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The transition from the service economy to the experience economy is one that is encouraging business establishments to consider different schemes in being able to develop a competitive positioning, higher customer satisfactions and alignments with the consumer’s emotional construct. Of the many possibilities to achieve this, the intelligent use of music is one method that is being given attention in growing proportions due to its powerful ability in affecting consumer behaviours and perceptions. The present study is an attempt to identify these musical properties and apply them in a structured manner to the restaurant environment which is known for its extensive yet intuitive approach to utilizing music.The use of the Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne’s fine dining establishment, Le Berceau de Sens, acted as the restaurant property in which the field experiment was held in during the month of March. Hence, a total of 348 restaurant patrons expressed their evaluations via the use of a survey while dining under the two contrasting musical environments; structured music treatment and unstructured music treatment. Independent Samples T-Tests were utilized in determining whether a significant difference existed between restaurant patron’s evaluations of the dining experience under the contrasting music conditions. Analysis showed that consumers dining under a structured music treatment spent more on beverages and expressed greater awareness of the music, higher enjoyment evaluations and shorter time perceptions of the dining experience as well as higher intentions to return to the Berceau de Sens.
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The Effects of Music on Consumer Behaviour in a Fine Dining Restaurant
“Don’t the music make you feel good?”
Ilia ZOLAS
Tutor: Dr Ray IUNIUS
June 2012
This dissertation is submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of BSc in International Hospitality Management
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3
Honour Code As a student at the Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne, I uphold and defend academic
integrity, academic rigor and academic liberty as core values of higher learning. I
attest, on my word of honour, that work submitted in my name is my own work, and
that any ideas or materials used in support of this work which are not originally my
own are cited and referenced accordingly.
Ilia ZOLAS 567486143
4
Acknowledgements The contents of this paper would not have been attainable without the help and
guidance of various people:
Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude towards my advisor, Dr Ray Iunius.
Although your schedule is one of the busiest schedules in the world, you still managed
to make time for me. Your thoughts and understandings have influenced me beyond
the realms of this dissertation and onto my outlook on life.
To Dr Laaroussi and Dr Hebali, thank you for your much needed support and
understandings. Without them, this paper would not have been possible. Furthermore,
as you are both fellow musicians, I am grateful to have been able to include you in
this research process and hope that my findings prove as interesting and useful to
you.
To Mr Iunker, the BDS Management team, Mr Lebret and the students who took part
in the experiment; your participation was vital in giving life to this paper. Thank you
for allowing me the opportunity to combine my passions with my studies and
contribute to your service offer. I trust the champagnes will continue to flow!
To Russell Stirling and Tyrone Mayer, my most valued music mentors, your assistance
in developing a structured music treatment consistent with the literature made the
process smooth and enjoyable. My song database and theory of music is significantly
larger now.
Finally, to my dear friend Dushyant, thank you for your ongoing support. Although this
was a major learning process for the both of us, I doubt that my survival would have
been prolonged without you. I look forward to maintaining this relationship with our
time share prospects!
5
Abstract The transition from the service economy to the experience economy is one that is
encouraging business establishments to consider different schemes in being able to
develop a competitive positioning, higher customer satisfactions and alignments with
the consumer‟s emotional construct. Of the many possibilities to achieve this, the
intelligent use of music is one method that is being given attention in growing
proportions due to its powerful ability in affecting consumer behaviours and
perceptions. The present study is an attempt to identify these musical properties and
apply them in a structured manner to the restaurant environment which is known for
its extensive yet intuitive approach to utilizing music.
The use of the Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne‟s fine dining establishment, Le Berceau de
Sens, acted as the restaurant property in which the field experiment was held in
during the month of March. Hence, a total of 348 restaurant patrons expressed their
evaluations via the use of a survey while dining under the two contrasting musical
environments; structured music treatment and unstructured music treatment.
Independent Samples T-Tests were utilized in determining whether a significant
difference existed between restaurant patron‟s evaluations of the dining experience
under the contrasting music conditions. Analysis showed that consumers dining under
a structured music treatment expressed greater awareness of the music, higher
enjoyment evaluations, shorter time perceptions and higher intentions to return to the
Berceau de Sens.
