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The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant “Don’t the music make you feel good?” Ilia ZOLAS Tutor: Dr Ray IUNIUS June 2012 This dissertation is submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of BSc in International Hospitality Management

The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

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The transition from the service economy to the experience economy is one that is encouraging business establishments to consider different schemes in being able to develop a competitive positioning, higher customer satisfactions and alignments with the consumer’s emotional construct. Of the many possibilities to achieve this, the intelligent use of music is one method that is being given attention in growing proportions due to its powerful ability in affecting consumer behaviours and perceptions. The present study is an attempt to identify these musical properties and apply them in a structured manner to the restaurant environment which is known for its extensive yet intuitive approach to utilizing music.The use of the Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne’s fine dining establishment, Le Berceau de Sens, acted as the restaurant property in which the field experiment was held in during the month of March. Hence, a total of 348 restaurant patrons expressed their evaluations via the use of a survey while dining under the two contrasting musical environments; structured music treatment and unstructured music treatment. Independent Samples T-Tests were utilized in determining whether a significant difference existed between restaurant patron’s evaluations of the dining experience under the contrasting music conditions. Analysis showed that consumers dining under a structured music treatment spent more on beverages and expressed greater awareness of the music, higher enjoyment evaluations and shorter time perceptions of the dining experience as well as higher intentions to return to the Berceau de Sens.

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Page 1: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant

“Don’t the music make you feel good?”

Ilia ZOLAS

Tutor: Dr Ray IUNIUS

June 2012

This dissertation is submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of BSc in International Hospitality Management

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Honour Code As a student at the Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne, I uphold and defend academic

integrity, academic rigor and academic liberty as core values of higher learning. I

attest, on my word of honour, that work submitted in my name is my own work, and

that any ideas or materials used in support of this work which are not originally my

own are cited and referenced accordingly.

Ilia ZOLAS 567486143

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Acknowledgements The contents of this paper would not have been attainable without the help and

guidance of various people:

Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude towards my advisor, Dr Ray Iunius.

Although your schedule is one of the busiest schedules in the world, you still managed

to make time for me. Your thoughts and understandings have influenced me beyond

the realms of this dissertation and onto my outlook on life.

To Dr Laaroussi and Dr Hebali, thank you for your much needed support and

understandings. Without them, this paper would not have been possible. Furthermore,

as you are both fellow musicians, I am grateful to have been able to include you in

this research process and hope that my findings prove as interesting and useful to

you.

To Mr Iunker, the BDS Management team, Mr Lebret and the students who took part

in the experiment; your participation was vital in giving life to this paper. Thank you

for allowing me the opportunity to combine my passions with my studies and

contribute to your service offer. I trust the champagnes will continue to flow!

To Russell Stirling and Tyrone Mayer, my most valued music mentors, your assistance

in developing a structured music treatment consistent with the literature made the

process smooth and enjoyable. My song database and theory of music is significantly

larger now.

Finally, to my dear friend Dushyant, thank you for your ongoing support. Although this

was a major learning process for the both of us, I doubt that my survival would have

been prolonged without you. I look forward to maintaining this relationship with our

time share prospects!

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Abstract The transition from the service economy to the experience economy is one that is

encouraging business establishments to consider different schemes in being able to

develop a competitive positioning, higher customer satisfactions and alignments with

the consumer‟s emotional construct. Of the many possibilities to achieve this, the

intelligent use of music is one method that is being given attention in growing

proportions due to its powerful ability in affecting consumer behaviours and

perceptions. The present study is an attempt to identify these musical properties and

apply them in a structured manner to the restaurant environment which is known for

its extensive yet intuitive approach to utilizing music.

The use of the Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne‟s fine dining establishment, Le Berceau de

Sens, acted as the restaurant property in which the field experiment was held in

during the month of March. Hence, a total of 348 restaurant patrons expressed their

evaluations via the use of a survey while dining under the two contrasting musical

environments; structured music treatment and unstructured music treatment.

Independent Samples T-Tests were utilized in determining whether a significant

difference existed between restaurant patron‟s evaluations of the dining experience

under the contrasting music conditions. Analysis showed that consumers dining under

a structured music treatment expressed greater awareness of the music, higher

enjoyment evaluations, shorter time perceptions and higher intentions to return to the

Berceau de Sens.

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Contents Honour Code ............................................................................................. 3

Acknowledgements ..................................................................................... 4

Abstract .................................................................................................... 5

1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 9

2. Objectives ............................................................................................ 10

3. Methodology ......................................................................................... 11

4. Secondary Research .............................................................................. 13

4.1. The Servicescape .......................................................................................13

4.2. Servicescape and Musicscape ........................................................................15

4.3. Musical Components ...................................................................................17

4.3.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................17

4.3.2. Musical Congruency ...............................................................................17

4.3.3. Consumer Music Preference .....................................................................19

4.3.4. Volume ...............................................................................................20

4.3.5. Modality ..............................................................................................20

4.3.6. Tempo ...............................................................................................22

4.3.7. An Interactive effect of Tempo and Modality ..................................................23

4.4. Cognitive understanding in the Literature ...........................................................23

4.5. Music in service environments ........................................................................24

4.6. The Retail Environment ................................................................................24

4.7. The Restaurant Environment ..........................................................................25

4.8. Literature Summary .....................................................................................26

5. Hypothesis ........................................................................................... 27

5.1. Application of Hypothesis in the BDS Environment ................................................29

5.1.1. The Dining Phases ....................................................................................30

5.1.2. The Pre-Phase .....................................................................................31

5.1.3. The During-Phase..................................................................................31

5.1.4. The Post Phase ....................................................................................32

5.2. Conceptual Framework .................................................................................33

6. Music Treatment Development .................................................................. 33

6.1. Unstructured Music Treatment ........................................................................34

6.2. Structured Music Treatment ...........................................................................34

6.2.1. Pre-Phase Music Selection .......................................................................35

6.2.2. During-Phase Music Selection ...................................................................35

6.2.3. Post-Phase Music Selection .....................................................................35

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6.3. CD Control ................................................................................................36

7. Survey Design ....................................................................................... 37

7.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................37

7.2. Survey Structure .........................................................................................37

7.3. Survey Questions .......................................................................................38

7.3.1. Pre-Phase Questions: Spending ................................................................38

7.3.2. During-Phase Questions: Experience Evaluations ...........................................38

7.3.3. Post-Phase Question: Intentions to Return and Time Perceptions ........................38

7.4. Sample ....................................................................................................39

Table 1. Sample Participants ...........................................................................40

8. Primary Research .................................................................................. 41

8.1. Data Collection ...........................................................................................41

8.1.1. Survey ...............................................................................................41

8.1.2. Receipts .............................................................................................41

9. Methodology Part 2 ................................................................................ 41

9.1. SPSS ......................................................................................................41

9.2. Reliability..................................................................................................41

9.3. Independent Samples T-Test ..........................................................................42

9.4. Independent Samples T-Test on Spending .........................................................42

9.5. Methodological Limitations .............................................................................43

10. Findings and Analysis ........................................................................... 44

10.1. Receipts .................................................................................................44

Table 2: Independent Sample T-Test on beverage receipts ..............................44

10.2. Perceptions on spending .............................................................................44

10.3. Awareness of music ...................................................................................44

10.4. Overall Experience Evaluation .......................................................................45

10.5. Time Perceptions ......................................................................................45

10.6. Return Intentions .......................................................................................45

Table 3: Independent Samples T-Test on survey evaluations ...........................46

12. Discussion .......................................................................................... 47

12.1. Awareness towards the Music .......................................................................47

12.2. Perceptions on Spending vs. Actual Receipts ....................................................47

12.3. Overall Experience Evaluation .......................................................................48

12.4. Time Perceptions ......................................................................................48

12.5. Return Intentions .......................................................................................49

13. Conclusion and Implications ................................................................... 50

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14. Further Research Recommendations ........................................................ 51

15. Bibliography ....................................................................................... 54

Appendix ................................................................................................ 60

Appendix 1- Phase schedule from interview .............................................................61

Appendix 2- Survey ...........................................................................................62

Appendix 3- Structured Music Treatments ................................................................64

Appendix 4- Reference descriptions .......................................................................67

Appendix 5- Online sources for music .....................................................................98

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1. Introduction Much of my life has been dedicated to understanding and growing my musical

abilities with regards to my grasp of various instruments (guitar, bass guitar,

piano and drums), music theory, composing and song writing as well as sound

engineering and recording for TV shows and producers. This does not go to say

that music performance is my chosen carrier. Instead, I have been fortunate

enough to extend my abilities into the hospitality industry which greatly

incorporates music into its service scheme and offer. As a student at the Ecole

Hôtelière de Lausanne, as well as the researcher of this paper, I am presented

with the opportunity to combine my greatest passion, music, with my current

carrier choice of hospitality.

Through my various experiences within the industry, I have come to

understand and believe that the use of music extends beyond the realms of

performance and recreation. Under more recent understandings, music can be

utilized by intelligently incorporating it into the service schemes of many an

establishment to induce certain emotional and behavioural states. However, it

is also known that many establishments which implement music within their

schemes often do so without realizing the effects that music has on the

consumer. This understanding is particularly prevalent in the restaurant

industry where managers tend to rely on their own intuition and preferences in

choosing and playing music during the dining experience.

Often times, such methods of music selection and implementation do not

consider the consumer‟s biological and psychological reactions to the individual

properties of the music chosen. Hence, in this paper, I aim to highlight and add

to the notion of music as an important and easily implementable tool that can

significantly create value for the organization‟s service/product offer. As my

interests currently lie within the restaurant environment, I seek to test the

effects of music on consumer‟s evaluations of the dining experience by applying

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a structured music treatment tailored to the goals of the Ecole Hôtelière de

Lausanne‟s fine dining restaurant; Le Berceau de Sens (BDS).

2. Objectives To extend the understandings of what effects music has on consumers, various

questions had been determined through an interview with the BDS Restaurant

Manager, Mr Iunker. These questions had arisen due to Mr Iunker and the

management team‟s search for alternative means of improving the BDS‟s

service offer and possibly induce increased spending in restaurant patron‟s

behaviours. Below are the determined research questions:

1. Do restaurant patrons spend more money in the presence of music? If

so, what music is best at making them spend more?

2. Does music have an effect on the restaurant patron‟s enjoyment of the

dining experience? If so, what music is optimal at enhancing this

perception?

3. Does music have an effect on the restaurant patron‟s time perceptions?

If so, what kind of music is best at shortening these perceptions?

4. Are the restaurant patron‟s intentions to return to the restaurant higher

in the presence of music? If so, what music is best at maximizing these

intentions?

These questions posed as potential hypotheses which required further research

to be able to answer.

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3. Methodology Secondary research was necessary to determine whether relationships had

already been determined with regards to music‟s effects on consumer

behaviours. Furthermore, as the focus is on music‟s effects on consumers in a

dining environment, secondary research required the researcher to concentrate

on sources which adhered to the restaurant environment. Limited literature in

terms of the dining environment then required the researcher to incorporate

understandings of music from literature based on other service environments

such as retail stores and test whether they held true in the restaurant

environment. Figure 1 indicates the first phases of exploration:

Figure 1.

Research questions that were not satisfied by the literature made it necessary

to conduct primary research in order to emerge with conclusive results. Via

agreement between the researcher and the BDS management, the BDS

restaurant was utilized as the field study environment to conduct further

research.

In order to gain the necessary data to produce useful results, a quantitative

research design was adopted via the use of surveys. The survey required the

Develop research questions

Interview the BDS

Management Team to determine research questions

Secondary Research

Consult existing literature to

be able to answer research questions

Conclusions and Hypothesis

Determine whether questions

have been answered.

Unsatisfied questions will

become hypothesis subject to

primary research

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restaurant patron to evaluate certain criteria via a Likert Scale which aided the

researcher in developing conclusions that could satisfy the posed questions.

Furthermore, two music treatments needed to be developed in order to provide

contrasting environments for testing. These are referred to as 1) a structured

music treatment which incorporates music that the literature had identified as

determinants in affecting particular consumer behaviours 2) an unstructured

music treatment which simply represented the BDS‟s original methods of

utilizing music which was heavily based upon the intuition of the management

team and absent of any particular structure. Hence, over a period of time,

consumers dined either under the structured music treatment or the

unstructured music treatment and their behaviours were reflected in their

survey evaluations as well as the BDS receipts. Thereafter, data was imported

into the statistics tool SPSS and subjected to the relative analyses to produce

conclusive results. Hence, Figure 2 represents the manner in which the primary

research was conducted:

Figure 2.

Music Treatment Development

Structured Music Treatment

Vs.

Unstructured Music Treatment

Phase Implementation

CD Control and implementation

Survey Design

Quantitative Research

Survey development

Conduct and collect survey

Data Collection

Import data into SPSS

Cronbach‟s Alpha test for

Reliability

Analyse data- Independent

sample t-tests

Interpret Results

Organization and

Presentation of Results

Discussion and implications

Future Research

Recommendations

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4. Secondary Research Since Kotler (1974), there has been increasing interest amongst researchers to

investigate the effects of visual, audio, and other stimuli on the consumer‟s

behaviour in various environments (Jain and Bagdare, 2010). These studies

have branched out into the various environments emerging with findings that

provide the establishment with a new means of creating a distinctive and

competitive performance thanks to the undeniable effects of such stimuli‟s

powerful ability to influence consumer spending, loyalty, time perceptions,

choice and satisfaction (Cronin, 2003).

