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The Emerging SelfThe Emerging Self
First 6 months: Discover physical self
Joint attention – 9 months
Difference in perceptions can be shared
Self-recognition – 18 months
Categorical self (age, sex) - 18 – 24 months
Based on cognitive development
Requires social experience
The looking-glass self: a “reflection”
First 6 months: Discover physical self
Joint attention – 9 months
Difference in perceptions can be shared
Self-recognition – 18 months
Categorical self (age, sex) - 18 – 24 months
Based on cognitive development
Requires social experience
The looking-glass self: a “reflection”
Some core concepts in the study of the self Some core concepts in the study of the self
Self-concept A person’s conception and evaluation of one’s self, including physical
and psychological characteristics and skills. At its most basic, this involves knowledge of the self, as reflected in toddlers’ by visual self-recognition.
Identity formation A self-portrait of the different pieces of the self in a coherent and
integrated mode (including, for example, physical, sexual, ideological, intellectual, relational, vocational, and cultural/ethnic aspects). Erik Erikson believed that adolescents grapple with their developing adult identity, asking seriously “Who am I?” and “What do I want to be?” for the first time.
Self-concept A person’s conception and evaluation of one’s self, including physical
and psychological characteristics and skills. At its most basic, this involves knowledge of the self, as reflected in toddlers’ by visual self-recognition.
Identity formation A self-portrait of the different pieces of the self in a coherent and
integrated mode (including, for example, physical, sexual, ideological, intellectual, relational, vocational, and cultural/ethnic aspects). Erik Erikson believed that adolescents grapple with their developing adult identity, asking seriously “Who am I?” and “What do I want to be?” for the first time.
Self-efficacy The extent to which a person views him- or herself as an effective
individual. Self-efficacy develops with experience, but young children believe that they are more competent (efficacious) than they actually are, frequently overestimating their abilities.
Self-esteem The judgments people make of their general self-worth and the
feelings associated with those judgments. Researchers have identified at least five areas of self-esteem: scholastic competence, social competence, behavioral conduct, athletic competence, and physical appearance
Self-efficacy The extent to which a person views him- or herself as an effective
individual. Self-efficacy develops with experience, but young children believe that they are more competent (efficacious) than they actually are, frequently overestimating their abilities.
Self-esteem The judgments people make of their general self-worth and the
feelings associated with those judgments. Researchers have identified at least five areas of self-esteem: scholastic competence, social competence, behavioral conduct, athletic competence, and physical appearance
What I am Like with Different People”: Multiple selves of a prototypical 15-year-old girl (adapted from Harter, 1999)
What I am Like with Different People”: Multiple selves of a prototypical 15-year-old girl (adapted from Harter, 1999)
The multidimensional nature of self-esteem (adapted from Harter, 1996
The multidimensional nature of self-esteem (adapted from Harter, 1996
Emotional DevelopmentEmotional Development
Primary Emotions Emerge during first year of life distress, disgust, interest, surprise, contentment,
joy, anger, sadness, fear Secondary (self-conscious) emotions
Emerge during second year of life and depend on self-awareness and symbolic representation
shame, embarrassment, coyness, shyness, empathy, guilt, jealousy, envy, pride, contempt
Primary Emotions Emerge during first year of life distress, disgust, interest, surprise, contentment,
joy, anger, sadness, fear Secondary (self-conscious) emotions
Emerge during second year of life and depend on self-awareness and symbolic representation
shame, embarrassment, coyness, shyness, empathy, guilt, jealousy, envy, pride, contempt
Milestones in emotional development: expression, recognition, understanding and self-regulation
Milestones in emotional development: expression, recognition, understanding and self-regulation
Emotional expression
1st year: Primary Emotions
- at birth: distress, interest, disgust - about 1-3 months: joy - about 3-6 months: anger, sadness, surprise - about 6-8 months: fear
2nd year: Secondary (Self-conscious) Emotions
- about 18-24 months: empathy, envy (jealousy), - about 30-36 months: pride, guilt, shame, hubris
Emotional expression
1st year: Primary Emotions
- at birth: distress, interest, disgust - about 1-3 months: joy - about 3-6 months: anger, sadness, surprise - about 6-8 months: fear
2nd year: Secondary (Self-conscious) Emotions
- about 18-24 months: empathy, envy (jealousy), - about 30-36 months: pride, guilt, shame, hubris
Infants and children display a wide range of facial expressions associated with specific emotions. Can you identify each emotion the children in the photographs are expressing?
Infants and children display a wide range of facial expressions associated with specific emotions. Can you identify each emotion the children in the photographs are expressing?
