THE EFFECTS OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT TRAINING ON HORSES' LOADING BEHAVIOUR

478346 Jaana PohjolaBSc (Hons) Applied Animal Behaviour 22/04/11BSc (Hons) Applied Animal Behaviour, 22/04/11

"A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment ofthe requirements for the BSc (Hons)

in Applied Animal Behaviour"

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I HEREBY DECLARE THAT THE TEXT OF THIS DISSERTATION/PROJECT IS SUBSTANTIALLY MY OWN WORK.

Signed:

Date:19.4.2011

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Table of contents

 Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. v 

List of pictures and figures .................................................................................................. vi 

Abstract .............................................................................................................................. vii 

Tiivistelmä ......................................................................................................................... viii 

1.  Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 

1.1.  Loading and transport stress .................................................................................. 2 

1.2.  The effects of positive reinforcement training to equine behaviour ......................... 5 

1.3.  Trailer loading and positive reinforcement training (PRT) ....................................... 7 

1.4.  Aims and objectives of the study ............................................................................ 9 

2.  Materials and methods ................................................................................................. 9 

2.1.  Materials ................................................................................................................. 9 

2.2.  Experimental design ............................................................................................. 10 

2.2.1.  Loading tests .................................................................................................. 11 

2.2.2.  Training procedure ......................................................................................... 14 

2.3.  Methods ................................................................................................................ 15 

2.3.1.  Variables and statistics .................................................................................. 15 

2.3.2.  Data collection ................................................................................................ 15 

3.  Results ........................................................................................................................ 16 

3.1.  Loading success and loading behaviours ............................................................. 17 

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3.2.  Effects on loading times ........................................................................................ 19 

3.3.  Effects on peak heart rates ................................................................................... 20 

3.4.  Effects on average heart rates .............................................................................. 22 

3.5.  Additional findings ................................................................................................. 24 

4.  Discussion .................................................................................................................. 24 

4.1.  Loading success and loading times ...................................................................... 26 

4.2.  The fear-related behaviours .................................................................................. 28 

4.3.  Effects on heart rates ............................................................................................ 30 

4.4.  Limitations of the study ......................................................................................... 32 

4.5.  Future research and potential implications ........................................................... 32 

5.  Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 34 

References ........................................................................................................................ 36 

Appendixes ........................................................................................................................ 39 

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my tutor Dr. Stephanie Armstrong for the support

and guidance. Thanks to Roger Coffin for statistical assistance.

A great input for this dissertation came from Harju Learning Centre.

Thank you for your interest, a broad-minded attitude, practical

arrangements and help in data collection project. Special thanks to

assistant steward Kari Heimala, equerries Nina Aapro and Mikko

Lähde and all the students who helped me during the two weeks I

spent in Harju.

I want to thank my friend Sanna-Mari Ahonen for the help in data

collection and the overall encouragement with this project. Thanks to

my father Ilkka Pohjola for designing and constructing the trailer-

resembling structures, Ossi Pohjola for briefing and supporting in use

of GPS and heart rate device, Kaisa Ahtiainen for proof reading my

English and Jyri Aho for all the support, encouragement and

statistical advice.

Special thanks to all my fellow students in applied animal behaviour

course; it has been great to get to know all of you during this two-

year-period.

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List of pictures and figures

Picture 1: Subject groups of the dissertation.

Picture 2: Loading test equipment.

Pictures 3-6: Trailer-resembling structures; a plywood platter, a ramp, a canopy

and a canopy with a tarp.

Figure 1: Loading success in group B horses before and after the training

procedure (n=8).

Figure 2: Fear-related behaviours in untrained (group A and B) and trained (group

B and C) horses (n=32).

Figure 3: Fear-related behaviours in group B horses before and after training

programme (n=8).

Figure 4: The effects of PRT on fear-related behaviours in loading situation in

group B horses (n=8).

Figure 5: Average loading times in untrained and in trained horses in general

(n=32).

Figure 6: Average loading times in group B horses before and after the training

procedure (n=8; P=0.16).

Figure 7: Peak heart rates in untrained and in trained horses in all (bpm; n=32;

P=0.013).

Figure 8: Peak heart rates in group B horses before and after the training

procedure (bpm; n=8; P=0.092).

Figure 9: Average heart rates in untrained and in trained horses (bpm; n=32;

P=0.013).

Figure 10: Average heart rates in group B horses before and after training

procedure (bpm; n=8; P=0.016).

Figure11: Average heart rates in untrained horses and trained horses, (bpm; n=

32).

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Abstract Loading situations are potentially dangerous for horses and for humans. In those situations aversive stimuli are in relatively general use, which may increase the horse’s discomfort and increase the amount of resistant behaviour. Positive reinforcement training (PRT) techniques have been stated as useful training tools in animal training; with PRT the animals usually become more cooperative and exhibit less fear reactions. PRT could be more effective than negative reinforcement training, which is normally used in equine training. The aim of the study was to examine the possible effects of PRT on equines’ loading behaviour. 24 horses in total were divided into three groups, with 8 horses in each group (A, B & C). Polar Equine heart rate belt was used together with a Garmin Forerunner 310XT GPS-watch to record the data. Group A and group B horses took loading tests in which their heart rates, loading behaviours and total loading times were recorded. Group B and C horses went through a PRT programme during which they were clicker-trained to walk and reverse on and under trailer-resembling objects. The horses were taught to walk on a platter, walk up and down the ramp and under a canopy with a tarp on it. After finishing the training programme, the horses in group B and C took additional loading tests with the same data being recorded. It was discovered that the trained horses load quicker. The average loading time decreased by 40 % in group B (n=8) horses after the training programme. Fear-related behaviours and resistant behaviours were 17 % lower in trained horses (n=32) and the average heart rates and peak heart rates were significantly lower in the trained horses than in the non-trained horses (n=32) (p=0.01; two-sample T-test). The peak heart rates were 25 % lower in the trained horses and the average heart rates were 24 % lower in the trained horses (n=32). Training horses to voluntarily load with the use of positive reinforcement training and trailer-resembling structures can be beneficial in the equine industry. In equine training the main focus has been in negative reinforcement, but the potential advantages of PRT have not been fully exploited. Effective and potentially cost-effective ways of training results in reduced stress reactions and possible risks and it may also lead to enhanced welfare. Potential implications of PRT could be especially useful in those husbandry procedures that normally cause fear and discomfort to horses. Key words: equine transport, equine training, positive reinforcement training