6
Contents Honour Code ............................................................................................. 3
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................... 4
Abstract .................................................................................................... 5
1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 9
2. Objectives ............................................................................................ 10
3. Methodology ......................................................................................... 11
4. Secondary Research .............................................................................. 13
4.1. The Servicescape .......................................................................................13
4.2. Servicescape and Musicscape ........................................................................15
4.3. Musical Components ...................................................................................17
4.3.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................17
4.3.2. Musical Congruency ...............................................................................17
4.3.3. Consumer Music Preference .....................................................................19
4.3.4. Volume ...............................................................................................20
4.3.5. Modality ..............................................................................................20
4.3.6. Tempo ...............................................................................................22
4.3.7. An Interactive effect of Tempo and Modality ..................................................23
4.4. Cognitive understanding in the Literature ...........................................................23
4.5. Music in service environments ........................................................................24
4.6. The Retail Environment ................................................................................24
4.7. The Restaurant Environment ..........................................................................25
4.8. Literature Summary .....................................................................................26
5. Hypothesis ........................................................................................... 27
5.1. Application of Hypothesis in the BDS Environment ................................................29
5.1.1. The Dining Phases ....................................................................................30
5.1.2. The Pre-Phase .....................................................................................31
5.1.3. The During-Phase..................................................................................31
5.1.4. The Post Phase ....................................................................................32
5.2. Conceptual Framework .................................................................................33
6. Music Treatment Development .................................................................. 33
6.1. Unstructured Music Treatment ........................................................................34
6.2. Structured Music Treatment ...........................................................................34
6.2.1. Pre-Phase Music Selection .......................................................................35
6.2.2. During-Phase Music Selection ...................................................................35
6.2.3. Post-Phase Music Selection .....................................................................35
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6.3. CD Control ................................................................................................36
7. Survey Design ....................................................................................... 37
7.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................37
7.2. Survey Structure .........................................................................................37
7.3. Survey Questions .......................................................................................38
7.3.1. Pre-Phase Questions: Spending ................................................................38
7.3.2. During-Phase Questions: Experience Evaluations ...........................................38
7.3.3. Post-Phase Question: Intentions to Return and Time Perceptions ........................38
7.4. Sample ....................................................................................................39
Table 1. Sample Participants ...........................................................................40
8. Primary Research .................................................................................. 41
8.1. Data Collection ...........................................................................................41
8.1.1. Survey ...............................................................................................41
8.1.2. Receipts .............................................................................................41
9. Methodology Part 2 ................................................................................ 41
9.1. SPSS ......................................................................................................41
9.2. Reliability..................................................................................................41
9.3. Independent Samples T-Test ..........................................................................42
9.4. Independent Samples T-Test on Spending .........................................................42
9.5. Methodological Limitations .............................................................................43
10. Findings and Analysis ........................................................................... 44
10.1. Receipts .................................................................................................44
Table 2: Independent Sample T-Test on beverage receipts ..............................44
10.2. Perceptions on spending .............................................................................44
10.3. Awareness of music ...................................................................................44
10.4. Overall Experience Evaluation .......................................................................45
10.5. Time Perceptions ......................................................................................45
10.6. Return Intentions .......................................................................................45
Table 3: Independent Samples T-Test on survey evaluations ...........................46
12. Discussion .......................................................................................... 47
12.1. Awareness towards the Music .......................................................................47
12.2. Perceptions on Spending vs. Actual Receipts ....................................................47
12.3. Overall Experience Evaluation .......................................................................48
12.4. Time Perceptions ......................................................................................48
12.5. Return Intentions .......................................................................................49
13. Conclusion and Implications ................................................................... 50
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14. Further Research Recommendations ........................................................ 51
15. Bibliography ....................................................................................... 54
Appendix ................................................................................................ 60
Appendix 1- Phase schedule from interview .............................................................61
Appendix 2- Survey ...........................................................................................62
Appendix 3- Structured Music Treatments ................................................................64
Appendix 4- Reference descriptions .......................................................................67
Appendix 5- Online sources for music .....................................................................98
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1. Introduction Much of my life has been dedicated to understanding and growing my musical
abilities with regards to my grasp of various instruments (guitar, bass guitar,
piano and drums), music theory, composing and song writing as well as sound
engineering and recording for TV shows and producers. This does not go to say
that music performance is my chosen carrier. Instead, I have been fortunate
enough to extend my abilities into the hospitality industry which greatly
incorporates music into its service scheme and offer. As a student at the Ecole
Hôtelière de Lausanne, as well as the researcher of this paper, I am presented
with the opportunity to combine my greatest passion, music, with my current
carrier choice of hospitality.
Through my various experiences within the industry, I have come to
understand and believe that the use of music extends beyond the realms of
performance and recreation. Under more recent understandings, music can be
utilized by intelligently incorporating it into the service schemes of many an
establishment to induce certain emotional and behavioural states. However, it
is also known that many establishments which implement music within their
schemes often do so without realizing the effects that music has on the
consumer. This understanding is particularly prevalent in the restaurant
industry where managers tend to rely on their own intuition and preferences in
choosing and playing music during the dining experience.