Emotion type Adaptive Goals/Functions Action tendency
Disgust Avoiding contamination or illness
Active rejection
Fear Avoid danger; learn about events/attributes that are dangerous; maintain integrity of the self (physical and psychological integrity
Flight; active withdrawal
Anger Attain difficult goals; learn to overcome obstacles; communicate power/dominance
Active forward movement, especially to eliminate obstacles
Sadness Conserve energy; learn which goals are realizable; encourage nurturance by others
Disengagement; passive withdrawal
Emotion type Adaptive Goals/Functions Action tendency
Shame Behave appropriately; learn/maintain social standards; maintain others’ respect and affection; preserve self-esteem
Active or passive withdrawal; avoiding others, hiding of self
Guilt Behave prosocially; learn/maintain social standards; communicate submission to others
Outward movement: inclination to make reparation, to inform others, and to punish oneself
Pride Behave appropriately; learn/maintain social standards; maintaining the respect of oneself and others
Outward/upward movement; inclination to show/inform others about one’s accomplishments
Emotional recognitionEmotional recognition
- about 3 months: sensitivity to abrupt emotional caregiver changes
- about 6 months: (implicit) recognition of all basic emotions
- about 12 months: social referencing (modeling own emotional reactions on the basis of the recognition of other people’s emotional reactions)
- about 3 months: sensitivity to abrupt emotional caregiver changes
- about 6 months: (implicit) recognition of all basic emotions
- about 12 months: social referencing (modeling own emotional reactions on the basis of the recognition of other people’s emotional reactions)
Emotional understandingEmotional understanding
-about 3-5 years old: Understanding important public aspects of emotions - (explicit) recognition and naming of emotional expressions - how external causes affect others’ emotions - the impact of reminders on emotions
-about 7 years old: Understanding the mentalistic nature of emotions - the role of desire and belief in emotions - the discrepancy between expressed and felt emotions
-about 9-11 years old: Understanding complexity of individual emotional behavior
- the mixed nature of emotions - the relation between morality and emotions - the role of cognition in emotional regulation
-about 3-5 years old: Understanding important public aspects of emotions - (explicit) recognition and naming of emotional expressions - how external causes affect others’ emotions - the impact of reminders on emotions
-about 7 years old: Understanding the mentalistic nature of emotions - the role of desire and belief in emotions - the discrepancy between expressed and felt emotions
-about 9-11 years old: Understanding complexity of individual emotional behavior
- the mixed nature of emotions - the relation between morality and emotions - the role of cognition in emotional regulation
Emotional self-regulationEmotional self-regulation
- about 1st year: ability to regulate some disturbing input
- about 3rd year: ability to hide real emotions - about 5-11 years: increasing ability to self-regulate emotional states
- about 1st year: ability to regulate some disturbing input
- about 3rd year: ability to hide real emotions - about 5-11 years: increasing ability to self-regulate emotional states
Adolescent depression and maternal rejection: The incidence of clinical depression in a group of adolescents who experienced low versus high degrees of maternal rejection as a function of which combination of alleles they possessed for a gene that influenced dopamine transport. As you can see, only adolescents who possessed one combination of alleles (TT) experienced significantly greater levels of clinical depression as a result of high level of maternal rejection (from Haeffel et al., 2008).
Adolescent depression and maternal rejection: The incidence of clinical depression in a group of adolescents who experienced low versus high degrees of maternal rejection as a function of which combination of alleles they possessed for a gene that influenced dopamine transport. As you can see, only adolescents who possessed one combination of alleles (TT) experienced significantly greater levels of clinical depression as a result of high level of maternal rejection (from Haeffel et al., 2008).
Children’s stress hormones as a function of maternal depression and medical risk. Cortisol levels at 18 months of age as a function of early medical risk and maternal depression. Only high-risk toddlers of depressed mothers had elevated levels of cortisol (adapted from Bugental et al., 2006).
Children’s stress hormones as a function of maternal depression and medical risk. Cortisol levels at 18 months of age as a function of early medical risk and maternal depression. Only high-risk toddlers of depressed mothers had elevated levels of cortisol (adapted from Bugental et al., 2006).
TemperamentTemperament
Seen in infancy
Genetically based
Tendencies to respond in predictable ways
Building blocks of personality
Goodness of fit (Thomas & Chess)
Parenting techniques
Learning to interpret cues
Sensitive responding
Seen in infancy
Genetically based
Tendencies to respond in predictable ways
Building blocks of personality
Goodness of fit (Thomas & Chess)
Parenting techniques
Learning to interpret cues
Sensitive responding
Gender DifferencesGender Differences Verbal: Females slightly higher
Spatial: Males higher
Math: Males highest and lowest
Aggression and riskiness: males
Compliant, tactful, cooperative: females
Nurturant, empathic, anxious: females
Play style
Interest in infants
Vulnerability: males
Verbal: Females slightly higher
Spatial: Males higher
Math: Males highest and lowest
Aggression and riskiness: males
Compliant, tactful, cooperative: females
Nurturant, empathic, anxious: females
Play style
Interest in infants
Vulnerability: males
Cognitive TheoriesCognitive Theories Kohlberg: self socialization Stage-like changes
Gender identity: ages 2-3 Label themselves correctly
Gender stability: ages 3-4 Stable over time
Gender consistency: ages 5-7 Stable across situations
Kohlberg: self socialization Stage-like changes
Gender identity: ages 2-3 Label themselves correctly
Gender stability: ages 3-4 Stable over time
Gender consistency: ages 5-7 Stable across situations
AdulthoodAdulthood Gender roles over the life-span
At marriage: greater differentiation
Birth of child: it increases moreParental imperative
Middle age and older: AndrogynyShift - does not mean switch
Gender roles over the life-span At marriage: greater differentiation
Birth of child: it increases moreParental imperative
Middle age and older: AndrogynyShift - does not mean switch
Hunting-gatherering hypothesis and the origin of sex differences in spatial cognition: Silverman & Eals
Hunting-gatherering hypothesis and the origin of sex differences in spatial cognition: Silverman & Eals
Hunting (male) fostered eye-hand coordination, better navigation skills, mental rotation.
Gathering (female) fostered enhanced object-location memory
Hunting (male) fostered eye-hand coordination, better navigation skills, mental rotation.