In fact, certain atmospherics, such as music, are not only used for commercial

reasons, but also in industries such as treatments within healthcare and

optimal or even persuasive communication within media. Manfred (1982), a

specialist in neuro-physiology as well as music, showed that music structure

triggered emotional responses in the brain. In movies and education, Seidman

(1981) had explored human cognition and attention of which music was found

to hold significant influence and is now integrated within media related

industries.

As the shift in consumerism has become growingly captivated by an experience

as opposed to the traditional service formula (Pine and Gilmore, 1998),

research findings of atmospheric determinants and their implications are

increasingly considered as useful tools in connecting with the consumer‟s

emotional construct which is known for its heavy influence over the rational

mind (Sylwester, 1994). Knowing this, applying the relevant information can

provide businesses with the opportunity to analytically design their service

experience with lesser margins of error (Liu and Jang, 2009).

4.1. The Servicescape It is generally agreed upon that the perceptible elements of a service and its

environment has an influence on the customer‟s perceived quality of an

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experience and purchase intentions. According to Bitner (1992, p. 67), a “total

configuration of environmental dimensions” provides an effective framework

known as the servicescape.

Kincaid et al., (2010, p. 211) state that the “servicescape components involve

factors such as ambient conditions (e.g. temperature, sound, aroma), spatial

layout and functionality (e.g. arrangement of furnishings and their relationship

to customer and employee needs), signs, symbols and artefacts (e.g.

restaurants, theatres and sporting events)”. While independent variables are

associated with the venue‟s physical environment such as room temperature,

scents and background music, evidence has shown that consumers are affected

by the presence of fellow consumers (Li, Kim and Lee, 2009) as well as the

employee‟s personality and actions (Ekinsi and Dawes, 2009) which have a

considerable effect on the customers decision making process and satisfaction.

The determinants to what influences customer satisfaction has been of great

interest to researchers (Babin and Griffin, 1998). Of the components

understood to have some sort of effect, the consumer‟s perception of quality

has been widely accepted as the most influencing variable on consumer

satisfaction (Churchill and Surprenant, 1982). It is the consumer‟s evaluation

on the performance of a product or service and its environment that

determines the consumer‟s perceptions on quality (Zeithaml, 1987). Hence,

quality may be considered as dependent on the interaction of the five senses

within the store environment, or more specifically, the servicescape.

With a growing knowledge of the consumer‟s tendency to rely on the

servicescape as a means of facilitating and developing a personal experience,

managerial perceptions on the importance of attaining congruent

environmental stimuli is gaining wider acknowledgement and incorporation in a

growing proportion of establishments (Kozinets et al., 2002). The transition of

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the service economy to the experience economy has brought research to

further identify the need for managers to understand and integrate what

theatrical productions often use as a means of creating an assimilated and

complete experience for the audience via harmonious design of visual and

audio stimuli (Harris et al., 2003). As mentioned by Oakes and North (2008, p.

63), “experiences are as different from services as services are from goods”

and that the efforts of involving the five senses within the service design is

required in order to create memorable experiences. Jain and Bagdare (2011, p.

294) describes the interaction of the consumer and in-store environment as

one that “provides sensory, emotional, cognitive, behavioural and relational

values.” Hence, correct engagement of the 5 senses acts as a significant

playing piece in developing considerable competitive leverage (Berry et al.,

2002).

4.2. Servicescape and Musicscape An in-depth analysis conducted by Guégeun et al., (2007) revealed that music

played a vital role in affecting satisfaction. Of the various components of the

servicescape, researches have paid most attention to music because of its low-

cost, easy to use nature, its strong influence on consumers and its ability to

facilitate and enhance the interaction of other servicescape variables within an

environment (Beverland et al., 2006). It is better defined by Yalch and

Spangenberg (1993 p. 632) that “music is a particularly attractive atmospheric

variable because it is relatively inexpensive to provide, easily changed, and is

thought to have predictable appeals to individuals based on their age and

lifestyles.”

Oakes (2000) proposed musicscape as an extension to Bitner‟s (1992) model of

the servicescape, highlighting the incorporation of music as an important

variable in creating an in-store experience and associating customer emotions

to the store (Morrison and Beverland, 2003) via the use of music. Similarly,

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integrating music in coherence with other atmospheric variables while

simultaneously adhering to constraints of brand image, market share

demographics and their emotional connections with music can greatly assist in

conveying a comprehensible message and support positioning strategies

(Oakes and North, 2007). Hence, research suggests that there is a need for

service based organizations to pay close attention to music and other

atmospheric variables in attaining a harmonious design so as to encourage

favourable consumer behaviours (Harris et al., 2009). Favourable consumer

behaviours, such as patronage, are known to be influenced by the servicescape

of the environment such that it affects the consumer‟s decisions to continue or

discontinue a relationship with the specific service provider due to their

emotional responses (Lovelock, 2001). In the context of the musicscape, the

sheer occurrence of music in an environment already increases patronage

intentions as well as pleasure (Garlin and Owen, 2006).

Another critical factor to consider is the consumer‟s notorious relationship with

waiting times, which have shown negative correlations to general satisfaction of

an experience. The longer the consumer thinks that they have been waiting for,

the lower the consumer‟s satisfaction will be. This applies to various settings

such as retail stores (Tom and Lucey, 1997), restaurants (Jones and Peppiatt,

1996) and healthcare (Pruyn and Smidts, 1998). Managing customer

perceptions of how long they think they have been waiting is therefore

important when developing a pleasant and differentiating experience (Bailey

and Areni, 2006). Of the various elements known to affect perceived waiting

time, music has yet again proven to be a favourable variable due to its easily

wrought nature and low cost.

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4.3. Musical Components

4.3.1. Introduction Various experiments have highlighted specific components of music which have

demonstrated effective results in managing consumer behaviours and

perceptions. This section reveals the general understanding of the effects of

music on consumers in two categories. The first category describes

understandings according to musical congruency and consumer preferences,

while the second describes the impact of the individual compositional

components of music upon consumers. Such components involve volume,

modality and tempo as well as their interactive effects which are known to

significantly influence consumer behaviours and perceptions (Dowling and

Harwood, 1986).

4.3.2. Musical Congruency In various studies (Cox et al., 2005; d‟Astous, 2000; Maxwell and Kover,

2003), it was revealed that a poorly designed in-store experience can induce

confusion and influence consumers to leave the establishment. Beverland et al.

(2006) further explain that the benefits of music which is well fitted with other

stimuli of the service environment allows consumers, who are not familiar with

the brand in question, to determine a benchmark of expectations as store cues

allow them to derive some meaning prior to any interaction with the product.

An example stems from the research of Baker et al. (1994) which describes a

retail environment playing classical music coupled with low lit lighting and

numerous sales people. Before a product is experienced, consumer perceptions

are that of a prestige image with high expectations of service and quality

ratings. Radocy and Boyle (1997) extend the notion of congruent music such

that successful integration of musical variables can influence consumers to

allocate more time and money to the environment in question.

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In the context of music which is well „fitted‟, Areni and Kim (1993) provide

evidence of music affecting the purchasing decision of both educated and

uneducated consumers. In an experiment conducted in a wine cellar, customers

were exposed to either Top 40 music or classical music. The results showed

that consumers under the classical music environment purchased more

expensive items than those under the Top 40 music environment. These results

were further supported by the findings of North, Shilcock and Hargreaves

(2003). Prestigious music induces prestigious buying. Another finding is that of

North, Hargreaves and McKendrick (1997) where playing German music in a

wine cellar showed an increase in the sales of German wines. Similarly, playing

French music led to sales in French wines outweighing German wines. Further

research revealed that the better the “fit” of music appropriateness, the higher

the loyalty intention (Harris and Ezeh, 2008).

However, the use of classical music in an environment is one that is somewhat

peculiar and has shown evidence to provide similar effects of prestigious buying

in environments which would not typically suit the genre of music. In an

experiment where different musical styles were played in a student cafeteria,

students were prepared to pay higher prices when classical music was played

as opposed to other styles of music which had been tested in the same student

cafeteria. Perceptions of the same environment under the classical music

condition were that of sophistication and an up-market image. Similarly, such

perceptions had further been reflected in diners‟ actual spending (North and

Hargreaves, 1998). One explanation to the described phenomena is that

knowledge associated with “sophistication” and “up-market” is activated in the

consumer exposed to classical music and encourages general behaviour such as

spending. North and Hargreaves (2006) also suggest that behaviour, such as

spending, “fits” with certain emotionally evoked in-store atmospherics. Areni

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(2003) revealed that jazz was also related to environments of up-market

consumption.

4.3.3. Consumer Music Preference The consumer‟s preference for a certain style of music and ability to

differentiate between different musical aspects is argued as influenced by

certain biological developments in the individual‟s growth from birth. It has

been reported that children below the age of 6 can differentiate between slow

and fast tempo music but their ability to differentiate between modes is a skill

that is only acquired at the age of 6 and later (Dalla Bella et al., 2001). Apart

from age, gender is also known to differ in emotional and behavioural

responses (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). Females differ from males such that

their time estimates of a song are considerably shorter when exposed to soft

volumes (Kellaris and Altsech, 1992). Furthermore, the female gender display

preference towards slow and soft music while males tend to prefer music which

is loud and fast (Kellaris and Rice, 1993).

Apart from biological determinants, it has also been discussed that a majority

of consumer preferences for certain types of music is learned (Scott, 1990). It

is thought that music preference of a particular segment can be determined

based on the segments age and lifestyles (Yalch and Spangenberg, 1993).

Holbrook and Schindler (1989), in an experiment involving consumer‟s

sensitivity to pop music, revealed that bonds created with individual songs in

the consumer‟s early 20‟s age bracket creates lasting impressions on their

preferences for music.

Furthermore, research has revealed that aligning in-store music with consumer

preferences has a significant influence upon shopping intentions (Broekemier et

al., 2005). Broekemier et al., (2008) further established that music found as

happy and liked had a significant effect upon patronage as well as spending

behaviour in retail environments. In an experiment where consumers were

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presented with a pen under the conditions of “liked” or “disliked” music found

that consumer‟s liking of the product was influenced by liked music or music

that is happy (major mode) and vice versa. Gorn (1982) says that this

behaviour might be explained by consumers transferring their positive

emotions for the music to the product.

4.3.4. Volume Studies have shown that the volume of music has a significant effect upon

shopper‟s actual length of stay in supermarkets. Loud music was compared to

soft music and showed that consumers under the loud-music environment

spent significantly less time in-store with a faster rate of spending, while low

volumes revealed longer consumer lengths of stay which gave them the

opportunity to browse more and ultimately spend more (Smith and Curnow,

1966). With regards to restaurant environments, lower volumes were found to

produce behaviours of higher spending (Lammers, 2003). Other experiments

measured the effects of volume via the use of headphones due to its highly

controllable nature (Oakes and North, 2008). However, there appears to be

minor credit on the impact of musical dynamics on consumer. One explanation

to this is that it is difficult to measure and perceive volume from different areas

within the service environment as consumers are usually at different distances

apart from the source of amplification and are therefore not experiencing

volume under identical conditions even if music volume is set at a constant

level (Oakes and North, 2008).

4.3.5. Modality An element of music which has been accepted as important in inducing

significant responses from consumers is “modality” and has been incorporated

in research for an extensive period of time (Kellaris and Kent, 1991). In

western culture, the most commonly used modes are that of major and minor

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keys. These modalities are known to create distinctive emotional responses

such that musical compositions in major keys are generally associated to

positive feelings and musical compositions in minor keys are associated with

less positive feelings such as nostalgia, melancholy and even romanticism

(Hevner, 1935). Of the more traditional western associations concerning

modality, human emotions such as happy and sad are associated with major

and minor modes respectively (Bruner, 1990). Alpert et al., (2003) state that

music which is perceived as happy, induces a positive emotional condition as

opposed to listening to sad music. In one experiment conducted in a women‟s

clothing store, it was determined that shopping intentions and evaluations were

higher if shoppers were exposed to music which they perceived as “happy”.

Furthermore, studies have shown that shoppers who were exposed to time

spans under minor modes underestimated time spent in-store as opposed to

equal time spans executing music in major modes (Kellaris and Kent, 1992;

Knoferle, et al., 2012).

Interestingly, this finding goes against the popular belief used by Kellaris and

Kent (1992, p.365) that “time flies when you‟re having fun” as their studies

indicated that time perceptions were shortest when exposed to music which is

not associated with positive emotional evaluations. Cognitive theories suggest

that consumers listening to music which generate positive emotions might

contribute higher levels of attention to the composition resulting in heightened

cognitive functions inducing the belief that more happened and thus expanding

time perceptions (Block, 1990). Therefore, for environments where lesser time

perceptions are favourable, music in minor modes are most effective. This

proves highly beneficial for environments such as restaurants, banks and

waiting rooms which might require longer waiting times to prepare a finished

product or waiting for the cheque at the end of dining experience while

simultaneously.