Often times, such methods of music selection and implementation do not
consider the consumer‟s biological and psychological reactions to the individual
properties of the music chosen. Hence, in this paper, I aim to highlight and add
to the notion of music as an important and easily implementable tool that can
significantly create value for the organization‟s service/product offer. As my
interests currently lie within the restaurant environment, I seek to test the
effects of music on consumer‟s evaluations of the dining experience by applying
10
a structured music treatment tailored to the goals of the Ecole Hôtelière de
Lausanne‟s fine dining restaurant; Le Berceau de Sens (BDS).
2. Objectives To extend the understandings of what effects music has on consumers, various
questions had been determined through an interview with the BDS Restaurant
Manager, Mr Iunker. These questions had arisen due to Mr Iunker and the
management team‟s search for alternative means of improving the BDS‟s
service offer and possibly induce increased spending in restaurant patron‟s
behaviours. Below are the determined research questions:
1. Do restaurant patrons spend more money in the presence of music? If
so, what music is best at making them spend more?
2. Does music have an effect on the restaurant patron‟s enjoyment of the
dining experience? If so, what music is optimal at enhancing this
perception?
3. Does music have an effect on the restaurant patron‟s time perceptions?
If so, what kind of music is best at shortening these perceptions?
4. Are the restaurant patron‟s intentions to return to the restaurant higher
in the presence of music? If so, what music is best at maximizing these
intentions?
These questions posed as potential hypotheses which required further research
to be able to answer.
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3. Methodology Secondary research was necessary to determine whether relationships had
already been determined with regards to music‟s effects on consumer
behaviours. Furthermore, as the focus is on music‟s effects on consumers in a
dining environment, secondary research required the researcher to concentrate
on sources which adhered to the restaurant environment. Limited literature in
terms of the dining environment then required the researcher to incorporate
understandings of music from literature based on other service environments
such as retail stores and test whether they held true in the restaurant
environment. Figure 1 indicates the first phases of exploration:
Figure 1.
Research questions that were not satisfied by the literature made it necessary
to conduct primary research in order to emerge with conclusive results. Via
agreement between the researcher and the BDS management, the BDS
restaurant was utilized as the field study environment to conduct further
research.
In order to gain the necessary data to produce useful results, a quantitative
research design was adopted via the use of surveys. The survey required the
Develop research questions
Interview the BDS
Management Team to determine research questions
Secondary Research
Consult existing literature to
be able to answer research questions
Conclusions and Hypothesis
Determine whether questions
have been answered.
Unsatisfied questions will
become hypothesis subject to
primary research
12
restaurant patron to evaluate certain criteria via a Likert Scale which aided the
researcher in developing conclusions that could satisfy the posed questions.
Furthermore, two music treatments needed to be developed in order to provide
contrasting environments for testing. These are referred to as 1) a structured
music treatment which incorporates music that the literature had identified as
determinants in affecting particular consumer behaviours 2) an unstructured
music treatment which simply represented the BDS‟s original methods of
utilizing music which was heavily based upon the intuition of the management
team and absent of any particular structure. Hence, over a period of time,
consumers dined either under the structured music treatment or the
unstructured music treatment and their behaviours were reflected in their
survey evaluations as well as the BDS receipts. Thereafter, data was imported
into the statistics tool SPSS and subjected to the relative analyses to produce
conclusive results. Hence, Figure 2 represents the manner in which the primary
research was conducted:
Figure 2.
Music Treatment Development
Structured Music Treatment
Vs.
Unstructured Music Treatment
Phase Implementation
CD Control and implementation
Survey Design
Quantitative Research
Survey development
Conduct and collect survey
Data Collection
Import data into SPSS
Cronbach‟s Alpha test for
Reliability
Analyse data- Independent
sample t-tests
Interpret Results
Organization and
Presentation of Results
Discussion and implications
Future Research
Recommendations
13
4. Secondary Research Since Kotler (1974), there has been increasing interest amongst researchers to
investigate the effects of visual, audio, and other stimuli on the consumer‟s
behaviour in various environments (Jain and Bagdare, 2010). These studies
have branched out into the various environments emerging with findings that
provide the establishment with a new means of creating a distinctive and
competitive performance thanks to the undeniable effects of such stimuli‟s
powerful ability to influence consumer spending, loyalty, time perceptions,
choice and satisfaction (Cronin, 2003).
In fact, certain atmospherics, such as music, are not only used for commercial
reasons, but also in industries such as treatments within healthcare and
optimal or even persuasive communication within media. Manfred (1982), a
specialist in neuro-physiology as well as music, showed that music structure
triggered emotional responses in the brain. In movies and education, Seidman
(1981) had explored human cognition and attention of which music was found
to hold significant influence and is now integrated within media related
industries.