Gathering (female) fostered enhanced object-location memory
Males > Females: space relations & mental rotationMales > Females: space relations & mental rotation
Females > males: object & location memoryFemales > males: object & location memory
InfancyInfancy
Differential treatment
Differential expectations
By 18 mo: categorical self
By 21/2 yr: gender identity
18-24 mo: gender toy preference
Differential treatment
Differential expectations
By 18 mo: categorical self
By 21/2 yr: gender identity
18-24 mo: gender toy preference
ChildhoodChildhood 3 yrs: gender stereotypes acquired
Gender rigidity until age 6
Gender constancy: by ages 4-6
Gender typed behavior by age 2 1/2 Greater by age 6
Stronger rules for boys
3 yrs: gender stereotypes acquired
Gender rigidity until age 6
Gender constancy: by ages 4-6
Gender typed behavior by age 2 1/2 Greater by age 6
Stronger rules for boys
A model of phase changes in the rigidity of children’s gender stereotypes as a function of age. As children first learn about gender characteristics as preschoolers they become increasingly rigid in their stereotypes, with rigidity peaking as their gender knowledge becomes consolidated between 5 and 7 years old. Children become less rigid in their stereotypes until adolescence, when they increase again (not shown in figure) (from Martin & Ruble, 2004)
A model of phase changes in the rigidity of children’s gender stereotypes as a function of age. As children first learn about gender characteristics as preschoolers they become increasingly rigid in their stereotypes, with rigidity peaking as their gender knowledge becomes consolidated between 5 and 7 years old. Children become less rigid in their stereotypes until adolescence, when they increase again (not shown in figure) (from Martin & Ruble, 2004)
AdolescenceAdolescence Gender intensification
Pubertal hormonal changes Preparation for reproductive activities
Gender and peer conformity Later adolescence more flexible
thinking
Gender intensification Pubertal hormonal changes Preparation for reproductive activities
Gender and peer conformity Later adolescence more flexible
thinking
Name:____________
Grading Sheet for Assignment 4: Changes in Grandparenting
Scores in all 3 areas are totaled to give a final score from 1-10
I. Content
3 people interviewed (one over 60 and one under 30) nature of relationship with grandparents described for each
person author’s interpretation of how changes in geographic mobility,
daycare, and divorce have contributed to the quality of grandparent/grandchild relationships
1 2 3 4 5 6
II. Organization
clear, specific introduction that explains the purpose of the paper
thoughtful conclusion that goes beyond repetition of main points effective topic sentences fully developed, unified paragraphs 1 2
Grammar and Mechanics
consistent/appropriate use of present and past tenses avoidance of sentence fragments and run-on sentences proper subject-verb agreement correct punctuation correct spelling appropriate integration of quotations 1 2
Total Score =
Name:____________
Grading Sheet for Assignment 4: Changes in Grandparenting
Scores in all 3 areas are totaled to give a final score from 1-10
I. Content
3 people interviewed (one over 60 and one under 30) nature of relationship with grandparents described for each
person author’s interpretation of how changes in geographic mobility,
daycare, and divorce have contributed to the quality of grandparent/grandchild relationships
1 2 3 4 5 6
II. Organization
clear, specific introduction that explains the purpose of the paper
thoughtful conclusion that goes beyond repetition of main points effective topic sentences fully developed, unified paragraphs 1 2
Grammar and Mechanics
consistent/appropriate use of present and past tenses avoidance of sentence fragments and run-on sentences proper subject-verb agreement correct punctuation correct spelling appropriate integration of quotations 1 2
Total Score =
Social-role Hypothesis (Eagly)Social-role Hypothesis (Eagly)
Roles create stereotypes
Context and culture important
Changes occurring today
Psychological differences Few and small
Important
Differential roles continue
Roles create stereotypes
Context and culture important
Changes occurring today
Psychological differences Few and small
Important
Differential roles continue
Biosocial TheoryBiosocial Theory Money and Ehrhardt Biological development
Presence of Y chromosome Testosterone masculinizes brain and nervous
system
Social influences and labeling at birth Gender behavior through social
interaction
Money and Ehrhardt Biological development
Presence of Y chromosome Testosterone masculinizes brain and nervous
system
Social influences and labeling at birth Gender behavior through social
interaction
Origins of Sexual OrientationOrigins of Sexual Orientation
No evidence for Freudian interpretations (e.g., strong mother, weak father)
Prenatal hormones influence adult sexual orientation
Homosexual parents as likely to have heterosexual children as heterosexual parents.
No evidence for Freudian interpretations (e.g., strong mother, weak father)
Prenatal hormones influence adult sexual orientation
Homosexual parents as likely to have heterosexual children as heterosexual parents.
A classification of children’s sex-related behaviors. (Adapted from the Child Sexual Behavior Inventory [Friedrich et al., 1991] and Kaeser, DiSalvio & Moglia’s [2000])
A classification of children’s sex-related behaviors. (Adapted from the Child Sexual Behavior Inventory [Friedrich et al., 1991] and Kaeser, DiSalvio & Moglia’s [2000])
Communicative Behaviors - Verbal: for example, “Talks about sexual acts” - Nonverbal: for example, “Shy about undressing”
Exhibition and Voyeur Behaviors for example, “Shows sex (private) parts to adults” for example, “Tries to look at people when they are nude or undressing”
Modeling Behaviors
- Sexually implicit: for example, “Playing doctor-games” - Sexually explicit: for example, “Imitates sexual behavior with dolls or stuffed
animals”
Self-touching Behaviors for example, “Touches sex (private) parts at home” for example, “Masturbate with hand”
Touching-others Behaviors - Direct: for example, “Touches other people’s sex (private) parts” - Indirect: for example, “Hug adults he/she does not know well”
Communicative Behaviors - Verbal: for example, “Talks about sexual acts” - Nonverbal: for example, “Shy about undressing”
Exhibition and Voyeur Behaviors for example, “Shows sex (private) parts to adults” for example, “Tries to look at people when they are nude or undressing”
Modeling Behaviors
- Sexually implicit: for example, “Playing doctor-games” - Sexually explicit: for example, “Imitates sexual behavior with dolls or stuffed
animals”
Self-touching Behaviors for example, “Touches sex (private) parts at home” for example, “Masturbate with hand”
Touching-others Behaviors - Direct: for example, “Touches other people’s sex (private) parts” - Indirect: for example, “Hug adults he/she does not know well”
Parental Investment Theory (Robert Trivers, 1972)
Parental Investment Theory (Robert Trivers, 1972)
There is a conflict for both males and females in how much time, effort, and resources to invest in mating versus parenting
In most mammalian species: Females invest more than males (female investment is obligatory)
Gamete size (egg larger than sperm) Internal fertilization and gestation Nursing Childcare
Ancestral men and women faced different adaptive problems and evolved different adaptive mechanisms (this is true for the sexes of most animals)
There is a conflict for both males and females in how much time, effort, and resources to invest in mating versus parenting
In most mammalian species: Females invest more than males (female investment is obligatory)
Gamete size (egg larger than sperm) Internal fertilization and gestation Nursing Childcare
Ancestral men and women faced different adaptive problems and evolved different adaptive mechanisms (this is true for the sexes of most animals)
Sexuality Over the Life SpanSexuality Over the Life Span Infant sexuality: CNS arousal
Childhood Learn about reproduction
Curiosity and exploration
Sexual abuse: like PTSD
Adolescence: sexual identity, orientation
Double standard: decline?