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4.3.6. Tempo Music tempo has received as much attention as modality as it is highly

associated with generating consumer responses (Knoferle et al., 2012). Similar

to modality, the effects of tempo on the consumer can be described via a

“storage size” model of cognitive function. Thus, time perceptions can be

affected such that fast tempo music induces longer time perceptions while slow

tempo music induces shorter time perceptions (Oakes, 2003). Furthermore,

studies have associated fast tempos with elevated consumer physical activity

(e.g. heart rate, blood pressure and rate of breathing (Lundin, 1985) which is

supported by the findings of various studies that indicated high correlations of

tempo with arousal (Chebat et al., 2001; Kellaris and Kent, 1993). This

understanding supports the findings of numerous experiments which

incorporated tempo as a variable that may influence time perceptions. Kellaris

and Kent (1991) demonstrated that fast tempo music was judged by listeners

as longer in duration as opposed to music set at slow tempos. It has been

further reported by Caldwell and Hibbert (1999) that slow tempos encourage

higher spending than fast tempos.

In the context of supermarkets, Milliman (1982) displays the effects of slow

tempo music and fast tempo music on consumer behaviour and in-store traffic

flow. The results indicated that under the slow tempo music condition,

consumer pace of in-store traffic is decreased thus leading to higher sales.

Under the fast tempo music condition, in-store traffic accelerated resulting in a

decrease in spending. A study conducted later by Milliman (1986) in

restaurants, using the same music-tempo conditions, revealed that consumers

spent more time in the restaurant establishment and exercised higher spending

on alcoholic beverages under slow tempo music.

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4.3.7. An Interactive effect of Tempo and Modality The literature shows us that combinations of musical variables are known to

have similar effects. Concerning modality, music which was in a minor key

induced shorter time estimates while compositions of slow tempos were also

recorded as producing decreased time perceptions as well as encouraging

higher spending. Furthermore, slow tempos and minor keys are associated with

music induced sadness which has been revealed to elevate spending in

shopping environments (Alpert and Alpert, 1990; Knoferle et al., 2012). Garge

et al. (2007) showed that “sad mood inductions” increased food consumption

and in another study, increased spending (Cryder et al., 2008). Knoferle et al.

(2012) indicated that similarities between the effects of slow tempo music as

well as minor keys hold stronger significance on consumer time perceptions if

combined.

4.4. Cognitive understanding in the Literature As mentioned above, it has been strongly established that background music

has an impact on the consumer‟s behavioural, emotional and cognitive

responses (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974; Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Bruner,

1990). Various theories have been proposed in an attempt to explain the

interaction of music with the consumer‟s psychology (Herrington, 1996). With

concern on environmental psychology, Mehrabian and Russell (1974) propose a

model known as “approach-avoidance behaviour”, also referred to as „PAD‟.

Such behaviours comprise of emotional evaluations on the environment,

service experience, patronage decisions, and attitudes towards others,

spending behaviour, time perceptions and actual length of stay (Donovan and

Rossiter, 1982). The most popular (Newman, 1966) of theoretical explanations

have incorporated this model which provides a platform designed around a

three dimensional emotional structure consisting of pleasure-displeasure,

arousal-non arousal and dominance-submissiveness. It further describes the

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process through which evaluations of time function through memorization and

is hence described by means of a “storage model” (Ornstein, 1969). It states

that the more stimulation that is incurred during a set period of time, the

longer the consumer‟s time perceptions will be. Heightened emotional states

and memory allocation can thus be optimized by attaining congruity between

environmental stimuli such as lively music and vivid colours as well as calm

music and low-lit lighting (Donovan et al., 1994).

4.5. Music in service environments It is to no surprise that an individual would prefer an environment which is

pleasant in atmosphere and offers a sense of welcoming as opposed to the

contrary (Martineau, 1958). In effect, such environments have proven that in

particular situations, the servicescape can be more influential in the purchasing

decision than the actual product (Kotler, 1973). As musicscape is described as

a sub-category of the servicescape, music can act as a differentiating factor in

reinforcing brand image and can hence promote a competitive positioning

(Dube and Morin, 2001).

Concerning the research that involves music‟s impact on behaviours in service

environments, a major portion of the research has been conducted upon retail

stores and shopping malls while service environments such as restaurants, bars

and student cafeterias have been receiving a growing portion of attention. This

branches the literature out into two directions.

4.6. The Retail Environment In the light of retailing, the powerful effect of music as a sensory stimulus has

propelled it into extensive incorporation into the retail environment. Care is

taken in selecting and playing music which is congruent to the target markets

preferences to induce higher patronage intentions (Jain and Bagdare, 2011).

Further use of music in the retail environment utilizes it as a method of

enhancing brand image (Baker et al., 2002) and creating emotional bonds with

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the consumer (Schmitt and Simonson, 1997). In a study where the managers

of 52 retail stores were surveyed on their experiences with music in the

shopping environment, managers agreed that they felt customers exercised

higher spending behaviour and that music induced positive effects upon

customer moods. Similarly, 70 % of 560 customers who were surveyed in the

same study preferred stores that incorporated music into their service scheme

(Burleson, 1979). Other research reported that shoppers enjoy music during

their shopping experience and that stores which utilize music express greater

care for their customers than environments which do not (Linsen, 1975).

4.7. The Restaurant Environment There is a limited understanding of consumer behaviour and the determinants

involved with consumer satisfaction and enjoyment in the restaurant

environment (Caldwell and Hibbert, 2002). Lovelock (1985) goes to explain

that the core attribute of a restaurant is its food offering, leaving the service

and environment as secondary attributes which might complement the

consumer‟s experience. Dulen‟s (1999) findings, which were later supported by

the works of Susskind and Chan (2000), state that the food offering, service

and tangible environment significantly determine the consumer‟s evaluations of

the restaurant quality. As customer satisfaction is also a trait that is

significantly influenced by quality, understanding and optimizing the

servicescape should complement the dining experience. Furthermore, as

musicscape can be thought of as a sub-category of the servicescape, music can

be considered as a viable tool in elevating the servicescape offer and even

more so due to its easily implementable characteristics. As it is currently

understood, music can be used to induce time perceptions (Caldwell and

Hibbert, 2002; Milliman, 1986), increase satisfaction (Namkung and Jang,

2007) and influence moods (Alpert and Alpert, 1990; Herrington, 1996) in

casual restaurant environments.

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4.8. Literature Summary Figure 3 acts as a summary of the literature review extracting the known

effects of music on consumer behaviours as well as other understood

interactions.

Figure 3.

Category Author Description

Musicscape Oakes, (2003) Proposed musicscape as subcategory of servicescape

Guégeun et al.,(2007)

Music plays a vital role in affecting consumer satisfaction

Yalch and Spangenberg, (1993)

Music is an attractive atmospheric variable because it is inexpensive, easily changed, has predictable appeals to individuals based on their age and lifestyles

Oakes and North,

(2008)

Successful integration of music can convey

comprehensible messages and strengthen positioning strategies

Garlin and Owen, (2006)

The sheer occurrence of music increases patronage and pleasure

Musical

Congruency

Beverland et al., (2006)

Well fitted music allows uneducated customers to determine a benchmark of expectations

Radocy and Boyle, (1997)

Well fitted music can affect consumer decisions to allocate more time and money to the store

Harris and Ezeh,

(2008)

The better the musical fit, the higher the loyalty

intentions

Areni and Kim,

(1993)

Classical music is associated with higher socio-

economic behaviours which induces higher spending

Areni (2003) Jazz music is associated with higher socio-economic

behaviours which induces higher spending

North and Hargreaves, (2006)

Music associated with higher socio-economic values (e.g. classical, jazz) induces prestigious behaviours such as higher spending

Musical

Preference

Dalla Bella et al.,

(2001)

People below the age of six can only differentiate

music according fast and slow tempos. After the age of six, people are able to differentiate between major(happy) and minor(sad) modes

Kellaris and Altsech, (1992)

Female time estimates are shorter than male time estimates under soft volumes

Kellaris and Rice, (1993)

Females prefer slow and soft music, males prefer loud and fast music

Holbrook and

Schindler, (1989)

Music preferences at age 23 leaves lasting impressions

on future music preferences

Broekemier et al., (2008)

Major moded music increases liking of product

Volume Cain-Smith and Curnow, (1966)

Softer volumes induce longer lengths of stay and are more pleasurable than loud volumes

Modality Bruner, (1990) Major mode=happy, Minor mode =sad

Kellaris and Kent, (1992) Knoferle et al., (2012)

Minor modes induce shorter time perceptions than major modes

Tempo Oakes, (2003) Fast tempo= longer time perceptions, slow tempo= shorter time perceptions

Milliman, (1986) Slow tempo music induced longer lengths of stay and higher spending on alcoholic beverages in restaurants

Tempo and

Modality

Knoferle, (2012) Minor modes and slow tempos are best at decreasing time perceptions.

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5. Hypothesis This section states whether the research questions previously posed have been

answered by the literature review. Questions which have not been answered

will be taken into the primary research phase in the form of Hypotheses.

1. Do restaurant patrons spend more money in the presence of music? If

so, what music is best at making them spend more?

According to the literature, classical and jazz music are associated with higher

socio-economic behaviour which is known to induce behaviours of higher

spending (Areni and Kim, 1993). However, these findings apply to retail

environments and student cafeterias and not a fine dining environment. Hence,

this question will be incorporated in the Primary research under the following

hypothesis:

H1a): Restaurant patrons of the BDS will exercise higher spending in beverages

under a structured music treatment which incorporates classical music.

Furthermore, to understand whether restaurant patrons are conscious of their

higher spending or not, the following hypothesis was formulated:

H1b): Restaurant patrons of the BDS will feel that they exerted higher spending

than they intended to under the structured music treatment.

2. Does music have an effect on the restaurant patron’s enjoyment of the

dining experience? If so, what music is optimal at enhancing this

perception?

Music which is considered as happy or in major modes will positively affect

consumer‟s enjoyment evaluations (Alpert et al., 2003; Garlin and Owen, 2006)

Furthermore, softer volumes are perceived as more pleasant than loud volumes

(Lin and Wu, 2006). While this has been repeatedly mentioned in the literature,

no research has been expressed as to these effects in a fine dining

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environment. This question can hence be carried into the Primary Research

phase in the form of the following hypothesis:

H2: Restaurant patron‟s evaluation of their enjoyment of the experience will be

higher under a structured music treatment which incorporates music that is

considered as happy or in major modes.

3. Does music have an effect on the restaurant patron’s time perceptions?

If so, what kind of music is best at controlling these perceptions?

Background music in minor modes and slow tempos will induce shorter time

perceptions (Oakes, 2003; Knoferle, 2012). These findings have however been

conducted in retail environments and briefly in a casual restaurant. As this has

not been examined in the context of a fine dining establishment, this question

requires further research and is carried over into the Primary Research Phase in

the form of the following hypothesis:

H3: Restaurant patron‟s time estimates will be shorter under a structured

music treatment which incorporates music of slow tempos and minor

modalities.

4. Are restaurant patron’s intentions to return to the restaurant higher in

the presence of music? If so, what music is best at maximizing these

intentions?

It is evident that music has a significant impact on consumer behaviour when

utilized and applied correctly to the environment such that the mere presence

of music positively affects consumers‟ intentions to return (Garlin and Owen,

2006). Furthermore, music which is liked significantly affects consumers‟

intentions to return to the store environment (Broekemier et al., 2008). Yet

again, these results have been obtained via experimentation within retail

environments which does not satisfy the current research question with regards

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to a fine dining establishment. This question is hence carried into the Primary

Research Phase in the form of the following hypothesis:

H4: Restaurant patrons evaluations on their intentions to return will be higher

under a structured music treatment which incorporates music that is liked

(preference).

The contents of the structured music treatment will incorporate the musical

properties revealed in the literature into the process of selecting the relevant

music. However, to be able to do so, it is important to determine the correct

time and place to be able to measure the relative effects e.g. if the BDS

management wanted consumers to purchase expensive items, the literature

suggests that classical music would be played during the time period where

consumers place their food and beverage orders. To do so, a better

understanding of the selected dining environment was required.

5.1. Application of Hypothesis in the BDS Environment The Berceau des Sens (BDS) is a fine dining restaurant found in the Ecole

Hôtelière de Lausanne (EHL), based in Switzerland. Its name translates to the

“the basket of senses” and caters to an upmarket clientele with a capacity of 70

covers.

The BDS sports a classy and upscale- segment design fitted with automated

lighting and an overhead sound system which is controlled within the back-

office. It offers an extensive array of wines from different parts of the world as

well as various menus to choose from which are changed weekly. It is

comprised of a management team and further serves as a practice ground for

the students at the Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne such that the service and

kitchen staff is comprised of students and teachers who guide students through

the restaurants processes. The BDS is operational from Mondays to Thursdays

with lunch and dinner services lasting from 3 to 4 hours maximum each.