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Tiivistelmä Lastaamistilanteet sisältävät riskejä sekä hevoselle että lastaajalle. Lastauksessa käytetään usein kovia keinoja, jotka saattavat lisätä hevosen epämukavuutta ja vastustelua. Positiivinen vahvistaminen on todettu hyvin käyttökelpoiseksi menetelmäksi eläinkoulutuksessa; positiivisen vahvistamisen avulla koulutetut eläimet ovat yhteistyöhaluisia ja rentoja. Positiivinen vahvistaminen voisi olla hevoskoulutuksessa jopa käyttökelpoisempi ja tehokkaampi menetelmä kuin nykyisin käytössä oleva negatiivinen vahvistaminen. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli tutkia positiivisen vahvistamisen vaikutuksia hevosten lastauskäyttäytymiseen. 24 hevosta jaettiin kolmeen ryhmään (A, B ja C), joissa kussakin oli kahdeksan hevosta. Hevosten sykettä mitattiin Garmin Forerunner 310XT juoksutietokoneella ja Polar Equine- sykevyöllä. Ryhmien A ja B hevoset koelastattiin tutkimuksen alussa; lastaamiset videoitiin, lastauskäytökset listattiin, lastaamisaika mitattiin ja sykettä mitattiin. Ryhmien B ja C hevoset kävivät läpi koulutusohjelman, jonka aikana niitä koulutettiin naksuttimen ja ruokapalkkioiden avulla kävelemään traileria simuloivien rakenteiden yli. Hevoset opetettiin kulkemaan kovan levyn päällä, ylös ja alas ramppia sekä pressukatoksen ali. Koulutusjakson jälkeen ryhmät B ja C koelastattiin ja mitattiin samat tekijät kuin ensimmäisessä testissä. Tulokset osoittivat, että koulutusjakson läpikäyneet hevoset menivät traileriin nopeammin. Lastausaika lyheni 40 prosentilla ryhmän B hevosilla (n=8), jotka testattiin ennen ja jälkeen koulutusjakson. Pelkokäyttäytymistä ja vastustelua esiintyi 17 prosenttia vähemmän koulutetuilla kuin kouluttamattomilla hevosilla yleensä (n=32). Keskisykkeet ja maksimisykkeet olivat merkitsevästi alhaisemmat koulutetuilla kuin kouluttamattomilla hevosilla (n=32); koulutettujen hevosten maksimisykkeet olivat 25 % ja keskisykkeet 24 % alhaisemmat kuin kouluttamattomien hevosten. Hevosten kouluttaminen vapaaehtoiseen lastaamiseen positiivisen vahvistamisen avulla ja traileria simuloivien rakenteiden kanssa voi olla hyödyllistä. Perinteisesti hevoskoulutuksessa pääpaino on ollut negatiivisen vahvisteen käytössä, mutta positiivisen vahvistamisen mahdollisuuksia ei ole hyödynnetty. Toimivat ja kustannustehokkaat koulutusmenetelmät vähentävät riskejä ja stressireaktioita koulutustilanteissa, mikä voi johtaa hevosen parempaan hyvinvointiin. Erityisen hyödyllisiä positiivisen vahvistamisen menetelmät voisivat olla niissä hoito- ja käsittelytoimenpiteissä, jotka normaalisti aiheuttavat pelkoa ja epämukavuutta hevosille. Avainsanat: hevoskuljetus, hevosen lastaaminen, hevoskoulutus, positiivinen vahviste

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1. Introduction

Horses are often used in sports and in leisure or recreation. Almost

every horse is most likely to be transported at some point of its life;

for new owners, for breeding, for competition of some kind or to

veterinary clinic (McGreevy, 2004). Transport can be stressful to

horses, and includes potential risk factors for owners as well.

Transport and stressful loading situations with aversive handling can

trigger resistance behaviour which can result in physiological injury in

the horse itself or the person loading the horse (McGreevy, 2004).

The calmer the horse is during the transport and during the loading

phase, the lower risk of injury appears. According to Hockenhull &

Greighton (2010), almost 60 percent of UK leisure horses exhibit

some kind of unwanted behaviour during handling procedures.

Horses learn better when they are calm and relaxed, it has been

stated that the calmer the handler is and the more handler uses

learning theory in an appropriate way, the less reactive the horses

become and the quicker they are able to learn new tasks (Nicol,

2002). Horses are very shy animals; their first reaction to frightening

stimuli is flight (McGreevy, 2004). Horses’ fear reactions tend to

generalize to other situations readily; therefore eliciting fear

reactions in all handling procedures should be avoided (Nicol, 2002).