Infant sexuality: CNS arousal
Childhood Learn about reproduction
Curiosity and exploration
Sexual abuse: like PTSD
Adolescence: sexual identity, orientation
Double standard: decline?
Adult SexualityAdult Sexuality Most are married
Gradual declines Individual differences
Married have more sex
Male sexual peak: age 18
Female sexual peak: age 38
Most are married
Gradual declines Individual differences
Married have more sex
Male sexual peak: age 18
Female sexual peak: age 38
Men have greater sex drive than women (controversial)
Men have greater sex drive than women (controversial)
Men engage in more sexual daydreaming than women Men report experiencing more spontaneous sexual desire than women
Gay men report having sex more frequently than lesbians Men report initiating sex more than women Men masturbate more than women Women report higher frequency of low libido than men Men more likely to pay money or present gifts for sex than women
Men engage in more sexual daydreaming than women Men report experiencing more spontaneous sexual desire than women
Gay men report having sex more frequently than lesbians Men report initiating sex more than women Men masturbate more than women Women report higher frequency of low libido than men Men more likely to pay money or present gifts for sex than women
Older AdultsOlder Adults Stereotype: Asexuality
Reality: decline Diseases and disabilities
Social attitudes
Lack of a partner
Physiologically able in old age
Stereotype: Asexuality
Reality: decline Diseases and disabilities
Social attitudes
Lack of a partner
Physiologically able in old age
Incest AvoidanceIncest Avoidance Westermark (childhood familiarity results in incest avoidance) versus
Freud (Oedipal and Electra complexes)
Wolf: “minor marriages” in Taiwan Compared to “major marriages,” minor produced 40% fewer children had three times higher divorce rate wives more likely to admit to extramarital affairs
Shepher: Israeli kibbutzim Of 2869 couples from 211 kibbutzim, no marriages between members
from the same kibbutz.
Westermark (childhood familiarity results in incest avoidance) versus Freud (Oedipal and Electra complexes)
Wolf: “minor marriages” in Taiwan Compared to “major marriages,” minor produced 40% fewer children had three times higher divorce rate wives more likely to admit to extramarital affairs
Shepher: Israeli kibbutzim Of 2869 couples from 211 kibbutzim, no marriages between members
from the same kibbutz.
Post-adoption incest and genetic sexual attractionPost-adoption incest and genetic sexual attraction
highly intense, sexual attraction, often leading to incestuous relations, experienced by close kin who have been separated at or soon after birth and reunited as adults.
Most data on this phenomenon are anecdotal
Greenberg and Littlewood’s (1995) survey of post-adoption counselors in London indicated that about 50% of clients who had
been reunited with kin as adults experienced, “strong, sexual feelings.”
highly intense, sexual attraction, often leading to incestuous relations, experienced by close kin who have been separated at or soon after birth and reunited as adults.
Most data on this phenomenon are anecdotal
Greenberg and Littlewood’s (1995) survey of post-adoption counselors in London indicated that about 50% of clients who had
been reunited with kin as adults experienced, “strong, sexual feelings.”
Mechanisms for Westermark effectMechanisms for Westermark effect
Olfaction Evidence of the functions of pheromones in animals and humans for
both kin recognition and sexual attraction Parents can distinguish between the odors of their biological children,
except in the case of identical twins Mothers cannot identify stepchildren by odor Preadolescent children can identify their full sibs but not half sibs or
stepsibs by odor Olfactory cues may mediate favoritism of blood relatives
Olfaction Evidence of the functions of pheromones in animals and humans for
both kin recognition and sexual attraction Parents can distinguish between the odors of their biological children,
except in the case of identical twins Mothers cannot identify stepchildren by odor Preadolescent children can identify their full sibs but not half sibs or
stepsibs by odor Olfactory cues may mediate favoritism of blood relatives
Weisfeld et al. (2003), studying human familiesWeisfeld et al. (2003), studying human families
immediate family members exhibited particular patterns of aversions to each other’s odors.
Fathers showed aversions to their daughters’, but not to their sons’ odors.
Mothers did not display any aversions Opposite-sexed, but not same-sexed sibling pairs, showed aversions to
each other’s odors. These patterns occurred whether or not the source of the odor was
recognized, and whether or not the individuals involved were biologically related.
immediate family members exhibited particular patterns of aversions to each other’s odors.
Fathers showed aversions to their daughters’, but not to their sons’ odors.
Mothers did not display any aversions Opposite-sexed, but not same-sexed sibling pairs, showed aversions to
each other’s odors. These patterns occurred whether or not the source of the odor was
recognized, and whether or not the individuals involved were biologically related.