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As the BDS functions as one of the on-campus restaurants, large portions of its

clientele are students, staff and external guests. The ratio between students,

staff and external guests is 40%, 13% and 30% respectively (BDS statistics,

2011). House guests make up the remaining clientele of the BDS. These guests

were not included in the survey as they do not pay for the experience and are

often attending for business purposes. Ages of BDS clientele range from 18 till

55 years of age.

5.1.1. The Dining Phases The process of dining at the BDS is one that is comprised of 3 significantly

different periods unique to the concept of fine dining. These periods were

determined after interviewing the BDS management team about the general

activities within the consumer experience at the BDS.

At the start of the service, guests are presented with menus, given water and

offered bread. It is at this moment where guests will select their preferred

menu‟s and wines. Guests then wait for a series of 7 meals to be presented to

them after the completion of each one. Upon completion of these meals, guests

are then offered a selection of desserts which are shortly followed by the

optional coffee and the bill, a period which is notorious for long waiting times.

The nature of the BDS service presents various opportunities to study the

effects of music on consumers.

To better segment each period within the dining process, „Pre-Phase‟ is the

term given to the first 60 minutes of the dining process, „During-Phase‟ refers

to the next 90 minutes and „Post-Phase‟ is the term given to the last 60

minutes of service at the BDS. Hypothesis are further derived an implemented

in the corresponding sections.

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5.1.2. The Pre-Phase At the beginning period; consumers decide on what they will spend on and to

what extent their spending will be taken to. As this time period commences the

dining experience and acts as the point of sale for the BDS, it is favourable that

consumers order high revenue items. Once, the order has been recorded,

guests receive their first beverages which are generally comprised of the

different wines at the BDS. As this period involves activities such as wine

purchasing, wine tasting and consumption, associations are of higher socio-

economic status, prestige and intricacy (Areni and Kim, 1993). Music that

matches these social values should be considered when developing a sonic

profile.

It is important to choose music that would complement the contextual

environment of the BDS. As it is by concept a fine-dining restaurant, music of

prestigious associations need be executed to retain and enhance the formal

beginning of the BDS service. Furthermore, as the target is to influence

heightened spending, music should either be regarded as prestigious or be in

minor modalities with slow tempos. Furthermore, as the beverage offer is the

only menu that remains constant, beverages were implemented as part of the

research measurements and the food offer discarded from further tracking.

Hence, for the sake of enhancing the prestigious image of the restaurant while

simultaneously influencing increased spending, classical music is regarded as

the variable most suited to achieving the mentioned results. We can therefore

measure the effects of H1a and H1b in this time frame and accept or reject the

hypothesis according to the findings.

5.1.3. The During-Phase The second period consists of serving the meals that had been ordered in the

„Pre-Phase‟ period and is heavily dependent on the waiter‟s ability to anticipate

and synchronize the guest‟s consumption speed with the kitchen‟s processes as

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well as the time that it takes to prepare each dish. As this period is heavily

associated with customer evaluation of the dining experience, the opportunity

to measure music‟s effect on consumer‟s evaluation of the experience can be

applied.

At this phase of the dining experience, lights are lowered to promote a sense of

relaxation and comfort rather than the initial atmosphere of formality. During

this period, it is still possible to order additional beverages. Hence, inducing

behaviours of higher spending is favourable along with positive mood

inductions which require music which is slow and in major modality or

perceived as happy. As classical music is associated with emotions of prestige

and sophistication, it is not congruent with the newly altered atmosphere of

relaxation and ease. Therefore, a musical genre which is also associated with

higher socio-economic status but complements the newly defined atmosphere

is that of Jazz music (Shepherd, 1986). Furthermore, music should be chosen

which is known to positively affect consumer‟s patronage intentions as well as

their product and service evaluations. According to the literature, music which

is happy (major modality) has significant effects in positively influencing

product and service evaluations. We can therefore measure the effects of H2 in

this time frame and accept or reject the hypothesis according to the findings.

5.1.4. The Post Phase The third period offers the guest a moment to relax and end the service with a

coffee or any other choice in beverage selection as the period to order food

ends at 8 pm. The Post-Phase is associated with guests using their time to

relax after the lengthy service and consumption of many meals. As customers

usually display a sense of fatigue from the prior meals consumed and time

spent in the restaurant, waiting for the bill can become a tiresome task due to

service staff catering to other customers still dining or also enquiring on other‟s

bills. Hence, the opportunity is provided to exploit music which is known to

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shorten customer time perceptions. Music known to have such an effect is that

of slow tempos and in minor modalities. We can therefore measure the effects

of H3 in this time frame and accept or reject the hypothesis according to the

findings.

Furthermore, as the management would like the last impressions of the

consumer to be that of heightened return intentions, care was taken to select

music which was liked by the target the audience. Hence, the pre-phase serves

as an appropriate segment to test H4.

5.2. Conceptual Framework In the framework below (figure 4), the proposed hypotheses and its relevant

musical treatments, which were derived from the literature, are displayed in

relation to the variables proposed for measurement.

Figure 4.

6. Music Treatment Development Music has been identified as significant in the development of memories which

promotes the creation and recollection of judgments about oneself, others and

H1a)

H1b)

H2)

H3)

H4)

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the environment (Jänke, 2008). Knowing this, consumers may rely on the

musical treatment of the restaurant to better facilitate and recall their

experience at the end of the evening. To our knowledge, no attempts have

been made to assimilate a structured musical treatment that adheres to the

objectives set out by management in terms of managing consumer behaviours

that may be beneficial to both the store and the consumer‟s experience. Hence,

the BDS will serve as the environment suited for experimentation where the

use of a structured music treatment will be implemented and tested against an

unstructured music treatment.

6.1. Unstructured Music Treatment Music that pertained to the unstructured treatment was compiled by the BDS

management team. Music was selected according to the management team‟s

own tastes and beliefs as to what type of music should be played and was

controlled according to the intuition of the staff on duty. Unstructured music

adhered to no particular time boundaries or theoretical application and was

again controlled via the intuition of the service staff. Their music treatments

involved putting an artist‟s CD into the sound system and playing it through the

night as the staff pleased. CD‟s of artists involved Diana Kral, Miles Davis,

Cannonball Adderley and Kazumi Watanabe. Although the music does pertain to

the higher socio-economic values known to Jazz music, compositional elements

of the music were executed at random meaning that these elements (slow

tempo, fast tempo, major mode, minor mode etc.) were completely mixed with

no purpose within their placement.

6.2. Structured Music Treatment Music herewith was determined from an interview with the management of the

BDS. Please consult Appendix 1 for a representation of the interview in table

format.

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Music was then selected and organized according to the time period in question

and the desired restaurant patron behaviour associated to the segment in time.

6.2.1. Pre-Phase Music Selection As stated in the literature, music with higher socio-economic associations such

as classical music is known to elevate the consumer‟s perceptions of an

environment such that it is regarded as more prestigious and higher in quality.

Classical music compositions were therefore derived from the works of North et

al. (2002) where classical music was used in a casual restaurant to determine if

classical music could induce higher spending in an upmarket restaurant.

6.2.2. During-Phase Music Selection Music which is regarded as happy (major modality) is known to have positive

effects on service/product evaluations. Furthermore, as the guest still had the

opportunity to order more F&B items, music selection was kept at slow tempos

for its understood effects upon heightened spending. The compositions were

chosen under the genre of Jazz for its higher socio-economic associations.

6.2.3. Post-Phase Music Selection Music which is liked is known to have positive effects on patronage behaviour.

Also, as the aim was to shorten time perceptions, care was taken in selecting

liked music that was slow and in minor modes. However, the process to

selecting “liked” music required a complicated procedure in musical selection

which then had to be approved by the BDS management.

As the majority of the BDS clientele are students and staff from the campus of

the Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne, an informal survey was dispatched which

asked them what type of music they would prefer listening to in a fine dining

establishment as well as any song suggestions. A portion of these were

incorporated into the playlist.

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The second part of the procedure involved determining music that would fit the

preferences of consumers according to their age. As stated by Holdbrook and

Schindler (1989), musical preference at the age of 23.5 remains a stronger

preference over music which was liked at different stages in one‟s life. Hence,

to cater for clientele who may not have been part of the informal survey and

are also considerably older in age, care was taken to incorporate music that

was liked by older generations in their earlier years. Billboard and Top 40

charts between the years of 1970 and 2012 were consulted in choosing the

relevant musical compositions.

Finally, music was further filtered to ensure that compositions in this section

were in minor modes and slow tempos. Hence, compositions which were in

major modalities and/or fast tempos were discarded.

6.3. CD Control As the experiment is based on the segmented dining service at BDS, it was

necessary for the researcher to control the start and ending of the music per

phase. 3 CD‟s had to be developed which contained the 3 separate playlist

treatments; „Pre‟, „During‟ and „Post‟ phases. Hence, the first CD contained the

musical playlist „Pre-Phase‟, the second CD contained the playlist „‟During-

Phase‟ and the third CD contained the Playlist „Post-Phase‟. The contents of

each CD can be found in Appendix 3.

The researcher commenced the musical treatment at 7 pm and changed the CD

at the shift in dinner service segments. Volumes were kept at background

volumes.

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7. Survey Design

7.1. Introduction A quantitative approach was necessary in order to collect large amounts of

usable data. To do so, it was necessary to develop a survey that gave

respondents the opportunity to evaluate the different perceptible qualities of

their experience. Hence, by obtaining mass amounts of observable data,

analysis could be made to obtain conclusive results.

Surveys were distributed at the end of the dining service to all of the BDS‟s

guests by the service staff and later collected by the service staff after the

guest(s) had completed their survey(s).

7.2. Survey Structure

The survey required the respondent to indicate their gender, age and guest

type (student, staff, external guest). As the survey required respondents to

evaluate their attitude or opinion upon a topic, a 5 point Likert Scale was

applied to all questions where 1 represented complete disagreement and 5

represented complete agreement (Likert, 1932).

Each question incorporated into the survey measured the characteristics

determined within the conceptual framework and was designed to incorporate

three phases of the dining experience mentioned earlier, namely, the „Pre-

Phase‟, „During-Phase‟ and „Post-Phase‟. Questions pertaining to the „Pre-Phase‟

segment measured perceptions of spending. Questions associated to the

„During-Phase‟ measured evaluations of the over-all dining experience. Finally,

questions related to the „Post-Phase‟ measured consumer time estimates as

well as their intentions to return.

Furthermore, as the clientele of the BDS speak either French or English,

questions were kept in English while a French version of the same survey was

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given to French speakers. This translation was done by the EHL campus French

teacher, Madame Philippin-Cotillon. Please consult Appendix 2 to view the

surveys.

7.3. Survey Questions The survey is introduced by the question “I was aware of the music tonight” in

order to measure whether the respondent took notice of the music playing. This

may indicate whether these reactions took place at a conscious or unconscious

level.

7.3.1. Pre-Phase Questions: Spending The question “I feel I spent more money than I intended to” was asked to

measure to what extent people felt their spending was exerted. This was done

so as to understanding if consumers felt that they had exerted greater

spending. The intention was to further couple the relative responses with the

actual receipts.

7.3.2. During-Phase Questions: Experience Evaluations “I had an enjoyable experience” was the question posed to measure the

respondent‟s general level of enjoyment within the BDS experience under the

different music conditions. To further segment what may have influenced the

respondent‟s perception of what affected their evaluation of an enjoyable

experience, the respondent was asked to agree to what extent they enjoyed

the company of the people they went with to the BDS, the BDS décor, service

staff, music and the food.

7.3.3. Post-Phase Question: Intentions to Return and Time

Perceptions Time perceptions were measured by the question “I felt that time went by

quickly”. The respondent rated their level of agreement with the statement

according to the previously mentioned scale.

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The ending question on the survey, “I intend to return to the BDS in the near

future”, was included to understand to what level the respondent may have

been influenced by the two musical treatments in terms of their intentions to

return to the BDS in the future as a means of measuring patronage. Whether

the guest had come back on future occasions was not tracked.

7.4. Sample The field experiment was conducted in the BDS over a 4 week period during the

month of March. The two music treatments were employed in the BDS

environment to investigate the effects of a structured music treatment and an

unstructured music treatment on restaurant patrons without revealing to them

the difference in music conditions. As the restaurant is operational for 4 days of

the week (Monday-Thursday) and has two separate services; lunch and dinner,

the dinner service was selected for experimentation. To equally distribute the

two music treatments, structured music treatments that were played on

Tuesday and Thursday of the first week were swapped with the Monday and

Wednesday of the second week. Unstructured music that was played on

Monday and Wednesday in the first week was played on Tuesday and Thursday

of the second week. Volumes had been pretested in the BDS environment to

ensure that music was kept in the background as opposed to the foreground

and the separate CD content had been put on shuffle to randomly assign the

musical content per CD.

The final sample consisted of 348 total participants, 158 of who had dined

under the unstructured music treatment and 190 under the structured music

treatment. Of the 348 respondents, 151 were male and 197 were female. 181

of the respondents were students, 7 were staff and a 158 were external guests.