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1.1. Loading and transport stress

Transport is connected in general with increased diseases, a lowered

performance, lowered reproduction and increased indications of

physiological and mental stress (Friend, 2001). Loading horses into

trailers is often defined as a stressful event from a horse's aspect

(Waran & Cuddeford, 1995; Cross et al., 2008). Long-term stress can

predispose an animal to diseases, such as respiratory disease, and

is often related to reduced welfare (Moberg, 2000).

In horse transport, there are many factors which can cause

discomfort and stress to horses. According to Stull & Rodiek (2000),

the long-term transport has effects on horses’ performance, body

temperature and immune parameters. Physiological stressors are

temperature, disease and environmental factors, such as free space,

tethering, feeding, water, lighting etc. (Stull, 1997). Many horses are

being transported alone (Kay & Hall, 2009), during transportation a

horse has to maintain its balance by moving its feet and changing

position (Waran & Cuddeford, 1995) and handling procedures before,

after and during transport can be stressful (Cross et al., 2008). The

trailer itself can be frightening; furthermore the space in a trailer is

very limited, which can cause discomfort and fear. Stull & Rodiek

(2002) found that tethering a horse’s head to a certain position during

long-term journey increases the stress indicative blood

concentrations. According to Stull (1999) horses are calmer and less

stressed during transport the more they have floor space available.

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Lighting can affect the loading behavior; entering a dark trailer can be

a frightening task (Cross et al., 2008).

Transport stress is often measured by monitoring heart rate (HR) or

heart rate variability (HRV) (Waran & Cuddeford, 1995; Giovagnolia

et al., 2002; Cross et al., 2008; Schmidt et al., 2009; Schmidt et al.,

2010). In most of the equine transport studies it has been discovered

that HR and HRV appear to increase during transport (Waran &

Cuddeford, 1995; Giovagnolia et al., 2002; Cross et al., 2008;

Schmidt et al., 2009; Schmidt et al., 2010) and as soon as in a

loading phase (Cross et al., 2008). Andronie et al. (2009) conclude

the heart rate as an important physiological marker for assessment of

the welfare state on a horse. The heart rates are significantly lower in

a stationary state than in moving trailer, which indicates the

physiological stress due to balance preservation (Waran &

Cuddeford, 1995). Other stress-related indicators are elevated saliva

cortisol levels (Schmidt et al., 2009), increased plasma cortisol levels

(Schmidt et al., 2010), and gestures of discomfort and anxiety, such

as continuously maintaining balance (Giovagnolia et al., 2002), head

turning, pawing, defecating and vocalization (Kay & Hall, 2009).

During long journeys, HR, HRV and plasma cortisol levels tend to

increase (Schmidt et al., 2010). In slaughter horses, the peak levels

of blood cortisol have been measured during transport (Werner &

Gallo, 2008).

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Stress indicators are common in young horses which are not fully

experienced in transport or in loading and human handling (Waran &

Cuddeford, 1995). There are suggestions that transport is

nevertheless stressful to more experienced horses which are

transported regularly (Schmidt et al., 2009). Schmidt et al. (2010)

associated repeated transport with habituation and decrease in

stress responses. However, the cortisol levels remained elevated

despite of habituation to transport. Schmidt et al. (2009) measured

saliva cortisol levels and HR in sport horses that were used to

transportation. They discovered that nevertheless changes in heart

rates and in saliva cortisol levels equilibrated after the first day of

journey, they still elevated in the beginning of every new journey

(Schmidt et al., 2009).

The more fearful the horse is in loading situation, the more there will

be resistance behavior and signs of discomfort and the longer the

loading time will be (Ferguson & Rosalez-Ruiz, 2001). Waran &

Cuddeford (1995) discovered that the loading times were higher in

naïve yearlings than in 2-year-olds and in 3-year-olds. Two and

three-year-olds load faster than yearlings, but the heart rates did not

differ between the three age groups. This finding suggests that the

horse may experience loading stress despite of the short loading

time (Waran & Cuddeford, 1995). Andronie et al. (2009) found that

there is a connection between the loading and unloading times and

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other stress indicators; the longer the loading time, the more there

will be other signs of stress.

1.2. The effects of positive reinforcement training to equine behaviour

There is some evidence that nervous handler can affect the horse’s

behavior: the handler’s heart rates can have effects on horse’s heart

rates in handling situation such as loading (Keeling et al., 2009).

Handler’s inappropriate use of learning theory and especially

negative reinforcement can result in problems in loading situations

(McGreevy & McLean, 2009). If the handler uses negative

reinforcement in an inappropriate way, it can affect like a punishment

and actually reduce the wanted behaviour in loading situation

(McGreevy & McLean, 2009).

Sankey et al. (2010) found that there appears to be a correlation

between repetitive positive human-horse interactions and horses'

positive reactions and attitudes towards humans. The positive

experience with the trainer in combination with food rewards seemed

to expand to a positive association and furthermore positive attitude

towards all humans. The training in a positive context seems to have

effects on learning results and on horse’s behaviour in a training

situation and furthermore the positive memory seems to be

longlasting and additionally seem to readily generalize to other

situations (Sankey et al., 2010, Baraglia et al., 2011). This finding

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suggests that there might be unutilized potential in means of

constituting horses' attitude towards humans and interspecific

cooperation. In Thomas' (1986) learning ability hierarchy, there is

pointed out that one the most basic factors in horse training is to

habituate and desensitize a horse to the environment and to reduce

its flight and fear responses (Murphy & Arkins, 2007). Fear reactions

may increase for the fact that many standard procedures in horses

can be aversive, such as veterinary care, foot care or loading. The

more negative interactions there are between the horse and the

handler, the more the horse avoids these interactions and may

exhibit more fear reactions (Hausberger et al. 2008).