As the shift in consumerism has become growingly captivated by an experience
as opposed to the traditional service formula (Pine and Gilmore, 1998),
research findings of atmospheric determinants and their implications are
increasingly considered as useful tools in connecting with the consumer‟s
emotional construct which is known for its heavy influence over the rational
mind (Sylwester, 1994). Knowing this, applying the relevant information can
provide businesses with the opportunity to analytically design their service
experience with lesser margins of error (Liu and Jang, 2009).
4.1. The Servicescape It is generally agreed upon that the perceptible elements of a service and its
environment has an influence on the customer‟s perceived quality of an
14
experience and purchase intentions. According to Bitner (1992, p. 67), a “total
configuration of environmental dimensions” provides an effective framework
known as the servicescape.
Kincaid et al., (2010, p. 211) state that the “servicescape components involve
factors such as ambient conditions (e.g. temperature, sound, aroma), spatial
layout and functionality (e.g. arrangement of furnishings and their relationship
to customer and employee needs), signs, symbols and artefacts (e.g.
restaurants, theatres and sporting events)”. While independent variables are
associated with the venue‟s physical environment such as room temperature,
scents and background music, evidence has shown that consumers are affected
by the presence of fellow consumers (Li, Kim and Lee, 2009) as well as the
employee‟s personality and actions (Ekinsi and Dawes, 2009) which have a
considerable effect on the customers decision making process and satisfaction.
The determinants to what influences customer satisfaction has been of great
interest to researchers (Babin and Griffin, 1998). Of the components
understood to have some sort of effect, the consumer‟s perception of quality
has been widely accepted as the most influencing variable on consumer
satisfaction (Churchill and Surprenant, 1982). It is the consumer‟s evaluation
on the performance of a product or service and its environment that
determines the consumer‟s perceptions on quality (Zeithaml, 1987). Hence,
quality may be considered as dependent on the interaction of the five senses
within the store environment, or more specifically, the servicescape.
With a growing knowledge of the consumer‟s tendency to rely on the
servicescape as a means of facilitating and developing a personal experience,
managerial perceptions on the importance of attaining congruent
environmental stimuli is gaining wider acknowledgement and incorporation in a
growing proportion of establishments (Kozinets et al., 2002). The transition of
15
the service economy to the experience economy has brought research to
further identify the need for managers to understand and integrate what
theatrical productions often use as a means of creating an assimilated and
complete experience for the audience via harmonious design of visual and
audio stimuli (Harris et al., 2003). As mentioned by Oakes and North (2008, p.
63), “experiences are as different from services as services are from goods”
and that the efforts of involving the five senses within the service design is
required in order to create memorable experiences. Jain and Bagdare (2011, p.
294) describes the interaction of the consumer and in-store environment as
one that “provides sensory, emotional, cognitive, behavioural and relational
values.” Hence, correct engagement of the 5 senses acts as a significant
playing piece in developing considerable competitive leverage (Berry et al.,
2002).
4.2. Servicescape and Musicscape An in-depth analysis conducted by Guégeun et al., (2007) revealed that music
played a vital role in affecting satisfaction. Of the various components of the
servicescape, researches have paid most attention to music because of its low-
cost, easy to use nature, its strong influence on consumers and its ability to
facilitate and enhance the interaction of other servicescape variables within an
environment (Beverland et al., 2006). It is better defined by Yalch and
Spangenberg (1993 p. 632) that “music is a particularly attractive atmospheric
variable because it is relatively inexpensive to provide, easily changed, and is
thought to have predictable appeals to individuals based on their age and
lifestyles.”
Oakes (2000) proposed musicscape as an extension to Bitner‟s (1992) model of
the servicescape, highlighting the incorporation of music as an important
variable in creating an in-store experience and associating customer emotions
to the store (Morrison and Beverland, 2003) via the use of music. Similarly,
16
integrating music in coherence with other atmospheric variables while
simultaneously adhering to constraints of brand image, market share
demographics and their emotional connections with music can greatly assist in
conveying a comprehensible message and support positioning strategies
(Oakes and North, 2007). Hence, research suggests that there is a need for
service based organizations to pay close attention to music and other
atmospheric variables in attaining a harmonious design so as to encourage
favourable consumer behaviours (Harris et al., 2009). Favourable consumer
behaviours, such as patronage, are known to be influenced by the servicescape
of the environment such that it affects the consumer‟s decisions to continue or
discontinue a relationship with the specific service provider due to their
emotional responses (Lovelock, 2001). In the context of the musicscape, the
sheer occurrence of music in an environment already increases patronage
intentions as well as pleasure (Garlin and Owen, 2006).
Another critical factor to consider is the consumer‟s notorious relationship with
waiting times, which have shown negative correlations to general satisfaction of
an experience. The longer the consumer thinks that they have been waiting for,
the lower the consumer‟s satisfaction will be. This applies to various settings
such as retail stores (Tom and Lucey, 1997), restaurants (Jones and Peppiatt,
1996) and healthcare (Pruyn and Smidts, 1998). Managing customer
perceptions of how long they think they have been waiting is therefore
important when developing a pleasant and differentiating experience (Bailey
and Areni, 2006). Of the various elements known to affect perceived waiting
time, music has yet again proven to be a favourable variable due to its easily
wrought nature and low cost.