Attachment TheoryAttachment Theory Bowlby: A strong affectional tie that binds a person to an
intimate companion Measured by:
proximity behaviors, distress upon separation, extent to which the attachment figure can calm infant
Helps regulate distress by proximity seeking By about 6-7 months
Ainsworth: special, irreplaceable people Desire to maintain proximity Derive a sense of security
Bowlby: A strong affectional tie that binds a person to an intimate companion
Measured by: proximity behaviors, distress upon separation, extent to which the attachment figure can calm infant
Helps regulate distress by proximity seeking By about 6-7 months
Ainsworth: special, irreplaceable people Desire to maintain proximity Derive a sense of security
EthologyEthology Konrad Lorenz: Imprinting
Critical period Irreversible
Humans: Attachment Sensitive period Predisposed
Konrad Lorenz: Imprinting Critical period Irreversible
Humans: Attachment Sensitive period Predisposed
Theories of AttachmentTheories of Attachment
Psychoanalytic Theory: “I love you because you feed me”
Learning Theory: “Rewards lead to love” Cognitive-Developmental Theory: “To love you I
must know you” Ethological (Evolutionary) Theory: “Perhaps I was
born to love”
Psychoanalytic Theory: “I love you because you feed me”
Learning Theory: “Rewards lead to love” Cognitive-Developmental Theory: “To love you I
must know you” Ethological (Evolutionary) Theory: “Perhaps I was
born to love”
Infant’s Attachment to CaregiverInfant’s Attachment to Caregiver
Social responsiveness At birth: undiscriminating 2-6 mo: preferences develop
Proximity seeking 6 mo to 3 yr Attachment figures Mental representation abilities needed
Social responsiveness At birth: undiscriminating 2-6 mo: preferences develop
Proximity seeking 6 mo to 3 yr Attachment figures Mental representation abilities needed
Caregiver’s Attachment to InfantCaregiver’s Attachment to Infant
Early contact not crucial nor sufficient
Neonatal reflexes endearing: e.g., smiling
Cooing and babbling: early conversations
Synchronized routines Peek-A-Boo
Sensitive responding a must
Over-stimulation/under-stimulation
Early contact not crucial nor sufficient
Neonatal reflexes endearing: e.g., smiling
Cooing and babbling: early conversations
Synchronized routines Peek-A-Boo
Sensitive responding a must
Over-stimulation/under-stimulation
Attachment-Related FearsAttachment-Related Fears
Separation anxiety: 6-8 mo Peaks around 14-18 mo Gradually wanes
Stranger anxiety: 8-10 mo Declines during 2nd yr
Ainsworth: secure base for exploration
Separation anxiety: 6-8 mo Peaks around 14-18 mo Gradually wanes
Stranger anxiety: 8-10 mo Declines during 2nd yr
Ainsworth: secure base for exploration
Table 14.1, page 394
Quality of AttachmentQuality of Attachment
Caregiver provides “contact comfort” Ainsworth: Strange Situation Test
Secure attachment: most Insecure attachment categories
Inconsistent care > resistant Insensitive stimulation > avoidant
Rejection, impatient, resentful Intrusive
Abusive > disorganized/disoriented
Caregiver provides “contact comfort” Ainsworth: Strange Situation Test
Secure attachment: most Insecure attachment categories
Inconsistent care > resistant Insensitive stimulation > avoidant
Rejection, impatient, resentful Intrusive
Abusive > disorganized/disoriented
Table 14.2, page 395
Later OutcomesLater Outcomes Securely attached child
Cognitively and socially competent Expect positive reactions
Insecurely attached child Withdrawn, dependent, fearful Less competent
Patterns last through adolescence
Securely attached child Cognitively and socially competent Expect positive reactions
Insecurely attached child Withdrawn, dependent, fearful Less competent
Patterns last through adolescence
Attachment to fathers, grandparents, etc. Can compensate for poor attachment
Secure attachments may change Stressful events: divorce, illness
Insecure attachments may change Lifestyle improvements
Later relationships influenced by nature of early attachment
Attachment to fathers, grandparents, etc. Can compensate for poor attachment
Secure attachments may change Stressful events: divorce, illness
Insecure attachments may change Lifestyle improvements
Later relationships influenced by nature of early attachment
Distribution (%) of the types of attachment types (secure, insecure
avoidant and insecure ambivalent) in several countries Distribution (%) of the types of attachment types (secure, insecure
avoidant and insecure ambivalent) in several countries
Country Secure Insecure Avoidant Insecure Ambivalent
USA 65 20 13
Germany 43 46 8
Sweden 76 22 4
Netherlands
72 24 4
Japan 77 0 23
Israel 55 8 33
Interactions during childhoodInteractions during childhood
During childhood, peer social interaction focuses on play Sex segregation common Physical aggression during early childhood, relative to toddlerhood,
decreases while verbal aggression shows the opposite pattern (Coie & Dodge, 1998).
Relational aggression: manipulating social relations by shunning and spreading rumors, among other strategies.
Relational aggression increases with age as children’s cognitive abilities improve, but is used more by girls than boys
During childhood, peer social interaction focuses on play Sex segregation common Physical aggression during early childhood, relative to toddlerhood,
decreases while verbal aggression shows the opposite pattern (Coie & Dodge, 1998).
Relational aggression: manipulating social relations by shunning and spreading rumors, among other strategies.
Relational aggression increases with age as children’s cognitive abilities improve, but is used more by girls than boys
Peer-directed aggression is first observed at the end of the first year of life and typically occurs in the context of object disputes (Coie & Dodge, 1998).
Up to 50% of the interaction between toddlers is conflictual, though not aggressive
Peer-directed aggression is first observed at the end of the first year of life and typically occurs in the context of object disputes (Coie & Dodge, 1998).