2 respondents had failed to indicate their guest type and age. Please refer to

Table 1 represents the previously stated information.

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Table 1. Sample Participants

Category Selection Amount

Gender Male 151

Female 197

Total 348

Age 18-24 220

25-34 50

35-44 21

45-54 25

55+ 30

Total 346

Guest Type Student 181

Staff 7

External 158

Total 346

Total Missed 2

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8. Primary Research 8.1. Data Collection

8.1.1. Survey Surveys were distributed and collected at the end of the dinner services from

Monday to Thursday by the staff of the BDS.

8.1.2. Receipts As the food menus at the BDS are changed on a weekly basis, it was decided to

only measure the spending on beverages as these remain constant on offer.

The cost control department of the BDS records all of the orders and

transactions made at both lunch and dinner services. It was hence employed in

separating the beverage receipts for each night service and determining the

spend per head on BDS restaurant patrons per night. These values were then

organized according to their appropriate nights under the two music conditions.

This information could then be incorporated into the relative analysis.

9. Methodology Part 2 This section describes the processes involved in analysing the data that was

collected from the 5th till the 15th of March, 2012.

9.1. SPSS The program SPSS version 20 was used to analyse the data collected from the

surveys. A frequency test was executed to count the number of participants,

gender, guest type and age differences that were present in the experiment at

the BDS. Responses from the survey were recorded on excel and then imported

into SPSS.

9.2. Reliability In order to continue further analysis, Cronbach‟s Reliability Test was conducted

on all questions. As the result displayed and alpha value greater than 0.6

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(α=0.606), reliability of the questions were satisfactory and further analysis

could be done.

9.3. Independent Samples T-Test It was necessary to determine whether a significant difference in responses

under the two music conditions existed. To do so, Independent Samples T-test

proved appropriate in providing means and significance levels to confirm a

significant difference in the responses under the two musical conditions of

structured and unstructured musical treatments. In order to determine whether

a significant difference existed, the 2-tailed significance had to be below 5%

(0.05). This test was applied to all data that was related to the survey

questions.

9.4. Independent Samples T-Test on Spending After identifying the average spend per head, the averages were then imported

into SPSS to the corresponding days and respondent numbers. Furthermore, as

the figures determined were average spend per head of the different beverage

categories; wines, beers, liquor and minerals, these values were hence aligned

on the number of respondents that had participated in the test. This was done

so as to make Independent Samples T-tests possible in order to determine

whether the two music conditions produced significant differences in terms of

spending. If the value presented by the 2-tailed significance was under 5%

(0.05), the difference in spending was hence considered as significant.

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9.5. Methodological Limitations 1. Experimentation was conducted in only one environment and hence the

data set pertains to only the BDS environment. Further research might

consider executing the experiment in various environments of similar

characteristics.

2. As answering the survey was voluntary, the absence of certain

participant‟s evaluations may have deterred from the data set. This may

have affected the results.

3. The cost control department had presented the researcher with final

values. As it was already against their policies to release financial

information, the values used may not have been representative of the

real spending at the BDS on beverages.

4. Although analysis had received an acceptable size of data from a large

sample size, choice in analyses was kept simple so as to merely indicate

the difference in responses under the two conditions. Such as simple

manner in analysis may thus be considered a limitation and that future

research might consider more vigorous methods of analysis upon closer

investigation of the variables.

5. It was difficult to control the dispersion of surveys due to the large

number of staff distributing them under limited monitoring. Hence, such

an error may result in affecting the reliability of the data.

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10. Findings and Analysis

10.1. Receipts Higher spending was recorded under the condition of a structured music

treatment and lesser spending under the unstructured music treatment such

that spending on wines experienced an average increase of 4.35 CHF, 30 C

increase on minerals and 7 C increase on beer. These increases were

considered as significantly different due to the 2-tailed significance being below

5% (0.05). The only beverage item that did not experience a significant

difference in increase was liquor. These values can be further found in Table 2

presented below.

10.2. Perceptions on spending Average scores for respondents perceptions on how much they feel they spent

was higher under the structured music treatment (2.46) than under the

unstructured music treatment (2.03). These differences were prompted as

significant and can be found in Table 3.

10.3. Awareness of music The survey revealed that there was a significant difference in the respondents

evaluation in their awareness of the music played under the two music

treatments. They were more aware of the presence of music under the

Table 2: Independent Sample T-Test on beverage receipts

Music Structured Unstructured Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean Equal Variances Assumed

Equal Variances Not Assumed

Receipts Per Day

Wine 32.15 27.80 0.00 0.00

Mineral 0.44 0.14 0.00 0.00

Beer 0.22 0.15 0.01 0.01

Liquor 0.40 0.47 0.142 0.16

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structured music treatment (3.34) than under the unstructured music

treatment (2.24). The relative values presented in Table 3.

10.4. Overall Experience Evaluation Respondents indicated that their overall experience was higher under the

structured music treatment (4.68) as opposed to the unstructured music

treatment (4.38) at significant levels.

However, when respondents were asked to evaluate individual aspects of the

service environment, no differences were reflected in their evaluations under

the two different musical treatments. The only variable that was significantly

different was their higher preference evaluations for the music under the

structured music treatment (3.48) as opposed to the unstructured music

treatment (1.99). These values can be found in Table 3.

10.5. Time Perceptions Under the structured musical treatment, respondent evaluations indicate a

higher response (4.34) in their time perception evaluation under the structured

musical treatment than under the unstructured musical treatment (3.65). It

was indicated that these values were significantly different as represented in

Table 3.

10.6. Return Intentions Respondents indicated higher evaluations of their intentions to return under the

structured music treatment (4.54) than under the unstructured music

treatment (4.27) which were indicated as significantly different. Furthermore,

these values can be found in Table 3.

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Table 3: Independent Samples T-Test on survey evaluations

Music Structured Unstructured Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean Equal Variances

Assumed

Equal Variances Not

Assumed

Consciousness

I was aware of the music tonight 3.34 2.24 0.00 0.00

Spending

I feel I spent more money than I intended to 2.46 2.03 0.00 0.00

Overall Experience Evaluation

I had an enjoyable experience 4.68 4.38 0.00 0.00

I enjoyed my evening because of the:

People I went with to BDS 4.84 4.8 0.47 0.46

BDS décor 3.92 3.8 0.24 0.24

Service staff 4.14 4.01 0.17 0.17

Music 3.48 1.99 0.00 0.00

Food 4.25 4.11 0.15 0.15

Time Perceptions

I felt that time went by quickly 4.34 3.65 0.00 0.00

Intention to Return

I intend on dining at the BDS again 4.54 4.27 0.00 0.00

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12. Discussion

12.1. Awareness towards the Music According to the analysis, higher awareness of the music under the structured

music treatment was likely due to the respondent‟s heightened exposure to the

music which was kept at pre-tested volumes. Furthermore, the continuous

duration of the structured music treatment may have given the respondent

greater opportunity to recognize that there was music playing over the BDS‟s

sounds system. In light of the unstructured music treatment, which was

controlled by the intuition of the BDS management, inconsistent volumes and

time durations of the music may have hindered the respondent‟s ability to

acknowledge the presence of music. Due to the respondent‟s higher evaluations

of certain elements under the structured music treatment, it would be

beneficial for restaurant environments (and more specifically the BDS) to keep

their musical profile under consistent usage of time and volume levels as

opposed to control based on intuition. Further research is however required to

understand whether these restaurant patrons‟ decisions were made at a

conscious or unconscious level.

12.2. Perceptions on Spending vs. Actual Receipts Receipt tracking revealed that restaurant patrons attending the BDS displayed

behaviour of higher spending under the structured music treatment which

incorporated classical music played during the order-taking period.

Furthermore, restaurant patrons of the BDS felt that they had spent more

money than they had intended to under the structured music treatment than

under the unstructured music treatment. These findings supports the research

of Milliman (1986) as well as North and Hargreaves (1998) who highlight the

higher socio-economic associations of classical music and its ability to induce

prestigious behaviour such as higher spending. Therefore, H1a) is accepted.

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Furthermore, as consumers indicated that they exerted higher spending in their

survey evaluations under the structured music treatment, H1b) is also accepted.

12.3. Overall Experience Evaluation Under the structured music treatment, respondents indicated that their overall

enjoyment of the dining experience was higher than respondents under the

unstructured music treatment. This finding further supports the findings of

researchers such as Alpert et al. (2003) and Garlin and Owen (2006). However,

this did not seem to be reflected in respondent‟s evaluations of the individual

elements that composed the dining experience, except for the higher

appreciation of the music indicated in the survey responses. It might be argued

that the elements put to question were not the appropriate elements to

measure and that there are other factors which may have been affected but not

incorporated into the survey such as questions related to “atmosphere” and

“mood”.

As respondents did indicate a higher enjoyment of the overall experience,

accepting H2 might be a viable option as a structured music treatment which

incorporated music that was in line with the customer‟s musical preferences,

coupled with music associated with positive mood inductions (major mode)

positively influenced restaurant patron‟s evaluations of their dining experience.

However, it remains tentative as to what variables were actually affected in

their experience evaluations. Further research is necessary to better

understand this phenomenon.

12.4. Time Perceptions Survey responses indicated that consumers felt that time went by faster when

exposed to the structured music treatment. These findings support the

research of Oakes (2003). This means that such treatments which incorporate

music at slow tempos and in minor modes could have a significant effect upon

decreasing consumer estimates on time durations. Hence, H3 is accepted.

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12.5. Return Intentions Under the structured music condition, respondents indicated higher evaluations

on their intentions to return to the BDS in the future as compared to

evaluations under the unstructured music condition. This finding hence

supports the workings of Harris and Ezeh, (2008). As the structured music

treatment incorporated music known to positively affect patronage, H4 is

accepted.

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13. Conclusion and Implications Although intuitive means of selecting music is not necessarily a destructive

activity, by adhering to a rigorous process of musical selection, the restaurant

can forego the hazard of incorrectly selecting music which might produce

counter-productive effects. This is achieved by incorporating music that

pertains to the market segments musical preferences and correctly matching

these tastes to the identity of the restaurant environment in question.

Furthermore, paying attention to the numerous theoretical components of

music, such as genre, tempo and modality; restaurant establishments are able

to make musical decisions based on conceptual knowledge instead of

judgments supported by intuition.

As it has been demonstrated, music has a significant effect upon the restaurant

patron‟s dining experience. If an analytical approach is incorporated into

designing and applying the musicscape to the restaurant environment, it is

possible to produce behaviours which are favourable in optimizing the

restaurant experience and hence complement operational procedures aimed at

bettering customer evaluations of the restaurant environment.

These findings add to prior research such that restaurant establishments can

look to music as a useful tool in increasing revenues with regards to beverage

purchases, increased evaluations of the overall enjoyment of the experience,

induce shorter time perceptions over periods which require long waiting times

and positively affect the restaurants patron‟s intentions to return to the

establishment. As these findings add to an existing but limited content with

regards to the use of music in restaurants, such establishments can look to

music as a tool which complements its service offer and differentiates itself

from its competitors.

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14. Further Research Recommendations 1. The use of only one restaurant environment may not be representative for the

whole population, especially since the restaurant caters to a very specific type

of clientele. Further research might incorporate more than one restaurant

establishment under the same music treatment conditions to see if findings

remain consistent within various restaurant environments.

2. As the restaurant environment wished to keep a prestigious atmosphere during

the main part of the BDS service without it being as formal as the classical

music atmosphere, the use of Jazz music was incorporated. However, the

nature of Jazz music is one that is synonymous with constantly changing

modalities. Hence, Jazz music might start off in a major mode and then

transition into a minor mode. This may explain why music played during the

dining experience didn‟t have a particular effect on respondent‟s evaluations of

the service, décor or product. Although the structured music treatment

produced higher evaluations of enjoyment than the unstructured music

treatment, it might be said that the consistent presence of music during this

period as well as its incorporation due to its song structure remaining

predominantly in a major mode, had a general positive effect. Future research

might consider selecting music which does not incur too many modal changes

within the structured treatment.

3. By dealing out the surveys at the end of the night, it does not allow the

researcher to isolate what variables may have had a direct impact on the

restaurant patron. Ideally, the different parts of the survey should have been

dealt directly after the corresponding period e.g. Perceptions of time would

have been more accurate if the respondent received the survey directly after

phase designated to music known to induce such effects.

4. Some tables had experienced unisex seating while other tables experienced

same sex seating. These differences may have had an effect on the

respondent‟s evaluations. However, these factors were not tracked. Future

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research might consider tracking such information to determine more accurate

results.

5. Table size varied between 2 per table till 9 per table. As there was intention to

track this variable, staff often forgot to indicate the table size of the

respondents table. This resulted in abandoning the tracking of table size due to

the inconsistency in collections. However, this variable may have had some

influence over the results. Further research should incorporate this into the

research design.

6. Guests seated at different ends of the restaurant environment were all at

different distances from the sources of amplification. Hence, this may have

affected the respondent‟s evaluations as the volumes may have been

inconsistent amongst the different seating plans. Future research could

consider conducting experimentation on only the tables which are nearest to

the sources of amplification.