17
4.3. Musical Components
4.3.1. Introduction Various experiments have highlighted specific components of music which have
demonstrated effective results in managing consumer behaviours and
perceptions. This section reveals the general understanding of the effects of
music on consumers in two categories. The first category describes
understandings according to musical congruency and consumer preferences,
while the second describes the impact of the individual compositional
components of music upon consumers. Such components involve volume,
modality and tempo as well as their interactive effects which are known to
significantly influence consumer behaviours and perceptions (Dowling and
Harwood, 1986).
4.3.2. Musical Congruency In various studies (Cox et al., 2005; d‟Astous, 2000; Maxwell and Kover,
2003), it was revealed that a poorly designed in-store experience can induce
confusion and influence consumers to leave the establishment. Beverland et al.
(2006) further explain that the benefits of music which is well fitted with other
stimuli of the service environment allows consumers, who are not familiar with
the brand in question, to determine a benchmark of expectations as store cues
allow them to derive some meaning prior to any interaction with the product.
An example stems from the research of Baker et al. (1994) which describes a
retail environment playing classical music coupled with low lit lighting and
numerous sales people. Before a product is experienced, consumer perceptions
are that of a prestige image with high expectations of service and quality
ratings. Radocy and Boyle (1997) extend the notion of congruent music such
that successful integration of musical variables can influence consumers to
allocate more time and money to the environment in question.
18
In the context of music which is well „fitted‟, Areni and Kim (1993) provide
evidence of music affecting the purchasing decision of both educated and
uneducated consumers. In an experiment conducted in a wine cellar, customers
were exposed to either Top 40 music or classical music. The results showed
that consumers under the classical music environment purchased more
expensive items than those under the Top 40 music environment. These results
were further supported by the findings of North, Shilcock and Hargreaves
(2003). Prestigious music induces prestigious buying. Another finding is that of
North, Hargreaves and McKendrick (1997) where playing German music in a
wine cellar showed an increase in the sales of German wines. Similarly, playing
French music led to sales in French wines outweighing German wines. Further
research revealed that the better the “fit” of music appropriateness, the higher
the loyalty intention (Harris and Ezeh, 2008).
However, the use of classical music in an environment is one that is somewhat
peculiar and has shown evidence to provide similar effects of prestigious buying
in environments which would not typically suit the genre of music. In an
experiment where different musical styles were played in a student cafeteria,
students were prepared to pay higher prices when classical music was played
as opposed to other styles of music which had been tested in the same student
cafeteria. Perceptions of the same environment under the classical music
condition were that of sophistication and an up-market image. Similarly, such
perceptions had further been reflected in diners‟ actual spending (North and
Hargreaves, 1998). One explanation to the described phenomena is that
knowledge associated with “sophistication” and “up-market” is activated in the
consumer exposed to classical music and encourages general behaviour such as
spending. North and Hargreaves (2006) also suggest that behaviour, such as
spending, “fits” with certain emotionally evoked in-store atmospherics. Areni
19
(2003) revealed that jazz was also related to environments of up-market
consumption.
4.3.3. Consumer Music Preference The consumer‟s preference for a certain style of music and ability to
differentiate between different musical aspects is argued as influenced by
certain biological developments in the individual‟s growth from birth. It has
been reported that children below the age of 6 can differentiate between slow
and fast tempo music but their ability to differentiate between modes is a skill
that is only acquired at the age of 6 and later (Dalla Bella et al., 2001). Apart
from age, gender is also known to differ in emotional and behavioural
responses (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). Females differ from males such that
their time estimates of a song are considerably shorter when exposed to soft
volumes (Kellaris and Altsech, 1992). Furthermore, the female gender display
preference towards slow and soft music while males tend to prefer music which
is loud and fast (Kellaris and Rice, 1993).
Apart from biological determinants, it has also been discussed that a majority
of consumer preferences for certain types of music is learned (Scott, 1990). It
is thought that music preference of a particular segment can be determined
based on the segments age and lifestyles (Yalch and Spangenberg, 1993).
Holbrook and Schindler (1989), in an experiment involving consumer‟s
sensitivity to pop music, revealed that bonds created with individual songs in
the consumer‟s early 20‟s age bracket creates lasting impressions on their
preferences for music.