Up to 50% of the interaction between toddlers is conflictual, though not aggressive
Bullies and victimsBullies and victims
The form of aggression that comes to the fore during late childhood and adolescence is bullying and victimization
Bullies are more frequently boys than girls and represent about 10% of the elementary school population in most industrialized counties
boys use physical aggression in bullying same-sex peers and girls use relational aggression with other girls
Victims of bullies tend to be physically frail children with few friends or affiliates
The form of aggression that comes to the fore during late childhood and adolescence is bullying and victimization
Bullies are more frequently boys than girls and represent about 10% of the elementary school population in most industrialized counties
boys use physical aggression in bullying same-sex peers and girls use relational aggression with other girls
Victims of bullies tend to be physically frail children with few friends or affiliates
Aggression as a solution to adaptive problemsAggression as a solution to adaptive problems
Co-opt resources of others Defend against an attack Inflict costs on intrasexual rivals Negotiate status and power hierarchies Deter rivals from future aggression Deter long-term mates from sexual infidelity
Co-opt resources of others Defend against an attack Inflict costs on intrasexual rivals Negotiate status and power hierarchies Deter rivals from future aggression Deter long-term mates from sexual infidelity
Potential benefits of aggression must be balanced with costs
Potential benefits of aggression must be balanced with costs
Aggression tends to cause retaliatory aggression Aggression to maintain reputation and status “Honor” killings of sisters/daughters to maintain status in
community Willingness of victim to retaliate Reputation as both a bully or victim can be deleterious
Aggression tends to cause retaliatory aggression Aggression to maintain reputation and status “Honor” killings of sisters/daughters to maintain status in
community Willingness of victim to retaliate Reputation as both a bully or victim can be deleterious
Young-male syndromeYoung-male syndrome
Males, at all ages, engage in more physical aggression than females and the aggression that adolescent and young-adult males engage in is more likely to lead to serious injury and sometimes death
Greater male aggression can be explained in terms of parental investment theory
Intrasex competitionImpress females via competitive risk taking
Risk taking and accidents are frequently the result of competitive or “show-off” behavior, with the purpose being to compete with other members of the same sex or to impress members of the opposite sex
Males, at all ages, engage in more physical aggression than females and the aggression that adolescent and young-adult males engage in is more likely to lead to serious injury and sometimes death
Greater male aggression can be explained in terms of parental investment theory
Intrasex competitionImpress females via competitive risk taking
Risk taking and accidents are frequently the result of competitive or “show-off” behavior, with the purpose being to compete with other members of the same sex or to impress members of the opposite sex
Death rates dues to vehicular accidents per 100,000 resident population in the United States for males and
females, 1995-1997
Death rates dues to vehicular accidents per 100,000 resident population in the United States for males and
females, 1995-1997
0
10
20
30
40
50
5-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-64
Years in Age
Vehicular Accident Rate
Males
Females
Percentage of trauma admissions for violence at LA Medical Center for 3 months in 1990, by age (adapted from Cairns et
al., 1991)
Percentage of trauma admissions for violence at LA Medical Center for 3 months in 1990, by age (adapted from Cairns et
al., 1991)
0
20
40
60
80
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34
Age in Years
Percentage of Violent Admissions
Adolescent and young-adult males are more likely to be both the victims and perpetrators of
homicide
Adolescent and young-adult males are more likely to be both the victims and perpetrators of
homicide
Homicide victimization rate per 100,000 resident population in the United States, 1995-1997: MalesHomicide victimization rate per 100,000 resident population in the United States, 1995-1997: Males
-10
10
30
50
70
90
110
130
150
1-14 15-24 25-44 45-64 65 +
Age in Years
Homicide Rate / 100,000
All Males
White Males
African American Males
Homicide victimization rate per 100,000 resident population in the United States, 1995-1997: Females
Homicide victimization rate per 100,000 resident population in the United States, 1995-1997: Females
0
20
40
60
80
100
1-14 15-24 25-44 45-64 65 +
Years in Age
Homicide Rate / 100,000
All Females
White Females
African American Females
Dominance hierarchiesDominance hierarchies
Status with a group Influences access to resources, such as food and mates Establishing high status achieved by combination of
aggression and cooperative interaction Dominance hierarchies:
Reduce antagonism within the group Distribute scare resources Focus division of labor
Status with a group Influences access to resources, such as food and mates Establishing high status achieved by combination of
aggression and cooperative interaction Dominance hierarchies:
Reduce antagonism within the group Distribute scare resources Focus division of labor
Establishing Dominance HierarchiesEstablishing Dominance Hierarchies
“leaders” recognized early,even in transient groups. In children, top and bottom of hierarchies established first, middle
areas later Even preverbal toddlers in groups form dominance hierarchies In childhood, hierarchies usually in same-sex groups Interaction in same-sex groups serves to foster development of social
skills Children with mostly opposite-sex friends are less-well adjusted than
children with mostly same-sex friends (Kovacs et al., 1996)
“leaders” recognized early,even in transient groups. In children, top and bottom of hierarchies established first, middle
areas later Even preverbal toddlers in groups form dominance hierarchies In childhood, hierarchies usually in same-sex groups Interaction in same-sex groups serves to foster development of social
skills Children with mostly opposite-sex friends are less-well adjusted than
children with mostly same-sex friends (Kovacs et al., 1996)
Both aggression and affiliative behaviors used to establish and maintain dominance
Both aggression and affiliative behaviors used to establish and maintain dominance
Evidence in: chimpanzees (de Waal) preschoolers (Hawley) school children and adolescence (Pellegrini)
In preschoolers level of aggression positively associated with popularity (Hawley; Vollenweider et al.)
Robbers Cave study (Sherif et al.) Fifth-grade boys at summer camp Rattlers and Eagles
Evidence in: chimpanzees (de Waal) preschoolers (Hawley) school children and adolescence (Pellegrini)
In preschoolers level of aggression positively associated with popularity (Hawley; Vollenweider et al.)