7. Service staff who was meant to distribute and collect the surveys often

distributed the surveys at different times. Although this is expected due to

different tables finishing their dining experience either sooner or later than

others, this may had some effect on the level of evaluation from the different

respondents. Furthermore, attitudes and behaviours of the service staff when

handing out the survey may have affected respondent‟s evaluations. Future

research might consider developing some form of monitoring staff in their

distribution of surveys.

8. The survey questions may have been worded incorrectly as certain words and

phrases may not have been understood by everyone under the same context.

As a result, this may have resulted in inconsistencies within the respondents

evaluations. Future research might consider evaluating the wording of the

surveys via a focus group to produce more accurate wording structures.

9. The quality of the sound system within the BDS may have deterred from the

music‟s ability to be well perceived by everyone dining at the BDS.

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Furthermore, the equalization controls for the sound system were very limited

and did not allow much opportunity to adjust the sound of the CD content and

contextualize it to the acoustics of the BDS environment. As a result, the

hindrance sound technology led to lower sound quality which may have had an

effect on the respondent‟s evaluations. Future research should be conducted in

environments that have a high quality sound system to avoid deterioration in

sound quality.

10. Although literature exists concerning the effects of music on consumer

behaviour in service environments, a very limited portion of it is focused on

dining environments. Hence, using information that was more related to other

environments may have had an effect on the experiment. More research in the

fields of a dining environment could help avoid this problem in the future. This

finding however deals some contrasting information.

11. According to Ornstein‟s “storage model”, the more stimulation cognitive

processes are subjected to, the longer time estimates should be. Hence, by

theory, silence should have the most optimal effect in decreasing consumer‟s

time perceptions. Often times, BDS management would refrain from playing

music when the environment was experiencing full capacity as management

felt that the noise produced by “chatter” would come into conflict with the

music. Although this management of the music was not consistent, it still

brings to question as to why a structured music treatment produced shorter

time perceptions, especially since its music acted as an additional layer of

sound over the existing chatter. This might be that the music exposed by the

structured music treatment distracted people from the disorganized sound of

the “chatter” and provided a more organized platform of sound for cognitive

processes to decode. Whatever the reason, it is clear that further research is

necessary to better understand the proposed model and its implications in the

context of music and restaurant environments.

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Tom, G., & Lucey, S. (1997). A Field Study Investigating the Effect of Waiting Time on

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Yalch, R. F., & Spangenberg, E. (1993). Using store music for retailing zones: a field

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Page 60: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

60

Appendix

Page 61: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

61

Appendix 1- Phase schedule from interview

Phases Time (pm) Dining Period Desired Results

Use of Music from lit.

Tracking evaluations

Pre-Phase

07 : 00 08 : 30

Selection of wine and

course meals for the rest of the evening

Prestige and formal

atmosphere Induce higher spending

Classical music

Receipts Survey

During-Phase

08 : 30 10 : 30

Dining Experience commences

with series of meals

Perceived (+)Experience Relaxed

atmosphere which is still formal

Jazz music in slow tempos and major

modes

Survey

Post-Phase 10 : 00 11 : 00

Sit-down and coffee before the end of the evening

Short Time Perceptions High intentions to return

Music in minor modes and slow tempos (+) music must be liked

Survey

Page 62: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

62

Appendix 2- Survey

We thank you for dining at the BDS this evening. Please take a moment to fill out the survey below Gender Male Female

Guest Type Student Staff External

Age Category

18-24

25-34

35-44

45-54

+55

Please indicate to what level you agree with the following statements, where 1= completely disagree and 5=completely agree 1 2 3 4 5

I was aware of the music tonight

I feel I spent more money than I intended to

I had an enjoyable experience

I enjoyed my evening because of the: 1 2 3 4 5

People I went with to BDS

BDS décor

Service staff

Music

Food

1 2 3 4 5

I felt that time went by quickly

I intend on dining at the BDS again

Thank you for your time and we wish you a pleasant journey home

Page 63: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

63

Nous vous remercions pour votre présence au BDS ce soir. Nous vous serions gré de prendre quelques minutes pour remplir le questionnaire suivant: Genre Homme Femme

Vous êtes… Etudiant Externe Employé

Catégorie d’âge 18-24

25-34

35-44

45-54

+55

S’il vous plait, dites si vous êtes tout à fait d’accord ou pas du tout d’accord avec les affirmations suivantes: 1=pas du tout d’accord ; 5=tout à fait d’accord 1 2 3 4 5 J’ai remarqué la musique pendant la soirée

J’ai l’impression d’avoir dépensé plus d’argent que j’en avais l’intention

J’ai passé un moment (très) agréable

J’ai aimé cette soirée pour les raisons suivantes: 1 2 3 4 5

Les gens avec lesquels je suis venu au BDS

Le décor du BDS

Le service (du personnel)

La musique

La nourriture/le repas

1 2 3 4 5

Le temps a passé plus vite que prévu

J’ai l’intention de revenir dîner au BDS

Merci d’avoir pris le temps de remplir ce questionnaire, nous vous souhaitons un bon retour chez vous.

Page 64: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

64

Appendix 3- Structured Music Treatments

Phase Desired Result Style Songs P

re-P

hase

Sele

ct

of H

igh R

evenue I

tem

s

Pre

stigio

us M

usic

identified a

s c

lassic

al

1. Minuet in G- Bach

2. Orchestral Suite no. 3- Bach

3. Concerto in E Flat- Bellini

4. Waltz in A Flat- Brahms

5. Nocturne- Chopin

6. Courante and Sarabande- Bach

7. Dvork

8. Fure Elsie- Beethoven

9. Harp Concerto- Handel

10.Love Dream- Liszt

11.Concerto Harp and Flute- Mozart

12.Pachabel Canon

13.Romantic Classical

14.Serenade- Schubert

15.Turkish March

16.Violin Romance- Beethoven

17.Summer- Vivaldi

Duration of music: 96 minutes

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65

Phase Desired Result

Style Songs D

urin

g-P

hase

Perc

eiv

ed (

+)E

xperience

Short

Tim

e P

erc

eptions

Jazz in M

ajo

r Keys

Slo

w T

em

po M

usic

1. Bye Bye Blackbird- Public Enemies

2. Body and Soul- Freddie Hubbard

3. Do I love you „cause you‟re beautiful-

Coltraine

4. Everytime we say Goodbye

5. Here‟s that Rainy Day- Freddie

Hubbard

6. I Love Her

7. Girl from Ipenema

8. Guess I‟m Falling for you

9. All I have

10.Lions Song

11.Stardust

12.My One and Only Love- Coltraine &

Hartman

13.Prelude to a Kiss- Duke Ellington

14.Sensual Saxophone

15.Slow Dance

16.Sophisticated Lady

17.Travellin Blues

18.When I fall in Love

19.William Hernandez

20.You leave me breathless

Duration: 102 minutes

Page 66: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

66

Phase Desired

Result Style Songs

Po

st-

Ph

ase

Decre

ased T

ime P

erc

eptions

Inte

ntions t

o r

etu

rn

Slo

w t

o m

odera

te m

usic

in m

inor

modes

1. Air

2. La Mangrave

3. Behold These Days

4. Cinematic Orchestra

5. French Lounge Music

6. Summer Madness

7. Lights

8. Matrix

9. NERD

10.Can‟t Take that Away from Me

11.Fly Me to the Moon

12.Que Sera- Wax Tailor

13.L‟amour

14.Destiny- Zero 7

Duration: 60 Minutes

Page 67: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

67

Appendix 4- Reference descriptions

N° Authors Definitions Dimensions Scales of Measurement

Domain Hypothesis Findings

1-Music &

Consumption

Experience

Rajanish Jain,

Shilpa

Bagdare

(2010)

Literature

review-

To Examine

the influence

of music on

consumption

experience

,explore the

relationships

between

musical

variables and

consumer

responses in

the context of

retailing

1) Musical

Construct

Structural

elements,

Liking

2)Response

Cognitive,

emotional and

behavioural

3)Experience

4)Moderators

Customer

profile, Type of

store, ambience

factors

Literature

review

Consumer

Experience

none Accumulation of

findings in the

context of

retailing

2-Resources for

Selecting Popular

Music

Eamon Tewell

(2009)

Providing

resources

useful for

selecting

popular sound

recordings

while

emphasizing

the need for

monitoring

trends and

new releases

in popular

music

Online world none Musical

Resources

none Refer to table

titled „Resources

for selecting

popular music‟

3- Effects of web Jung-Hwan The effects of Product Mehrabian Consumer H2: those H2 rejected

Page 68: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

68

site atmospherics

on consumer

responses: music

and product

presentation

Kim,

Minjeong

Kim, Sharron

J. Lennon

(2009)

web site

atmospherics

such as music

and product

presentation

on consumers‟

emotional,

cognitive and

conative

responses

presentation

Music

Emotional

States

Attitude

Purchase Intent

and Russell

(1974)

Experience exposed to

background

music in online

shopping will

exhibit more

positive emotion

towards the

website

4-Effects of

Background Music

on Consumer

Behaviour: A field

Experiment in an

Open-Air Market

Nicolas

Guéguen,

Céline Jacob,

Marcel

Lourel,

Hélène Le

Guellee

(2007)

The effects of

music on

consumer

behaviour

outside ( from

without the

confines of a

building)

Length of stay

Sales rate

Average amount

of sales per

customer

Background

Music

numerical Consumer

Behaviour

H1:pleasant

music retains

clientele vs. no

music at all

H2: Background

music will have

a positive effect

on sales volume

H1 accepted

H2 accepted

although

tenuous

5- Are highly

satisfied restaurant

customers really

different? A quality

perception

Young

Namkung,

Soocheong

Jang

(2007)

Identifying

the key

quality

attributes that

significantly

distinguish

highly

satisfied

dinners from

non-highly

satisfied

diners

Quality of food

Presentation

Quality of

Atmospherics

Service Quality

Survey

questionnaire

-restaurant

experience

-perceived

quality

-customer

satisfaction

Logistic

Regressions

Customer

Satisfaction

H1:

atmospherics

have a

significant

importance to

high customer

satisfaction

H1 accepted

6- Meaning,

communication,

music: towards a

revised

communication

model

Charles

Inskip,

Andrew

MacFarlane,

Pauline

Rafferty

Examining the

meaning of

music, how

meaning of

music is

communicated

Literature

review

none Music

Information

Systems

none None useful but

contents of

research very

helpful

Page 69: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

69

(2007) and suggests

this may

affect music

retrieval

7-How can Music be

used in Business

Darrell

Coloma,

Brian H.

Kleiner

(2005)

Management

Research

News

Time Perception

Advertising

none Consumer

Behaviour

none Please refer to

the table titled „

Music Business

findings‟

8- An exploration of

happy/sad and

liked/disliked

music effects on

shopping intentions

in women’s

clothing stores

Greg

Broekemier,

Ray

Marquardt,

James W.

Gentry

(2005)

Which two

dimensions of

music have

significant

effects on

shopping

intentions

Happy/sad

Liked/disliked

Focus group Consumer

Perceptions

H1: Subjects

who judge the

stimulus music

as happy have

greater

intentions to

shop in stimulus

store than

subjects who

judge the

stimulus music

to be sad

H2:Shoppping

intentions will

be greater if

exposed to liked

music

H3:Music that is

both happy and

liked will be

associated with

the greatest

intentions to

shop in the

stimulus store

H1 accepted

H2 accepted

H3 accepted

9-Purchase

Occasion of Music

Mark I.

Alpert, Judy

The use of

variations in

Major and minor

modes of music

Surveys

Seven-point

Consumer

Behaviour

H1: Music

whose structural

H1 accepted

H2 rejected yet

Page 70: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

70

in the Role of

Advertising

I. Alpert,

Elliot N. Maltz

(2003)

formal music

structure of

background

music in

commercials

which may

have a

significant

influence over

the emotional

response of

the consumer

Emotional state

of the person at

question

bipolar scales profile is happy

influences

listener moods

to become more

positive than if

exposed to sad

music

H2:when

evoked mood is

congruent with

the mood of the

purchase

occasion, buying

intention is

higher than

when the buyer

and occasion

moods are

inconsistent

tentative

10- The Influence

of Music Tempo and

Musical Preference

in Restaurant

Patrons’ Behaviour

Clare

Caldwell,

Sally A.