Furthermore, research has revealed that aligning in-store music with consumer
preferences has a significant influence upon shopping intentions (Broekemier et
al., 2005). Broekemier et al., (2008) further established that music found as
happy and liked had a significant effect upon patronage as well as spending
behaviour in retail environments. In an experiment where consumers were
20
presented with a pen under the conditions of “liked” or “disliked” music found
that consumer‟s liking of the product was influenced by liked music or music
that is happy (major mode) and vice versa. Gorn (1982) says that this
behaviour might be explained by consumers transferring their positive
emotions for the music to the product.
4.3.4. Volume Studies have shown that the volume of music has a significant effect upon
shopper‟s actual length of stay in supermarkets. Loud music was compared to
soft music and showed that consumers under the loud-music environment
spent significantly less time in-store with a faster rate of spending, while low
volumes revealed longer consumer lengths of stay which gave them the
opportunity to browse more and ultimately spend more (Smith and Curnow,
1966). With regards to restaurant environments, lower volumes were found to
produce behaviours of higher spending (Lammers, 2003). Other experiments
measured the effects of volume via the use of headphones due to its highly
controllable nature (Oakes and North, 2008). However, there appears to be
minor credit on the impact of musical dynamics on consumer. One explanation
to this is that it is difficult to measure and perceive volume from different areas
within the service environment as consumers are usually at different distances
apart from the source of amplification and are therefore not experiencing
volume under identical conditions even if music volume is set at a constant
level (Oakes and North, 2008).
4.3.5. Modality An element of music which has been accepted as important in inducing
significant responses from consumers is “modality” and has been incorporated
in research for an extensive period of time (Kellaris and Kent, 1991). In
western culture, the most commonly used modes are that of major and minor
21
keys. These modalities are known to create distinctive emotional responses
such that musical compositions in major keys are generally associated to
positive feelings and musical compositions in minor keys are associated with
less positive feelings such as nostalgia, melancholy and even romanticism
(Hevner, 1935). Of the more traditional western associations concerning
modality, human emotions such as happy and sad are associated with major
and minor modes respectively (Bruner, 1990). Alpert et al., (2003) state that
music which is perceived as happy, induces a positive emotional condition as
opposed to listening to sad music. In one experiment conducted in a women‟s
clothing store, it was determined that shopping intentions and evaluations were
higher if shoppers were exposed to music which they perceived as “happy”.
Furthermore, studies have shown that shoppers who were exposed to time
spans under minor modes underestimated time spent in-store as opposed to
equal time spans executing music in major modes (Kellaris and Kent, 1992;
Knoferle, et al., 2012).
Interestingly, this finding goes against the popular belief used by Kellaris and
Kent (1992, p.365) that “time flies when you‟re having fun” as their studies
indicated that time perceptions were shortest when exposed to music which is
not associated with positive emotional evaluations. Cognitive theories suggest
that consumers listening to music which generate positive emotions might
contribute higher levels of attention to the composition resulting in heightened
cognitive functions inducing the belief that more happened and thus expanding
time perceptions (Block, 1990). Therefore, for environments where lesser time
perceptions are favourable, music in minor modes are most effective. This
proves highly beneficial for environments such as restaurants, banks and
waiting rooms which might require longer waiting times to prepare a finished
product or waiting for the cheque at the end of dining experience while
simultaneously.
22
4.3.6. Tempo Music tempo has received as much attention as modality as it is highly
associated with generating consumer responses (Knoferle et al., 2012). Similar
to modality, the effects of tempo on the consumer can be described via a
“storage size” model of cognitive function. Thus, time perceptions can be
affected such that fast tempo music induces longer time perceptions while slow
tempo music induces shorter time perceptions (Oakes, 2003). Furthermore,
studies have associated fast tempos with elevated consumer physical activity
(e.g. heart rate, blood pressure and rate of breathing (Lundin, 1985) which is
supported by the findings of various studies that indicated high correlations of
tempo with arousal (Chebat et al., 2001; Kellaris and Kent, 1993). This
understanding supports the findings of numerous experiments which
incorporated tempo as a variable that may influence time perceptions. Kellaris
and Kent (1991) demonstrated that fast tempo music was judged by listeners
as longer in duration as opposed to music set at slow tempos. It has been
further reported by Caldwell and Hibbert (1999) that slow tempos encourage
higher spending than fast tempos.
In the context of supermarkets, Milliman (1982) displays the effects of slow
tempo music and fast tempo music on consumer behaviour and in-store traffic
flow. The results indicated that under the slow tempo music condition,
consumer pace of in-store traffic is decreased thus leading to higher sales.
Under the fast tempo music condition, in-store traffic accelerated resulting in a
decrease in spending. A study conducted later by Milliman (1986) in
restaurants, using the same music-tempo conditions, revealed that consumers
spent more time in the restaurant establishment and exercised higher spending
on alcoholic beverages under slow tempo music.