Robbers Cave study (Sherif et al.) Fifth-grade boys at summer camp Rattlers and Eagles
Outcomes of Parenting StylesOutcomes of Parenting Styles
Children of authoritative parents Adjusted, responsible, high achievement
Children of authoritarian parents Moody, unhappy, aimless
Children of permissive parents Low: self-control, independence, achievers
Children of neglectful/uninvolved parents Behavior problems, antisocial
Children of authoritative parents Adjusted, responsible, high achievement
Children of authoritarian parents Moody, unhappy, aimless
Children of permissive parents Low: self-control, independence, achievers
Children of neglectful/uninvolved parents Behavior problems, antisocial
Stepparent Investment: Cinderella or Marsha Stepparent Investment: Cinderella or Marsha
Brady?Brady? Stepparent Investment: Cinderella or Marsha Stepparent Investment: Cinderella or Marsha
Brady?Brady? Stepparents should show little interest in the welfare of children who Stepparents should show little interest in the welfare of children who
are clearly not their biological offspringare clearly not their biological offspring Why should stepfathers invest at all?Why should stepfathers invest at all? Stepparenting as mating opportunity. The best strategy for a man Stepparenting as mating opportunity. The best strategy for a man
when looking for a new mate may be to act solicitously toward the when looking for a new mate may be to act solicitously toward the potential mate’s childrenpotential mate’s children
It’s more difficult for stepparents to develop strong emotional bonds It’s more difficult for stepparents to develop strong emotional bonds with stepchildren than with biological childrenwith stepchildren than with biological children
In one study of middle-class stepfamilies in the United States, only In one study of middle-class stepfamilies in the United States, only 53% of stepfathers and 25% of stepmothers claimed to have any 53% of stepfathers and 25% of stepmothers claimed to have any “parental feelings” whatsoever for their stepchildren (Duberman, “parental feelings” whatsoever for their stepchildren (Duberman, 19751975)
Stepparents should show little interest in the welfare of children who Stepparents should show little interest in the welfare of children who are clearly not their biological offspringare clearly not their biological offspring
Why should stepfathers invest at all?Why should stepfathers invest at all? Stepparenting as mating opportunity. The best strategy for a man Stepparenting as mating opportunity. The best strategy for a man
when looking for a new mate may be to act solicitously toward the when looking for a new mate may be to act solicitously toward the potential mate’s childrenpotential mate’s children
It’s more difficult for stepparents to develop strong emotional bonds It’s more difficult for stepparents to develop strong emotional bonds with stepchildren than with biological childrenwith stepchildren than with biological children
In one study of middle-class stepfamilies in the United States, only In one study of middle-class stepfamilies in the United States, only 53% of stepfathers and 25% of stepmothers claimed to have any 53% of stepfathers and 25% of stepmothers claimed to have any “parental feelings” whatsoever for their stepchildren (Duberman, “parental feelings” whatsoever for their stepchildren (Duberman, 19751975)
How much do stepparents investHow much do stepparents invest??How much do stepparents investHow much do stepparents invest??
Anderson et al. (1999a,b): South Africa & U.S.: stepfathers spent Anderson et al. (1999a,b): South Africa & U.S.: stepfathers spent significantly more money on their natural children than on their significantly more money on their natural children than on their stepchildrenstepchildren
Zvoch, 1999: Stepfamilies saved less money for their children’s Zvoch, 1999: Stepfamilies saved less money for their children’s education, started savings accounts for children later, and expected to education, started savings accounts for children later, and expected to spend less money for their child’s education in the future.spend less money for their child’s education in the future.
Stepfathers spend significantly less time with their stepchildren than Stepfathers spend significantly less time with their stepchildren than with their natural children (3 hours less per week with their with their natural children (3 hours less per week with their stepchildren than with their natural children); play with them less stepchildren than with their natural children); play with them less often. Pattern found cross culturally: U.s. South Africa, Caribbean often. Pattern found cross culturally: U.s. South Africa, Caribbean islandsislands
less money is spent on food when a child is reared by an adoptive, less money is spent on food when a child is reared by an adoptive, foster, or stepmother than a biological mother (Case et al.)foster, or stepmother than a biological mother (Case et al.)
Anderson et al. (1999a,b): South Africa & U.S.: stepfathers spent Anderson et al. (1999a,b): South Africa & U.S.: stepfathers spent significantly more money on their natural children than on their significantly more money on their natural children than on their stepchildrenstepchildren
Zvoch, 1999: Stepfamilies saved less money for their children’s Zvoch, 1999: Stepfamilies saved less money for their children’s education, started savings accounts for children later, and expected to education, started savings accounts for children later, and expected to spend less money for their child’s education in the future.spend less money for their child’s education in the future.
Stepfathers spend significantly less time with their stepchildren than Stepfathers spend significantly less time with their stepchildren than with their natural children (3 hours less per week with their with their natural children (3 hours less per week with their stepchildren than with their natural children); play with them less stepchildren than with their natural children); play with them less often. Pattern found cross culturally: U.s. South Africa, Caribbean often. Pattern found cross culturally: U.s. South Africa, Caribbean islandsislands
less money is spent on food when a child is reared by an adoptive, less money is spent on food when a child is reared by an adoptive, foster, or stepmother than a biological mother (Case et al.)foster, or stepmother than a biological mother (Case et al.)
““Wicked” stepparents?Wicked” stepparents?““Wicked” stepparents?Wicked” stepparents?
Daly & Wilson, in survey of Canadian households: Children were 40 Daly & Wilson, in survey of Canadian households: Children were 40 times more likely to be abused if they lived with a stepparent versus times more likely to be abused if they lived with a stepparent versus two natural parents.two natural parents.
This difference remained even when possible influencing factors that This difference remained even when possible influencing factors that may be associated with stepfamilies, such as poverty, the mother’s may be associated with stepfamilies, such as poverty, the mother’s age, and family size, were statistically controlled. Given these and age, and family size, were statistically controlled. Given these and similar findingssimilar findings
““Stepparenthood per se remains the single most powerful risk factor Stepparenthood per se remains the single most powerful risk factor for child abuse that has yet been identified.”for child abuse that has yet been identified.”
Child homicide: Studies in different countries report that for children Child homicide: Studies in different countries report that for children under 2-years of age, homicide 40 to 100 times more likely at hands of under 2-years of age, homicide 40 to 100 times more likely at hands of stepparent (usually stepfather) than natural parent.stepparent (usually stepfather) than natural parent.
Daly & Wilson, in survey of Canadian households: Children were 40 Daly & Wilson, in survey of Canadian households: Children were 40 times more likely to be abused if they lived with a stepparent versus times more likely to be abused if they lived with a stepparent versus two natural parents.two natural parents.
This difference remained even when possible influencing factors that This difference remained even when possible influencing factors that may be associated with stepfamilies, such as poverty, the mother’s may be associated with stepfamilies, such as poverty, the mother’s age, and family size, were statistically controlled. Given these and age, and family size, were statistically controlled. Given these and similar findingssimilar findings
““Stepparenthood per se remains the single most powerful risk factor Stepparenthood per se remains the single most powerful risk factor for child abuse that has yet been identified.”for child abuse that has yet been identified.”
Child homicide: Studies in different countries report that for children Child homicide: Studies in different countries report that for children under 2-years of age, homicide 40 to 100 times more likely at hands of under 2-years of age, homicide 40 to 100 times more likely at hands of stepparent (usually stepfather) than natural parent.stepparent (usually stepfather) than natural parent.