Hibbert

(2002)

The effects of

music on

consumer

behaviour in

the casual

dining

experience

Tempo

Musical

Preference

Money spent

Time spent

Dining

experience

Self-

completed

questionnaires

Consumer

behaviour

H1:Music tempo

will affect actual

time spent in

the restaurant

such that

individuals

dining under the

slower tempo

condition will

spend more

time in the

restaurant than

those exposed

to fast tempo

music

H2: Musical

preference will

H1 accepted

H2 accepted

H3 rejected

H4 rejected

H5 rejected

H6 rejected

H7 accepted

H8 accepted

H9 rejected

H10 rejected

H11 accepted

H12rejected

Page 71: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

71

be positively

associated with

time spent in

the restaurant

H3:There is an

interactive

effect of music

tempo and

preference on

actual time

spent in the

restaurant

H4:slow tempo

music will lead

to

underestimating

the time spent

vs. faster tempo

will

overestimate

H5: people who

like the music

being played will

underestimate

time spent

H6: the

interaction of

music tempo

and preference

on time

perceptions

H7:slow tempo

conditions will

induce higher

spending than

fast tempo

Page 72: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

72

condition

H8: Musical

preference will

have a positive

influence on

spending

H9: Music

Tempo and

preference will

have an

interactive

influence on the

amount of

money spent

H10:Music

tempo will have

a positive

influence on

individuals

evaluation of

the dining

experience

H11: Music

preference will

have a positive

effect on

individuals

evaluation of

their enjoyment

of dining

H12:music

tempo and

preference will

have an

interactive

effect on the

Page 73: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

73

consumer

evaluation of

their dining

experience

11-Having the

Right taste for

Music

Adrian North,

Amber

Shilcock,

David

Hargreaves

(2002)

The effects of

musical styles

on consumer

spending in a

dining

experience

Pop

Classical

Silence

receipts

none Consumer

behaviour

H1: different

styles of music

have different

effects on

consumer

behaviour

H1 Accepted

12- Effects of music

in service

environments: a

field study

J. Duncan

Herrington

(1996)

The effects of

background

music on

consumer

behaviour in a

supermarket

environment

Tempo

Volume

Musical

preferences

Size of

household

Mood state of

Gender

Time constraints

Factor

Analysis

Consumer

Behaviour

H1:Loud music

will reduce the

time shoppers

spend shopping

H2: The amount

of money spent

will be

unaffected by

loud music

H3:The tempo

of background

music will affect

the total

shopping time

of shoppers

H4:The tempo

of background

music will affect

the amount of

money spent by

shoppers

H5:Preference

for background

music will affect

shoppers length

of stay

H1 rejected

H2 accepted

H3 rejected

H4 rejected

H5 accepted

H6 accepted

Page 74: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

74

H6: Preference

for background

music will affect

the amount of

money shoppers

spend in the

service

environment

13-The experience

of time as a

function of musical

loudness and

Gender of Listener

James J.

Kellaris,

Moses B.

Altsech

(1992)

The influence

of music and

gender on the

experience of

time

Loudness

volumes

Perceived

service duration

LAB

Duration

estimate item

and

perceived

pace scale

Consumer

Behaviour

and

Perceptions

H1. Louder

music will be

perceived as

longer in

duration

H2: The effect

of music

loudness on

time perception

will be more

positive for

female listeners

H3: The

loudness of

music will have

a positive effect

on perceived

pace

H4: the effect of

music loudness

on perceived

space will be

more positive

for females

H1 accepted

H2 accepted

H3 accepted

H4 rejected

14-The influence of

background music

on the behaviour of

restaurant patrons

Ronald E.

Milliman

(1986)

Music tempo

variations can

greatly affect

consumers

Slow and fast

music

Time

perception:

Replicated

randomized

block

experimental

Consumer

Behaviour

Tempo of music

will have a

significant effect

on consumer

Slow music

influenced

diners to spend

more time at

Page 75: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

75

purchasing

intentions,

length of stay

and other

variables

examined

Waiting time

Length of stay

Actual waiting

and dining time

design

Observers

behaviour in a

dining venue

venue

Waiting time is

greatly reduced

when fast

tempo music is

played

Bar receipts

increased with

the

incorporation of

slow tempo of

music

Slow

music>patrons

stayed longer,

ate the same

amount of food

but consumed

more beverages

15-Exploring

managers implicit

theories of

atmospheric music

Charles S.

Areni

(2003)

Interviews of

a total of 90

hotel, rest

and pub

managers

explaining

their

experience

and theories

of

incorporating

music

Different

manager types

perception of on

the use of music

Survey

Interviews

Managerial

perception

NA Hotel managers

have a more

sophisticated

theory of music

than pub and

rest. managers

16-A model of

consumer response

to advertising

music

Geoffrey P.

Lantos,

Lincoln G.

Craton

(2012)

A model of

consumer

response to

music in

broadcast

Listening

situations

Musical stimuli

Listener

characteristics

Thorough

literature

review

Consumer

behaviour

NA A model of

consumer

response

sufficiently

robust to

Page 76: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

76

commercials Attitude towards

the brand

Purchase

intention

Brand choice

Cognitive

Affective

provide food for

thought

amongst

practitioners

17-Environmental

background music

and in store selling

(labelled as 1999)

Jean-Charles

Chebat,

Claire Gelinas

Chebat,

Dominique

Vaillant

(2001)

Measuring the

use of music

via a

proposed

model which

focuses on

cognitive

responses

rather than

emotional

Cognitive

activity

Attitudes

Music familiarity

Music fit

Music arousal

Music induced

dominance

Music induced

pleasure

Ecological

validity

Control

groups

Consumer

behaviour

H1: The

relationship

between music

tempo-induced

arousal and

cognitive

activity is

significantly

stronger when

arguments are

rather than

strong

H1.2: The

relationship

between music

tempo-induced

arousal and

cognitive

activity is

significantly

stronger when

the involvement

is low rather

than high

H2:The effects

of music tempo

on cognitive

activity are

strongest under

H1 accepted

H1.2 Rejected

H2 accepted

H3 accepted

Page 77: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

77

soothing music

than under no-

vs-moderate

tempo-vs- fast

tempo

H3: Under

soothing

music(slow

tempo), the

effects of

cognitive

activity on the

attitudes are

stronger than

under no music

conditions

18-The influence of

background music

on shopping

behaviour; classical

versus top 40

Charles S.

Areni, David

Kim

(1993)

A study

conducted in

a wine cellar

according to

consumer

choices vs the

music played

at the current

moment

Ind.

Var.:Classical vs

Top 40

Dep

Var.:Information

search

Purchase

behaviour

Consumption

behaviour

Additional

Measures

Field

environment

Receipts and

observations

Consumer

behaviour

exploratory More expensive

merchandise is

purchased

under classical

music conditions

19-The influence on

consumer’s

temporal

perceptions: does

time fly when you

are having fun?

James J.

Kellaris,

Robert J.

Kent

(1992)

The perceived

duration of a

time period

may be

influenced by

properties of

the

environmental

Music: major,

minor, atonal

Controlled

environment

of 150 upper

level business

students

Consumer

Behaviour

Music in

H1 Major

H2 Minor

H3 Atonal

Modes will

decrease time

perceptions

Music pitched in

minor keys

produced

significantly

shorter average

time

perceptions

Page 78: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

78

stimuli

20-How does verbal

non-diagnostic

information affect

product evaluation?

Heribert

Gierl, Verena

Huettl

(2012)

The study of

the interaction

effect of the

dilution effect

and the

connotation

transfer effect

on product

evaluation

NA NA Consumer

Behaviour

NA NA

21-In-store music

and consumer

brand relationships

Michael

Beverland,

Elison Ai

ChingLim,

Michael

Morrison,

Mile

Terziovski

(2006)

The role of in-

store music-

brand „fit‟ in

reinforcing

brand position

using in-depth

interviews

Questioning

respondents on

their opinions

and

understanding

various

characteristics

Background

interviews,

observational

research, in-

depth

interviews

Consumer

perceptions

exploratory Conceptual

model

Music plays a

central role in

integrating

other

atmospheric

variables

22-Influence of

audio effects on

consumption

emotion and

temporal

perception

Dr. Chien-

Huang Lin,

Shih-Chia Wu

(2006)

Audio effects

in all aspects

on consumers

shopping

behaviour

Pretesting of

music,

Virtual retail

store experience

Music

familiarity

Consumer

behaviour

H1: Music

familiarity will

not cause

variation in

consumption

emotion

H2: Variation in

time perception

is affected by

the change of

music familiarity

not by

consumption

emotion

H3:Radio

broadcasting

will not cause

-Lower music

volume induced

positive

emotions as

compared to

louder volumes

-Low music

volume led to

shorter time

perceptions

-joyful music

elicits better

emotional

responses than

neutral/sad

music

Page 79: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

79

the variation of

consumption

emotion

H4: Variation of

time perception

is affected by

radio

broadcasting

and not by

consumption

emotion

23-The interactive

effect of music

tempo and mode on

in-store selling

Klemens M.

Knoferle, Eric

R.

Spangenberg,

Andreas

Herrmann,

Jan R.

Landwehr

(2012)

A field

experiment

wherein the

positive main

effect of slow

tempo and

musical mode

on actual

retail sales is

discussed

Tempo of music

Modality of

music

Field

experiment

Consumer

behaviour

Exploratory

Minor vs major

Slow vs fast

Minor music in

slow tempo are

most effective

24- Listen to the

music: its impact

on affect, perceived

time passage and

applause

Brian

Wansink,

(1992)

Relation of

interesting

findings to

how one

responds to

musical

stimulus

Wendt Model Literature

review

Musical

complexity

in

information

absorption

Music in minor

modes is

regarded as less

common and

hence requires

more retrieval

of information

NA

25-Does

atmospheric music

expand or contract

perceived time?

Nicole Bailey,

Charles S.

Areni

(2006)

The use of

familiar

opposed to

unfamiliar

music on

consumers

time

perceptions

Familiar Music

Unfamiliar music

Laboratory

setting

Interviews

Surveys

Consumer

Behaviour

H1: The

estimated

duration of an

interval is

shorter for

individuals

engaged in a

non-temporal

H1 accepted

H2 accepted

H3 rejected

H4 tentative

H5 tentative

H6 accepted

H7 accepted

H8 tentative

Page 80: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

80

task during the

interval

compared to

individuals

waiting for an

upcoming event

H2: For

individuals

waiting for an

upcoming event

during an

interval time,

estimated

duration is

shorter when

familiar as

opposed to

unfamiliar

atmospheric

music is played

H3:For

individuals

engaged in a

non-temporal

task during an

interval of time,

estimated

duration is

longer when

familiar as

opposed to

unfamiliar music

H4: For

individuals

engaged in a

non-temporal

H9 tentative

H10 tentative

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81

task during an

interval,

estimated

duration is

longer when

many rather

than few

familiar songs

are played

during the

interval

H5: For

individuals

engaged in a

non-temporal

task during an

interval, song

number has

little or no

influence on

perceived

duration when

familiar music is

played.

H6: The

subjective

experience of an

interval is

shorter for

individuals

engaged in a

non-temporal

task during the

interval

compared to

individuals

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82

waiting for an

upcoming event

H7:For

individuals

waiting for an

upcoming event

during an

interval time,

the subjective

experience of

the interval is

shorter when

familiar as

opposed to

unfamiliar

atmospheric

music is played

H8: For

individuals

engaged in a

non-temporal

task during an

interval of time,

the music

elements

remembered as

having occurred

during the

interval is larger

when familiar as

opposed to

unfamiliar music

is played

26- Music influence

on Mood and

Purchase

Judy I.

Alpert, Mark

I. Alpert

Examing the

relationship

between

Happy, sad and

no music

Laboratory

study

Looking and

Consumer

behaviour

H1: All else

equal, music

whose structural

Sad music had

significantly

higher purchase

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83

Intentions (1990) music and

consumers

moods ,

attitudes and

behaviours

marking

experience of

greeting cards

while listening

to the various

proposed

musical

compositions

profile is happy

will influence

listener moods

to become more

positive than

music analysed

prior as sad

H2:Variations in

musical

structure may

not necessarily

influence

perceptions of

happiness,

sadness of the

greeting cards

H3: Variations

in musical

structure may

not necessarily

influence overall

attitude towards

the greeting

cards

H4: Variations

in musical

structure will

influence

behavioural

intentions

towards the

greeting cards

intentions than

happy music or

no music

27-Background

music pleasure and

store evaluation

Intensity effects

Laurette

Dubé, Sylvie

Morin

(1999)

A field study

where the

effects of

music on

Slow

background

music, no music

Field study Consumer

Behaviour

H1: the

background

music pleasure

intensity will

H1 rejected

H2 accepted

H3 rejected

H4 accepted

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84

and psychological

mechanisms

different

pleasure

intensity on

store

evaluation is

examined

influence

directly and

positively the

store evaluation

H2:The

background

pleasure

intensity will

indirectly and

positively

influence the in

store evaluation

via the attitude

towards the

servicesacpe

H2a: the

background

music pleasure

intensity will

directly and

positively

influence the

attitude towards

the servicescape

H2b: The

attitude towards

the servicescape

will directly and

positively

influence the

store evaluation

H3 The

background

music pleasure

intensity will

indirectly and

Page 85: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

85

positively

influence the

store evaluation

via the attitude

towards service

personal

H3a: The

background

music pleasure

intensity will

directly and

positively

influence the

attitude towards

the sales

personal

H3b: The

attitude towards

the sales

personnel will

directly and

positively

influence the

store evaluation

28-Music and

consumption: an

experience review

Rajnish Jain,

Shilpa

Bagdare

(2010)

Exploring the

relationship

between

consumer

behaviour and

musical

variables in

the context of

retail

Literature

review

NA NA NA Refer to table

titled

accumulated

findings

29-practical

applications of

music in service

J. Duncan

Herrington,

Louis M.