It has been stated that the positive interactions and positive

experiences have effects on animal welfare (Boissy et al. 2007).

There is evidence of benefits of positive reinforcement training with

horses. Innes & McBride (2008) discovered that positive

reinforcement as a training method in rehabilitated ponies increased

animals' motivation in given operant task. Ponies which were trained

with positive reinforcement were more willing to participate in training

sessions and represented more curious behaviours in novel

environments than negative reinforcement ponies (Innes & McBride,

2008). Heleski & Bello (2010) tested adding positive reinforcement to

negative reinforcement. They trained horses to walk on a tarp by

using either negative reinforcement or negative reinforcement in

combination with positive reinforcement. There were no differences

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in learning times between the two groups, but it was discovered that

negative reinforcement horses were less calm in training situations.

Additionally it was shown that positive reinforcement training resulted

in safer task for a handler.

1.3. Trailer loading and positive reinforcement training (PRT)

There have been only few studies on positive reinforcement training

in a potentially fearful situation in horses. In all studies, in which the

positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement have been

compared, the results seem to be parallel. Positive reinforcement has

been discovered as an effective method of training horses, but it is

still not prevailing in equine industry.

Hendriksen et al. (2010) compared the two training methods; positive

and negative reinforcement in a light of stress levels and learning

success. They used 12 horses with severe loading problems. They

discovered that the horses with positive reinforcement training were

calmer and learned faster than the horses with negative

reinforcement. There were no difference in heart rates between

positive and negative reinforcement groups, but the negative

reinforcement horses showed more stress signs during training than

positive reinforcement horses. In other study there were five problem

loaders who were trained to load with using positive reinforcement

and target training. The method revealed to be efficient; in addition to

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loading success, the unwanted behaviours, such as fear reactions

and flight attempts, reduced in all subjects during the training

procedure (Ferguson & Rosalez-Ruiz, 2001).

Shanahan (2003) re-trained 10 problem loaders and 7 good loaders

to load with non-aversive TTEAM- training method. The horses were

trained with trailer-simulating structures and obstacles with simple

leading exercises (Shanahan, 2003). The method was successful

nevertheless food rewards were not used; the loading times and

saliva cortisol levels decreased after training (Shanahan, 2003).

In recent study the use of shaping and target training in trailer loading

was found to be an efficient method (Slater & Dymond, 2011).

Researchers found that once the horses learned to voluntarily load,

the behaviour appeared to generalize to other situations and different

trailers as well (Slater & Dymond, 2011). The results are similar to

previous studies, where shaping and target training have been

successfully applied in trailer loading (Ferguson & Rosalez-Ruiz,

2001; Shanahan, 2003; Hendriksen et al. 2010).

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1.4. Aims and objectives of the study

Recent studies have questioned some of the traditional handling

procedures of horses. Learning theory is not utilized in horse industry

in the extent it is with other species, such as dogs. There have been

findings referring the possible benefits of positive reinforcement

training applied in horses.

The aim of this study was to investigate the possible effects of the

positive reinforcement training with trailer-resembling structures in

trailer loading training. The hypothesis of the dissertation is that the

positive reinforcement training affects horses’ loading behaviours,

loading times and heart rates.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials

The data collection and training procedure was conducted in Harju

learning centre and equine college in South-Eastern Finland. A total

of 24 horses from the equine college, 16 geldings and 6 mares, were

used. The subjects were aged from 6 to 19 and different breeds (see

list of subjects, appendix A). The sample was chosen to represent

Finnish leisure horses, adult horses with different backgrounds and

not transported on a regular basis.

10

The subjects were grazing around the clock during the data collection

period, and they were grouped in the pastures according to gender in

bands of 7 to 8 horses in each. All horses were used to handling and

all had previous experience in loading and transport, but the horses

were not transported on a regular basis. None of the horses had

been transported in last three months prior the data collection. The

horses were in college use, they were transported only to clinic for

urgent veterinary visits.

2.2. Experimental design

The subjects were divided into three groups: A, B and C. The data

was collected in two loading tests, with 16 horses in each test. On

the first day, sixteen horses, groups A and B, were attempted to load

without any training and on the last day sixteen horses, groups B and

C, were loaded after they had finished a training programme with

trailer-resembling structures and positive reinforcement training

(Picture 1). Group B horses took the loading test before and after the

training programme. Three groups were used in order to compare

untrained horses to trained horses and furthermore to measure

whether the training procedure had any effects in group B horses’

performance.

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All subjects were under similar conditions during the project:

permanently pastured with water, salt and minerals available at all

times, no concentrates were fed and they had neither exercise, nor

daily human contact. The weather conditions were extremely

challenging, as the temperature was about 30-35 degrees and it was

very sunny. Therefore the number of horseflies was extremely high

and could have affected the subjects’ behaviour.

Picture 1: Subject groups of the dissertation.

2.2.1. Loading tests

The data was collected in loading tests, which were filmed. In these

tests a Garmin Forerunner XT310 GPS-watch was used together

with a Polar equine heart rate belt. The horses were not desensitized

to heart rate belts due to the fact that they had all been ridden or

12

driven before and therefore they were accustomed to all normal

handling situations and basic equipment. The handler wore proper

safety gear; safety boots, helmet and gloves (Picture 2).

On the first day, groups A and B were tested. The purpose of the

loading test was to measure the horses’ initial approach to loading

situations. On the last day of the project, groups B and C took

additional loading tests after they had finished a training programme.

Both loading tests were conducted according to the same protocol.

