard(Eds.). Handleiding vir die gebruik van sielkundige en skolastiese toetse van die RGN [Man-ual for the use of psychological tests of the HSRC]. Pretoria, South Africa: Human SciencesResearch Council.

Van Rooyen, J. (2002). BarOn EQ-i™ training manual. Johannesburg, South Africa: Jopie vanRooyen & Partners.

Young, C. A. (1996). Emotions and emotional intelligence. Retrieved May 3, 2003, from http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/gallery/young/emotion.html

Zins, J., Elias, M., & Greenberg, M. (2003). Facilitating success in school and in life throughsocial and emotional learning. Perspectives in Education, 21(4), 55-68.




Kobus Maree is a professor at the University of Pretoria. His areas of expertise revolve aroundeducational psychology, mathematics education, and research methodology, with specialemphasis on (the career facilitation needs of) the gifted disadvantaged in South Africa. A NRF-rated researcher and editor of the journal Perspectives in Education, his publications are numer-ous and he is a respected authority on educational psychology who received the South AfricanMedal for the Promotion of Excellence on Education in 2002. In 2004, he was awarded Excep-tional Achiever status at the University of Pretoria. His publications include the Study Orienta-tion Questionnaire in Mathematics (SOM) and the textbooks Lifeskills and Career Counselling(2002) (coedited by Dr. Liesel Ebersöhn) and Outcomes-Based Assessment (2004) coedited byProfessor Billy Fraser).

Riette J. Eiselen obtained a BSc (cum laude) in mathematics and mathematical statistics in 1975and a BSc(Hons) (cum laude) in mathematics in 1977 from the University of Pretoria. In 1984,she was appointed as junior lecturer in the Department of Statistics at UNISA and was promotedto lecturer in 1986 and to senior lecturer in 1995. In 1994, she obtained an MSc (cum laude) instatistics from UNISA. Since 1998, she has been head of the Statistical Consultation Service(statkon) at Rand Afrikaans University. She has authored or coauthored several articles, most ofwhich are in the field of education.




Documents

The Emotional Intelligence Profile of Academics in a Merger