23
4.3.7. An Interactive effect of Tempo and Modality The literature shows us that combinations of musical variables are known to
have similar effects. Concerning modality, music which was in a minor key
induced shorter time estimates while compositions of slow tempos were also
recorded as producing decreased time perceptions as well as encouraging
higher spending. Furthermore, slow tempos and minor keys are associated with
music induced sadness which has been revealed to elevate spending in
shopping environments (Alpert and Alpert, 1990; Knoferle et al., 2012). Garge
et al. (2007) showed that “sad mood inductions” increased food consumption
and in another study, increased spending (Cryder et al., 2008). Knoferle et al.
(2012) indicated that similarities between the effects of slow tempo music as
well as minor keys hold stronger significance on consumer time perceptions if
combined.
4.4. Cognitive understanding in the Literature As mentioned above, it has been strongly established that background music
has an impact on the consumer‟s behavioural, emotional and cognitive
responses (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974; Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Bruner,
1990). Various theories have been proposed in an attempt to explain the
interaction of music with the consumer‟s psychology (Herrington, 1996). With
concern on environmental psychology, Mehrabian and Russell (1974) propose a
model known as “approach-avoidance behaviour”, also referred to as „PAD‟.
Such behaviours comprise of emotional evaluations on the environment,
service experience, patronage decisions, and attitudes towards others,
spending behaviour, time perceptions and actual length of stay (Donovan and
Rossiter, 1982). The most popular (Newman, 1966) of theoretical explanations
have incorporated this model which provides a platform designed around a
three dimensional emotional structure consisting of pleasure-displeasure,
arousal-non arousal and dominance-submissiveness. It further describes the
24
process through which evaluations of time function through memorization and
is hence described by means of a “storage model” (Ornstein, 1969). It states
that the more stimulation that is incurred during a set period of time, the
longer the consumer‟s time perceptions will be. Heightened emotional states
and memory allocation can thus be optimized by attaining congruity between
environmental stimuli such as lively music and vivid colours as well as calm
music and low-lit lighting (Donovan et al., 1994).
4.5. Music in service environments It is to no surprise that an individual would prefer an environment which is
pleasant in atmosphere and offers a sense of welcoming as opposed to the
contrary (Martineau, 1958). In effect, such environments have proven that in
particular situations, the servicescape can be more influential in the purchasing
decision than the actual product (Kotler, 1973). As musicscape is described as
a sub-category of the servicescape, music can act as a differentiating factor in
reinforcing brand image and can hence promote a competitive positioning
(Dube and Morin, 2001).
Concerning the research that involves music‟s impact on behaviours in service
environments, a major portion of the research has been conducted upon retail
stores and shopping malls while service environments such as restaurants, bars
and student cafeterias have been receiving a growing portion of attention. This
branches the literature out into two directions.
4.6. The Retail Environment In the light of retailing, the powerful effect of music as a sensory stimulus has
propelled it into extensive incorporation into the retail environment. Care is
taken in selecting and playing music which is congruent to the target markets
preferences to induce higher patronage intentions (Jain and Bagdare, 2011).
Further use of music in the retail environment utilizes it as a method of
enhancing brand image (Baker et al., 2002) and creating emotional bonds with
25
the consumer (Schmitt and Simonson, 1997). In a study where the managers
of 52 retail stores were surveyed on their experiences with music in the
shopping environment, managers agreed that they felt customers exercised
higher spending behaviour and that music induced positive effects upon
customer moods. Similarly, 70 % of 560 customers who were surveyed in the
same study preferred stores that incorporated music into their service scheme
(Burleson, 1979). Other research reported that shoppers enjoy music during
their shopping experience and that stores which utilize music express greater
care for their customers than environments which do not (Linsen, 1975).
4.7. The Restaurant Environment There is a limited understanding of consumer behaviour and the determinants
involved with consumer satisfaction and enjoyment in the restaurant
environment (Caldwell and Hibbert, 2002). Lovelock (1985) goes to explain
that the core attribute of a restaurant is its food offering, leaving the service
and environment as secondary attributes which might complement the
consumer‟s experience. Dulen‟s (1999) findings, which were later supported by
the works of Susskind and Chan (2000), state that the food offering, service
and tangible environment significantly determine the consumer‟s evaluations of
the restaurant quality. As customer satisfaction is also a trait that is
significantly influenced by quality, understanding and optimizing the
servicescape should complement the dining experience. Furthermore, as
musicscape can be thought of as a sub-category of the servicescape, music can
be considered as a viable tool in elevating the servicescape offer and even
more so due to its easily implementable characteristics. As it is currently
understood, music can be used to induce time perceptions (Caldwell and
Hibbert, 2002; Milliman, 1986), increase satisfaction (Namkung and Jang,
2007) and influence moods (Alpert and Alpert, 1990; Herrington, 1996) in
casual restaurant environments.