The risk of being killed by a stepparent versus a natural parent in relation to child’s age: Canada, 1974-1983 (from
Day & Wilson, 1988)
The risk of being killed by a stepparent versus a natural parent in relation to child’s age: Canada, 1974-1983 (from
Day & Wilson, 1988)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
0-2 3-5 6-8 9-17
Age of Child
Homicide Rate per Million Children
Natural Parents
Stepparents
DivorceDivorce High-risk couples
married 7 years Teen-age marriages, short courtship Pregnant before marriage Low SES
Post-divorce crisis 1-2 years At risk for depression
High-risk couples married 7 years Teen-age marriages, short courtship Pregnant before marriage Low SES
Post-divorce crisis 1-2 years At risk for depression
Children of DivorceChildren of Divorce Often angry, fearful, depressed, or guilty
Custodial mother overwhelmed
Behavior problems
Peer relationships suffer/change
Sometimes negative effects are lasting
1-2 year adjustment
Often angry, fearful, depressed, or guilty
Custodial mother overwhelmed
Behavior problems
Peer relationships suffer/change
Sometimes negative effects are lasting
1-2 year adjustment
Theories of Aging and DeathTheories of Aging and Death Programmed theories
Maximum life span (species specific)
Hayflick Limit
Damage Theories Free radicals
Interaction of the two – or more
Programmed theories Maximum life span (species specific)
Hayflick Limit
Damage Theories Free radicals
Interaction of the two – or more
The ChildThe Child The mature concept of death
Finality, irreversibility, universality, biological causality
Age 3-5: universality Dead live under altered circumstances Reversible - life sleep
Age 5-7: finality, irreversibility Level of cognitive development, experience
The mature concept of death Finality, irreversibility, universality, biological
causality
Age 3-5: universality Dead live under altered circumstances Reversible - life sleep
Age 5-7: finality, irreversibility Level of cognitive development, experience
The Natural Emergence of ‘Afterlife’ Reasoning with Jesse Bering & Carlos Hernández Blasi
The Natural Emergence of ‘Afterlife’ Reasoning with Jesse Bering & Carlos Hernández Blasi
Preschoolers, 10/11-year olds; adults View puppet show of anthropomorphized mouse getting eaten
by alligator
Preschoolers, 10/11-year olds; adults View puppet show of anthropomorphized mouse getting eaten
by alligator
Participants asked series of questions about the continuity of biological, psychobiological, and psychological
functioning
Participants asked series of questions about the continuity of biological, psychobiological, and psychological
functioning
BiologicalBiological
Will he ever need to eat food again?”*
Does his brain still work?”*
Will he ever grow up to be an old mouse?”
Will he ever need to drink water again?”
Will he ever need to eat food again?”*
Does his brain still work?”*
Will he ever grow up to be an old mouse?”
Will he ever need to drink water again?”
PsychobiologicalPsychobiological
Is he still thirsty?”*
Is he still hungry?”*
Is he still sleepy?”
Does he still feel sick?”
Is he still thirsty?”*
Is he still hungry?”*
Is he still sleepy?”
Does he still feel sick?”
PerceptualPerceptual
Can he still hear the birds singing?”*
Can he still taste the yucky grass he ate?”*
Can he still smell the flowers?”
Can he see where he is?”
Can he still hear the birds singing?”*
Can he still taste the yucky grass he ate?”*
Can he still smell the flowers?”
Can he see where he is?”
DesireDesire
Does he still wish he didn’t have a brother?”*
Does he still want to go home?”*
Does he still hope he gets better at math?”
Does he still wish he didn’t have a brother?”*
Does he still want to go home?”*
Does he still hope he gets better at math?”
EmotionalEmotional
Is still sad because he can’t find his way home?”*
Is still angry at his brother?”*
Still loves his mom?”
Is still scared of the alligator?”
Is still sad because he can’t find his way home?”*
Is still angry at his brother?”*
Still loves his mom?”
Is still scared of the alligator?”
EpistemicEpistemic
Is still thinking about his brother?”*
Still believes he’s smarter than his brother?”*
Knows that he’s not alive?”
Still believes his mom is the nicest grownup?”
Is still thinking about his brother?”*
Still believes he’s smarter than his brother?”*
Knows that he’s not alive?”
Still believes his mom is the nicest grownup?”
Percentage of discontinuity responses by age and question type
Percentage of discontinuity responses by age and question type
0
20
40
60
80
100
Bio Psybio Percep Emo Des Epi
Kind
Late Elem
Adult
Percentage of 5/6-year-olds participants providing
discontinuity responses, by school- and question-type Percentage of 5/6-year-olds participants providing
discontinuity responses, by school- and question-type
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Bio Psybio Per Emo Des Epi
Question Type
% Discontinuity Responses
Religious Secular
Percentage of 8/9-year-olds participants providing discontinuity responses, by school- and question-type
Percentage of 8/9-year-olds participants providing discontinuity responses, by school- and question-type
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Bio Psybio Per Emo Des Epi
Question Type
% Discontinuity Responses
Religious Secular
Percentage of 11/12-year-olds participants providing discontinuity responses, by school- and question typePercentage of 11/12-year-olds participants providing discontinuity responses, by school- and question type
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Bio Psybio Per Emo Des Epi
Question Type
% Discontinuity Responses
Religious Secular
Percentage of participants providing discontinuity responses,
by age and question type Percentage of participants providing discontinuity responses,
by age and question type
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Bio Psybio Per Emo Des Epi
Question Type
% Discontinuity Responses
5/6 y-olds 8/9 y-olds 11/12 y-olds
The AdultThe Adult Death of family member difficult
Death of spouse more expected with age More difficult when young (non-normative)
Elevated levels of stress
Risk increases for illness and death
Signs of recovery after 2 years
Death of family member difficult
Death of spouse more expected with age More difficult when young (non-normative)
Elevated levels of stress
Risk increases for illness and death
Signs of recovery after 2 years