A discussion

of the various

musical

Literature

review

NA NA NA -Music and store

selection:

Image

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86

settings Capella

(1994)

characteristics

of music that

potentially

evoke certain

desirable

consumer

behaviours,

thus resulting

in some

practical

implications

reinforcement,

product

credibility

-Music and

shopping

experience:

Appropriately

fitted music will

fulfil customers

shopping

intentions/needs

30-Reviewing

congruency effects

in the service

environment

musicscape

Steve Oakes,

Adrian C.

North

(2007)

A literature

review which

highlights

significant

findings from

empirical

research

Literature

review

NA NA NA Please refer to

table titled

„Congruency

Table‟

31-Service scape

and loyalty

intentions: an

empirical

investigation

Lloyd C.

Harris, Chris

Ezeh

(2007)

This paper

seeks better

to

conceptualize,

operationalize

and test a

multi-

dimensional

and more

social view of

servicescape

and the direct

and

moderated

linkages with

loyalty

intentions

Literature

review

Music

Aroma

Décor

Service staff

Item scale

gauging?

Consumer

behaviour

H1: The greater

customer

perception of

music

appropriateness,

the greater the

intention of

customers to be

loyal

H1: rejected

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87

32-A meta-analytic

review of the

effects of

background music

in retail settings

Francine V.

Garlin,

Katherine

Owen

(2006)

A study of

music on

consumer

behaviour in

retailers

148 samples

from 32 studies

Meta-analysis Consumer

behaviour

NA Familiarity/liking

has a positive

effect on

patronage

The mere

presence of

music has a

positive effect

on patronage as

well as pleasure

Slower tempo,

lower volume

and familiar

music results in

subjects staying

marginally

longer at a

venue

A higher tempo

and volume and

the more less

liked music, the

longer

customers

perceive time

duration

Tempo has the

greatest effect

on arousal

33- Some

exploratory

findings on musical

taste

Morris B

Holdbrook,

Robert M.

Schindler

(1989)

Popular music

tastes seem

to be acquired

during late

adolescence

or early

adulthood.

30 second

excerpts of 28

musical stimuli

Empirical

investigation

Correlation

Approach

Survey(10

point scale)

Consumer

musical

tastes

NA Popular music

which was liked

during the age

of 23.5 remains

a stronger

preference over

other music

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88

This paper

analysis this

proposition

34-The influence of

store environment

on quality

inferences and

store image

Julie Baker,

Dhruv Grewal

A.

Parasuraman

(1994)

This study

examines how

combinations

of specific

elements in

the retail

store

environment

influence

consumers

inferences

about

merchandise

and service

quality

Classical music

Top 40

Western

Oldies

Jazz

Questionnaire Consumer

behaviour

H1 Consumers

will infer higher

merchandise

quality in a

prestige-image

ambient

environment

H2 Consumers

will infer higher

service quality

in a prestige-

image ambient

environment

than in a

discount-image

ambient

environment

H1 & H2

supported

35-Effects of

background music

on consumer

behaviour

Diogo Conque

Seco

Ferreira,

Jorge Mendes

Oliveira-

Castro

(2011)

This paper

examines the

effects of

music on

consumer

behaviour in a

mall

Brazilian Popular

music

Observation

and

Questionnaire

Consumer

Behaviour

NA

Exploratory

Reports of

pleasure were

higher with

music than

without(

although

negligible)

36-The role of

aesthetic taste in

consumers

Wayne D.

Hoyer, Nicola

E.

Stokburger-

Sauer

(2012)

Review of the

literature of a

variety of

fields in order

to develop a

conceptual

framework

A literature

review of a very

broad spectrum

of research

about consumer

taste

Literature

Review

Consumer

Tastes

NA NA

37- The role of Jochen Wirtz, This paper High, moderate 3x2 valence Consumer H1: In pleasant H1 accepted

Page 89: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

89

arousal congruency

in influencing

consumers’

satisfaction

evaluations and in-

store behaviours

Anna S.

Mattila,

Rachel L.P.

Tan

(2007)

aims to

investigate

the matching

effects

between

arousal-level

and perceived

stimulation on

satisfaction

and in store

behaviour.

and low levelled

arousal video

clips

£(music tempo

and volume,

pleasurable

environment

etc.)

factorial

design in a

music store

and book

store (field

study?)

Questionnaire

Six item

semantic

differential

scale

Behaviour environments,

satisfaction will

be maximized at

the point of

arousal

congruency.

Over or under

stimulation will

result in

reduced

satisfaction

H2: Arousal

congruency will

be a more

important

predictor of

satisfaction in

pleasant than in

unpleasant

environments.

Specifically,

satisfaction in

the latter will be

uniformly low as

it is mostly

driven by the

valence of the

environment

rather than by

arousal

congruency

H3. In pleasant

environments,

in store

approach

behaviours will

H2 accepted

H3 accepted

H4 accepted

H5 accepted

Page 90: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

90

be maximized at

the point of

arousal-

congruency

H4: In pleasant

environments,

under-

stimulation will

lead to higher

levels of in-store

approach

behaviours than

over-stimulation

H5: In

unpleasant

environments,

in-store

approach

behaviours will

uniformly low as

such behaviours

are mostly

driven by the

valence (i.e.

unpleasantness)

of the

environment

rather than by

arousal

congruency

38- The role of

pleasant music in

servicescapes: a

test of the dual

model of

environment

Sylvie Morin,

Laurette

Dubé, Jean-

charles

Chebat

(2007)

This article

explores the

psychological

processes by

which

background

Classical music ,

no music on

baseline videos

Participants

functioning in

small groups,

three item

seven point

scale

Consumer

Behaviour

H1: The

servicescape

and service

provider are

perceived

according to

H1 accepted

H2 accepted

H3 accepted

Page 91: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

91

perceptions music in

servicescapes

influence

service

evaluation

and purchase

intention

ambient and

focal modes,

respectively,

and the former

has both direct

and provider-

mediated effects

on service

outcomes.

H2: The

presence of

music has a

moderating

effect on the

mediating role

played by the

service provider

for the impact of

the servicescape

on service

outcomes.

Specifically, the

power of the

provider to

influence service

out comes is

stronger in a

music-present

condition

H3: The effect

of music valence

on service

outcomes is

accounted for

by a double

mediation, such

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92

that the effect

of music valence

on service

outcomes is

mediated by:

(a) the direct

effect of the

servicescape

and (b) the

provider-

mediated effect

of the

servicescape on

service

outcomes

39- The influence of

the musicscape

within the service

environments

Steve Oakes

(2000)

A literature

review of

relevant

empirical

research

examining the

effect of

background

music with

the context of

service

environments

is presented.

Literature

review

Music on

consumer

behaviour

under

various

segments

Areas of focus:

Music

Framework

Detailed focus

Individual

musical

variables

Managerial

applications

Musical Tempo

Supermarket

shopper study

Musical

examples

Major mode

more appealing

Musical volume

Decibal meter

settings

Time Period

Musical

NA

Page 93: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

93

Preference

Single gender

target

advertising

Show musical

preference

Music and

consumer

expectations

Positively

valanced music

Music in

advertising

Behaviour

Primary

Research

Loud music

increases the

rate of spending

per minute

Classical music

induced

customers to

purchase more

expensive items

Fast music

causes fast

drinking

40-The effects of

music, wait-length

evaluation and

mood on a low-cost

wait experience

Michaelle Ann

Cameron,

Julie Baker,

Mark

Peterson,

Karin

Braunsberger

Waiting time

research has

implicitly

assumed

customers

incur high

waiting costs

Classical music

Tempo 90-120

bpm

Handwritten

questions

Consumer

Behaviour

H1: In a low-

cost wait, music

likeability is

negatively

related to wait-

length

evaluation

H1 accepted

H2 accepted

H3 accepted

H4 rejected

Page 94: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

94

(2003) during service

delays. This

study

examines the

effect of

judgement on

music, wait-

length

evaluation

and customer

moods on

overall

experience

H2: In a low-

cost wait, music

likeability is

positively

related to

customer moods

H3: In a low-

cost, wait-

length

evaluation is

negatively

related to

evaluation of

the consumers

overall

experience

H4: In a low-

cost wait, mood

is positively

related to

evaluation of

the consumers

overall

experience

41- What really

brings them back?

The impact of

tangible quality on

affect intention for

casual dining

restaurant patrons

Clark Kincaid

and Seyhmus

Baloglu,

Zhenxing

Mao, James

Busser

(2010)

Evaluating the

usefulness of

Tangible

Quality

(TANGSERV)

by examining

the effect of

tangible

quality

constructs on

restaurant

patrons affect

Dimensions:

Ambience,

Social,

Accessibility,

Building,

Cleanliness

Two part

questionnaire,

7 point bipolar

scale

Consumer

behaviour

Exploratory Restaurants

should strive for

cultivating

positive feelings

for their brand

name by

manipulating

tangible

attributes

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95

and

behavioural

intentions

42- Performing

music can induce

greater modulation

of emotion-related

psychophysiological

response than

listening to music

Hidehiro

Nakahara,

Shinichi

Furuya,

Tsutomu

Masuko,

Peter R.

Francis,

Hiroshi

Kinoshita

(2011)

This study

examines the

effect of

playing piano

vs. listing to

music on

heart rate

Performing a

composition and

listening to a

composition

Measuring

systems

determined by

machines to

calculate

perspiration,

Heart rate

etc.

Human

Biology and

music

Exploratory 2 findings:

1)emotion

induction during

perception of

the selected

piece of music

as well as

during

performance of

the same music

modulated

Heart rate and

indices

autonomic

nerve activity

2)such

modulations

were much

greater during

performance

than during

perception

43- Clinical Issues:

Music Therapy in an

Adult Cancer

Inpatient

Treatment Setting

Clare

O'Callaghan

PhD,

(2006)

The use of

music therapy

on cancer

patients

Patients

Psychological

and physical

health

Subjecting

patients under

different

musical

conditions

Music and

Medicine

Music will

improve moods

of patients

Accepted

44-Staff Attitudes

and Expectations

about Music

Therapy:

Paediatric Oncology

versus Neonatal

Annie

Bouhairie

BEng, Kathi

J. Kemper

MD, MPH,

Kathleen

Employee

perceptions

on the use of

music on

patients

Psychological

and physical

health

Staff attitudes Music and

Medicine

Music will induce

positive moods

and act as a

means of

relieving stress.

Accepted

Page 96: The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant 2012

96

Intensive Care Unit Martin BA,

Charles

Woods MD,

MPH

(2006)

45- Music in

Business

Environments

Adrien North,

David

Hargreaves

(2006)

A review on

music in the

various

segments of

business

Consumers and

Employees

within the

workplace

Consumer

behaviour,

moods,

purchase

intentions,

time

perceptions

Employee

mood, work

ethic

Consumer

behaviour

Literature

review

NA

46-The effects of

dining

atmospherics: An

extended

Mehrabian and

Russel model

Yinghua Liu

, SooCheong

(Shawn) Jang

(2009)

A review on

the Mehrablan

and Russel

Model on

consumers

perceptions of

value

Consumers

perceptions of

value

Emotions

Perceived

value

Behaviour

Consumer

behaviour

H1a.

Dining

atmospherics

has a positive

effect on

positive

emotions.

H1b.

Dining

atmospherics

has a negative

effect on

negative

emotions.

H2a.

Positive emotion

has a positive

effect on

behavioural

intentions.

H2b.

All Hypothesis

accepted

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97

Negative

emotion has a

negative effect

on behavioural

intentions

H3.

Dining

atmospherics

has a positive

effect on

perceived value

H4.

Perceived value

has a positive

effect on

behavioural

intentions.

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98

Appendix 5- Online sources for music Type Source Description

Online Directories Extensive directory of

music listening

resources

Review Sources “All Music”, “Billboard”

& “Barnes & Noble

Music” offer the most

accredited reviews on

music, artists, albums

etc.

Reference: All music

(www.allmusic.com)

Billboard

(www.billboard.com)

CD Hotlist

(http://cdhotlist.btol.com)

Retailers:

Barnes & Noble Music

(http://music.barnesandnoble.com)

Amazon

(www.amazon.com)

Periodical

Tools

Country

www.countryweekly.com

Specific information

and music regarding

different styles etc. Electronic

www.thewire.co.uk

Folk

www.dirtylinen.com

www.singout.org

Jazz

www.downbeat.com

http://jazztimes.com

Latin

www.descarga.com

Metal and Alternative Rock

www.altpress.com/reviews

Pop and Rock

www.rollingstone.com

Rap and Hip Hop

www.hiphopdx.com

Reggae

www.unitedreggae.com

Rock

www.nme.com

World

www.rootsworld.com

Staying

Current

Notes

www.musiclibraryassoc.org

Music libraries which

constantly update

themselves with the

latest in music

consumption

information.

Last.fm

www.last.fm

Music Library Association E-mail Listserv

www.musiclibraryassoc.org