A traditional rear-entry trailer was placed in a field near the horses’

pastures. The trailer was at a distance where the subject was able to

see its conspecifics during the loading test. The horses were caught

one by one; the heart rate belt was adjusted and the horse was lead

near the trailer. At 15 metres’ distance from the trailer the timer was

started and the loading test begun.

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Picture 2: Loading test equipment.

The horses were attempted to load with no assistants or aid, and no

food rewards were used in the loading test situations. All horses wore

head collars. If the horse refused to enter the trailer in five minutes’

time, the test was terminated and scored zero. The timer stopped

when the horse entered the trailer and had all legs inside. The trailer

door was not closed. After the tests, the horses were taken back to

their pastures.

The data consists of the loading test film recordings and the heart

rate and GPS-measurements (example of heart rate and GPS data,

appendix B). In the filmings, all behaviour during the loading was

assessed and listed (Ethogram, appendix C). The average and

14

maximum heart rate values were recorded and total loading times

were recorded.

2.2.2. Training procedure

16 horses (groups B & C) went through a training programme during

which they were trained to voluntarily approach and overstep trailer-

resembling structures. Horses were not distressed in the training

sessions in any way and any kind of pressure was not used. The

horses were shaped to show voluntary action. Trailer-resembling

structures were hard base (plywood platter), a plywood ramp and a

canopy with a tarp on it (Pictures 3-6).

Pictures 3-6: Trailer-resembling structures; a plywood platter, a ramp, a canopy

and a canopy with a tarp.

15

The training programme consisted of small steps, which were trained

separately. Each horse was trained for nine sessions, ten minutes

per session. The training programme started with approaching the

platter on the ground; the horses were rewarded for voluntarily

approaching the platter and overstepping it. Subjects were then

taught to walk and to reverse on a ramp and under a canopy, and

finally with a ramp under it (training programme, appendix D). A

clicker was used as a secondary reinforcer, whereas a handful of

Havens reform-herbal muesli was used as a primary reinforcer.

2.3. Methods

2.3.1. Variables and statistics

Data analyses were done using two-sample T-tests for loading times

and heart rates in comparing untrained horses with trained horses,

and paired two-sample T-tests for loading times and heart rates in

comparing group B horses before and after training procedure. The

data was normally distributed.

2.3.2. Data collection

Fear-related behaviours were considered to indicate stress, fear and

discomfort. Fear-related behaviours were snort, stop, reverse, ears

16

rotate, pull ahead, try to escape, leer, shake, sniff, defecate, stepping

and tail swishing (Appendix C, ethogram). Tail swishing was not

included to data for the fact that the causal factor to extreme

amounts of tail-swishing was not the stress but more likely the

horseflies which caused discomfort to horses during the data

collection. Loading tests were filmed and fear-related behaviours

were calculated. Additional data was collected with GPS-device

together with heart rate monitor and measuring total loading times.

3. Results

The positive reinforcement training had effects on equines’ loading

success, loading behaviours, loading times and heart rates. In group

B, before the training procedure four out of eight horses loaded

successfully and after the training programme six out of eight loaded

successfully. Fear-related loading behaviours were lower in trained

horses in general than in untrained horses; in group B the reduction

of fear-related behaviours was clear. The loading times did not differ

in trained and untrained horses in general, but in group B horses

there was a reduction in loading times after the training procedure.

Average heart rates and peak heart rates were lower in trained

horses than in untrained horses in general and the reduction in heart

rates in group B horses was evident. (Data sheet, appendix E)

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3.1. Loading success and loading behaviours

There were no differences in loading success between trained and

untrained horses in all. In both loading tests 11 out of 16 horses load

successfully. However, in group B, the loading success increased by

25 % after the training programme; two out of four horses which

refused to load before training programme, loaded successfully after

training (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Loading success in group B horses before and after the training

procedure (n=8).

The fear-related behaviours, which consisted snort, stop, reverse,

ears rotate, pull ahead, try to escape, leer, shake, sniff, defecate and,

stepping were at average 17 % lower in trained horses than in

untrained horses (Figure 2). In group B horses the fear-related

behaviours decreased by 48 % after training procedure (Figure 3).

Attempts to pull ahead, leering, defecating, ears rotating, shaking

0 %

10 %

20 %

30 %

40 %

50 %

60 %

70 %

80 %

90 %

100 %

Before training After training

Loading success before and after the training programme

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0 %

20 %

40 %

60 %

80 %

100 %

Before After

Fear-related behaviours in group B horses before and after training programme

0 %

10 %

20 %

30 %

40 %

50 %

60 %

70 %

80 %

90 %

100 %

Untrained Trained

Fear-related behaviours in untrained and trained horses (n=32)

and escape attempts decreased the most, while sniffing became

more frequent after training (Figure 4).

Figure 2: Fear-related behaviours in untrained (group A and B) and trained (group

B and C) horses (n=32).

Figure 3: Fear-related behaviours in group B horses before and after training

programme (n=8).

19

Figure 4: The effects of PRT on fear-related behaviours in loading situation in

group B horses (n=8).

3.2. Effects on loading times

The average loading times in trained and untrained horses did not

differ remarkably; the average loading times were almost the same,

average being two minutes (n=32) (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Average loading times in untrained and in trained horses in general

(n=32).

0102030405060708090100

Fear‐related behaviours in group B horses before and after training programme (n=8)

Before training %

After training %

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

3,5

4

4,5

Untrained Trained

Load

ing time (minutes)

Average loading times in untrained and trained horses (n=32)

20

In group B horses the average loading time before the training

procedure was 3.2 minutes and the average loading time reduced to

two minutes after training programme. Loading times in group B

horses (n=8) lowered nearly 40 %, one minute, after training

procedure (Figure 6) but the difference was not statistically significant

(P=0.16; paired two-sample T-test) due to great variance in loading

times.

Figure 6: Average loading times in group B horses before and after the training

procedure (n=8; P=0.16).

3.3. Effects on peak heart rates

Peak heart rates were significantly lower by 25% in trained horses in

general than in untrained horses (n=32; P=0.013; two-sample T-test)

(Figure 7). In group B horses the peak heart rates during the loading

test were 11 % lower after training programme; the reduction was not

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Before training After training

Load

ing time (minutes)

Average loading times in group B horses before and after training

21

statistically significant (n=8; P=0.09; paired two-sample T-test)

(Figure 8).

Figure 7: Peak heart rates in untrained and in trained horses in all (bpm; n=32;

P=0.013).

Figure 8: Peak heart rates in group B horses before and after the training

procedure (bpm; n=8; P=0.092).

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Non‐trained Trained

Peak heart rates in untrained and trained horses

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

before after

Group B peak heart rates before and after training (n=8)

22

3.4. Effects on average heart rates

Average heart rates were 25 % lower in general in trained than in

untrained horses. The difference is statistically significant (n=32;

P=0.013; two-sample T-test) (Figure 9). In group B horses there was

a 9 % reduction in average heart rates after training procedure. The

reduction is statistically significant (n=8; P=0.016; paired two-sample

T-test) (Figure 10). The average and peak heart rates and the

changes in heart rates are shown in figure 11.

Figure 9: Average heart rates in untrained and in trained horses (bpm; n=32;

P=0.013).

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

non trained trained

23

Figure 10: Average heart rates in group B horses before and after training

procedure (bpm; n=8; P=0.016).

Figure11: Average heart rates in untrained horses and trained horses, (bpm; n=

32).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

before after

68

83

62

73

Average and peak heart rates in untrained horses and trained horses (n= 32)

untrained trainedAverage

HR

Peak

HR

24

3.5. Additional findings

Besides the results shown earlier, it was noticed that PRT had other

effects on subjects’ behaviour. Horses were not handled regularly

during the data collection period other than due to the training

procedure. Horses became easier to catch from their pastures since

day two of training. On a first day there had to be an assistant to help

catching the horses from the pastures. After day two the horses

became more cooperative and the assistant was not needed.

4. Discussion

The purpose of the study was to examine whether positive

reinforcement training with trailer-resembling structures affects

subjects’ approach to loading. As results show, the positive

reinforcement training with trailer-resembling structures had several

effects on subjects’ loading behaviour. The results show that training

with food rewards and separate trailer-resembling structures affects

horses’ behavior in loading situations. The findings are similar than in

other loading studies conducted by Hendriksen et al. (2010),

(Shanahan, 2003) and (Ferguson & Rosalez-Ruiz, 2001). The

training had effects on loading success, loading times, heart rates

and loading behaviours.

25

In this study, the subjects were divided into three groups. Total

amount of individual subjects was 24. The prospect of the study was

to examine horses initial reactions to loading (groups A & B), then to

compare horses’ reactions before and after the training programme

(group B); and finally to compare in general the reactions of

untrained horses (groups A & B) with trained horses (groups B & C).

The design of the study is rather complex, however the main

objective was to create a sample as large as possible and include the

most important aspects; the initial reactions to loading, the effects of

training programme and an overall comparison of the reactions of

untrained and trained horses.

The conditions during the training procedure were extremely

challenging, the weather was hot and pastures were dry and stunted.

That may be one reason for subjects’ high motivation for training.

Innes & McBride (2008) discovered that using positive reinforcement

as a training method in rehabilitated ponies can increase animals'

motivation in given task. Subjects in the current study may have been

hungry during the training procedure and therefore the muesli used

as a primary reinforcement appeared particularly effective.

In other loading studies, normally problem loaders have been used.

The current study differs from that fact; the sample was chosen to

represent standard Finnish leisure horses and subjects’ loading

history was unknown. The subjects habituated readily to trainer.

That may have had affected loading success; the trainer was

26

unfamiliar on a first loading test day, but became familiar during the

training process and was familiar to all subjects on a second day of

loading tests. Nevertheless, the subjects were habituated to handling

by different people; all subjects were in equine college use on the

instant. Catching the subjects from their pastures was time-

consuming on first days of data collection, but they learned quickly to

anticipate the food rewards and became easy to catch and motivated

to work for food rewards.

4.1. Loading success and loading times

The findings show an increase in loading success after training

programme in group B horses, which were tested before and after

training protocol. The finding is similar to Ferguson & Rosalez-Ruiz

(2001) study, in which five problem loaders were retrained to load

with positive reinforcement and target training. Four out of eight

horses in group B load successfully before training, and after training

procedure six out of eight load successfully. In general, there was not

a difference in loading success between trained and untrained

horses (n=32). That may be due to group composition; in group A

there were more trotters than in other groups. On the other hand, in

group C there were more mares than in other groups which were all

geldings.

The outcomes would have been more visible if the training process

would have been longer and would have included training with proper

trailer. Subjects habituated to training structures readily and learned

27

to approach them voluntarily. It is likely that they would have learned

to approach the real trailer in same way. The possible reasons why

they did not enter the trailer after training programme can be derived

from differences in trailer-resembling structures and real trailer. The

trailer ramp was higher than the artificial ramp used in training

procedure and the ramp of the real trailer had a fabric surface

whereas the ramp used in training was plywood. All subjects had

previous loading experiences with trailers - they might have had

aversive experiences which might have effects on loading behaviour

despite of positive reinforcement training with trailer-resembling

structures. Especially those horses, which have possible bad

experiences with trailers, it may be profitable to use separate

structures when training to load. In that way, it is possible to train the

horse in small steps. Retraining a problem loader to load can be

challenging with a proper trailer, because a trailer cannot be divided

into separate structures and real trailer can be more challenging to

approach.

Loading times decreased in group B horses (n=8) about 40 % after

training procedure. The finding is parallel to other studies;

Hendriksen et al. (2010) discovered that horses trained with positive

reinforcement learned new task quicker than horses with negative

reinforcement training. Similar results were discovered by Shanahan

(2003); there was a reduction in loading times after nonaversive

training programme with trailer-resembling structures.

28

Loading time in itself cannot be used as a primary measure in

estimating horses’ approach to loading. It is possible that a horse

experiences stress nevertheless it enters the trailer quickly. In test

group A, in which there were more trotters than in other groups, the

loading success was similar than in other groups, but heart rates

were higher. Additionally, trotters entered the trailer relatively quickly

in comparison with their heart rates at the moment. It can be claimed

that the time spent on loading is not necessarily the most evident

factor in loading stress. It was discovered in previous study that the

horse may experience loading stress despite of the short loading

time (Waran & Cuddeford, 1995). However, Andronie et al. (2009)

found that there is a connection between the loading and unloading

times and other stress indicators; the longer the loading time, the

more there will be other signs of stress. That is supported in the

current study; loading success did not rule out the fear-related

behaviours.

4.2. The fear-related behaviours

The loading tests were filmed and filmings were analyzed to count

the fear-related behaviours. As results indicate, there was a

reduction in fear-related behaviours in group B horses (n=8) after the

training programme. In general, it can be seen that there were less

fear-related behaviours in trained horses than in untrained horses.

The reduction of fear-related behaviours is parallel with previous

29

studies; Ferguson & Rosalez-Ruiz (2001) discovered a decrease in

the unwanted behaviours, such as fear reactions and flight attempts.

Ferguson & Rosalez-Ruiz (2001) trained five problem loaders with

positive reinforcement and target training.

Sankey et al. (2010) found that there is a correlation between

repetitive positive human-horse interactions with horses' positive

reactions and memory towards humans. On the other hand, the more

negative interactions there are between the horse and the handler,

the more the horse avoids these interactions and may exhibit more

fear reactions (Hausberger et al. 2008). The subjects acted

suspicious in the beginning of the study, they were hard to catch. As

the training programme went on, the subjects became cooperative

and were easy to catch from the pastures.

In other study there were five problem loaders who were trained to

load with using positive reinforcement and target training. The

method revealed to be efficient; in addition to loading success, the

unwanted behaviours, such as fear reactions and flight attempts,

reduced in all subjects during the training procedure (Ferguson &

Rosalez-Ruiz, 2001). Hendriksen et al. (2010) compared the two

training methods; positive and negative reinforcement in a light of

stress levels and learning success. They used 12 horses with severe

loading problems. They discovered that the horses with positive

reinforcement training were calmer and learned faster than the

horses with negative reinforcement.

30

Sahanhan (2003) re-trained 10 problem loaders and 7 good loaders

to load with non-aversive TTEAM- training method. The horses were

trained with trailer-simulating structures and obstacles with simple

leading exercises (Shanahan, 2003). The method was successful

nevertheless food rewards were not used; the loading times and

saliva cortisol levels decreased after training (Shanahan, 2003). The

current findings are similar to previous studies. Fear-related

behaviours decreased and horses became more cooperative during

the training procedure and the training became safer for the horses

and for the trainer.

4.3. Effects on heart rates

The decrease in heart rates indicates lowered stress levels

(Ferguson & Rosalez-Ruiz, 2001). The average and peak heart rates

lowered in group B horses (n=8) after the training programme. The

finding is supported by previous studies. It was also discovered that

the average heart rates were even 25 % lower in general in trained

horses than in untrained horses (n=32). The result is similar to other

loading studies. Positive interactions between the horse and the

handler have been discovered leading to long-lasting positive

memory towards the handler and the task (Sankey et al. 2010).

The training programme was successful for the fact that two weeks

training with trailer-resembling structures lowered subjects’ heart

31

rates in real loading situation with the real trailer. The subjects did not

have a visual contact to the trailer during the training programme,

therefore they could not have been habituated to its presence. The

training programme was relatively short, nevertheless the result were

good. There were significant reduction in group B horses’ heart rates

after the training programme and overall the heart rates were lower in

trained than in untrained horses. That leads to impression that

actually a short period of positive reinforcement training can result in

more relaxed horse.

There is some evidence that nervous handler can affect the horse’s

behavior: the handler’s heart rates can have effects on horse’s heart

rates in handling situation such as loading (Keeling et al., 2009). It is

possible that subjects had higher heart rates on a first loading test

because they had unfamiliar handler. On the other hand, the subjects

habituated to handler and the handler became more relax during the

training procedure. It is possible, although unlikely, that on a first

loading test the nervous and unfamiliar handler affected subjects’

heart rates.

32

4.4. Limitations of the study

The original idea was to have same age and gender composition in

each group of subjects. Due to practical management reasons all the

mares had to be placed into the same group and in group A there

were more trotters than in other groups. Trotters may have

experienced different handling than riding horses; they may have

been handled by men more often than riding horses. The

transporting and loading history of the subjects was not known. The

subjects may have had previous aversive experiences from loading

situations. On the other hand, they may have had positive

experiences as well.

The experimental design was complex. The experiment could have

been conducted with less groups of subjects. The optimal data

collection would have consisted of two groups of subjects; a control

group and a test group. The both groups would be tested two times

and the differences in loading behaviour would be more clear. The

current experimental design allows to compare eight horses’ loading

behaviour before and after the training programme and on the other

hand comparisons can be made between the trained and the

untrained horses in general.

4.5. Future research and potential implications

The training in a positive context seems to have effects on learning

results and on horse’s behaviour in a training situation (Sankey et al.,

33

2010). This finding was supported in the current study. Horses were

remarkably motivated and their attitude towards the trainer changed

during the training procedure which resulted in safer training

sessions. This finding indicates that there is unused potential in

means of assessing horses' attitude towards humans and in horse

training methods in general. The motivation of an animal to

cooperation is in a key role in training. Assessing the motivation of a

horse to cooperate in means of current equine training practices is

poorly utilized.

Handler’s insufficient knowledge of learning theory and misuse of

negative reinforcement can lead to problems in loading situations

(McGreevy & McLean, 2009). There is a risk in misusing negative

reinforcement that the reinforcement turns into a punishment from a

horse’s aspect and results in frustrated and potentially dangerous

horse. Hendriksen et al. (2010) discovered that the horses with

positive reinforcement training were calmer and learned faster than

the horses with negative reinforcement. This may be due the fact that

negative reinforcement seems to be often misunderstood and

misused as a training method. Too little is focused on the right timing

and proper pressure release; the line between negative

reinforcement and aversive punishment is sometimes fine. Taking

into account these reasons, the positive reinforcement training could

be readily applicable in equine industry; it is easier for the handler to

understand and to conduct. I personally claim that less harm is done

34

using positive reinforcement in a wrong way than using negative

reinforcement in an inappropriate means. Nevertheless, the optimal

situation is that learning theory is used in an appropriate ways.

The optimal training programme to loading should be constructed.

Trailer-resembling structures revealed as efficient means for trailer-

training. However, the even better outcomes in loading success

would have been achieved if the real trailer was used as the final

training structure in the training programme. Combining trailer-

resembling structures with real trailer would be interesting to test.

Additionally the trailer-training of naïve, inexperienced horses would

be interesting field of study; then the risk of previous learning history

affecting the behaviour could be ruled out.

5. Conclusion

Many handling procedures are stressful to horses and may cause

resistance behaviour and furthermore risks of injuries. The more

relaxed the horse is in any situation, the safer it is for a handler.

Positive reinforcement training has several positive effects on horses’

behaviour. Horses load quicker after the training programme, their

heart rates were significantly lower after training, their fear-related

behaviours decreased and they became more cooperative and

therefore safer to handle.

35

There is unused potential in utilizing positive reinforcement in equine

training. Practical implications and training professionals to

implement learning theories into practices would be very important in

future. Standard procedures like loading, medication and hoof care

could be readily trained with positive reinforcement training.

If the positive reinforcement training would be in large scale use, it

could have effects on equine welfare in a long run. Horses exhibiting

the desired behaviours voluntarily are more relaxed and safer to

handle.

36

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39

Appendixes

Appendix A: List of subjects

Appendix B: Example of heart rate and GPS data

Appendix C: Loading ethogram

Appendix D: Training programme for group B and C horses

Appendix E: Data sheet

Appendix A

List of subjects

Name breed sex year of birth Trotter/riding

horse

Loppukiri finnhorse g 2003 T

Jaksava finnhorse g 1995 T

Harjun Hoviherra finnhorse g 2001 T

Harjun Antti finnhorse g 2004 T

No More Nickles standardbred g 2003 T

Umberto Hagby finnhorse g 1994 R

Hupatus finnhorse g 2002 T/R

Willy De Jong tinker g 1993 R

Kaprada finnhorse g 2001 R

Shanachie connemara g 1995 R

Ermitash warmblood g 1995 R

Bacardi German riding pony g 2003 R

Taavetti Estonian horse g 1991 R

Pollifs warmblood g 1997 R

Kipper Estonian horse g 1997 R

Night Magic Ger German riding pony g 1997 R

Warrior Mecklenburg g 2002 R

Juska Finnhorse m 1994 T/R

Dalice hannover m 2000 R

Cabrioletta Hills Finnish warmblood m 1997 R

Adelheid warmblood m 1996 R

Molly Maguire Estonian horse m 2002 R

Cassandra III Sachsen-Anhalt m 1996 R

Prints II Estonian horse g 1996 R

Appendix B Example of heart rate and GPS data

Appendix C Loading ethogram

Fear related behaviours during loading

Snort

Stop

Reverse

Ears rotate

Pull ahead

Try to escape

Leer

Shake

Sniff

Defecate

Stepping

Tail swishing*

*) Tail swishing was left out of the results due to amount of horseflies

Appendix D Training programme for group B and C horses

Training programme

1. bridge

2. approaching the platter

3. one leg on a platter

4. front legs on a platter

5. four legs on a platter

6. standing on a platter for 10 seconds

7. walking on a platter

8. reversing on a platter

9. approaching the ramp

10. one leg on a ramp

11. front legs on a ramp

12. four legs on a ramp

13. standing on a ramp

14. walking on a ramp

15. reversing on a ramp

16. approaching the canopy

17. head in a canopy

18. front legs in a canopy

19. walking under a canopy

20. standing under a canopy

21. reversing under a canopy

22. approaching the canopy with a tarp

23. stepping in a canopy with a tarp

24. standing under a canopy with a tarp

25. walking under a canopy with a tarp for 10 seconds

26. reversing under a canopy with a tarp

Appendix E Data sheet