26
4.8. Literature Summary Figure 3 acts as a summary of the literature review extracting the known
effects of music on consumer behaviours as well as other understood
interactions.
Figure 3.
Category Author Description
Musicscape Oakes, (2003) Proposed musicscape as subcategory of servicescape
Guégeun et al.,(2007)
Music plays a vital role in affecting consumer satisfaction
Yalch and Spangenberg, (1993)
Music is an attractive atmospheric variable because it is inexpensive, easily changed, has predictable appeals to individuals based on their age and lifestyles
Oakes and North,
(2008)
Successful integration of music can convey
comprehensible messages and strengthen positioning strategies
Garlin and Owen, (2006)
The sheer occurrence of music increases patronage and pleasure
Musical
Congruency
Beverland et al., (2006)
Well fitted music allows uneducated customers to determine a benchmark of expectations
Radocy and Boyle, (1997)
Well fitted music can affect consumer decisions to allocate more time and money to the store
Harris and Ezeh,
(2008)
The better the musical fit, the higher the loyalty
intentions
Areni and Kim,
(1993)
Classical music is associated with higher socio-
economic behaviours which induces higher spending
Areni (2003) Jazz music is associated with higher socio-economic
behaviours which induces higher spending
North and Hargreaves, (2006)
Music associated with higher socio-economic values (e.g. classical, jazz) induces prestigious behaviours such as higher spending
Musical
Preference
Dalla Bella et al.,
(2001)
People below the age of six can only differentiate
music according fast and slow tempos. After the age of six, people are able to differentiate between major(happy) and minor(sad) modes
Kellaris and Altsech, (1992)
Female time estimates are shorter than male time estimates under soft volumes
Kellaris and Rice, (1993)
Females prefer slow and soft music, males prefer loud and fast music
Holbrook and
Schindler, (1989)
Music preferences at age 23 leaves lasting impressions
on future music preferences
Broekemier et al., (2008)
Major moded music increases liking of product
Volume Cain-Smith and Curnow, (1966)
Softer volumes induce longer lengths of stay and are more pleasurable than loud volumes
Modality Bruner, (1990) Major mode=happy, Minor mode =sad
Kellaris and Kent, (1992) Knoferle et al., (2012)
Minor modes induce shorter time perceptions than major modes
Tempo Oakes, (2003) Fast tempo= longer time perceptions, slow tempo= shorter time perceptions
Milliman, (1986) Slow tempo music induced longer lengths of stay and higher spending on alcoholic beverages in restaurants
Tempo and
Modality
Knoferle, (2012) Minor modes and slow tempos are best at decreasing time perceptions.
27
5. Hypothesis This section states whether the research questions previously posed have been
answered by the literature review. Questions which have not been answered
will be taken into the primary research phase in the form of Hypotheses.
1. Do restaurant patrons spend more money in the presence of music? If
so, what music is best at making them spend more?
According to the literature, classical and jazz music are associated with higher
socio-economic behaviour which is known to induce behaviours of higher
spending (Areni and Kim, 1993). However, these findings apply to retail
environments and student cafeterias and not a fine dining environment. Hence,
this question will be incorporated in the Primary research under the following
hypothesis:
H1a): Restaurant patrons of the BDS will exercise higher spending in beverages
under a structured music treatment which incorporates classical music.
Furthermore, to understand whether restaurant patrons are conscious of their
higher spending or not, the following hypothesis was formulated:
H1b): Restaurant patrons of the BDS will feel that they exerted higher spending
than they intended to under the structured music treatment.
2. Does music have an effect on the restaurant patron’s enjoyment of the
dining experience? If so, what music is optimal at enhancing this
perception?
Music which is considered as happy or in major modes will positively affect
consumer‟s enjoyment evaluations (Alpert et al., 2003; Garlin and Owen, 2006)
Furthermore, softer volumes are perceived as more pleasant than loud volumes
(Lin and Wu, 2006). While this has been repeatedly mentioned in the literature,
no research has been expressed as to these effects in a fine dining
28
environment. This question can hence be carried into the Primary Research
phase in the form of the following hypothesis:
H2: Restaurant patron‟s evaluation of their enjoyment of the experience will be
higher under a structured music treatment which incorporates music that is
considered as happy or in major modes.
3. Does music have an effect on the restaurant patron’s time perceptions?
If so, what kind of music is best at controlling these perceptions?
Background music in minor modes and slow tempos will induce shorter time
perceptions (Oakes, 2003; Knoferle, 2012). These findings have however been
conducted in retail environments and briefly in a casual restaurant. As this has
not been examined in the context of a fine dining establishment, this question
requires further research and is carried over into the Primary Research Phase in
the form of the following hypothesis:
H3: Restaurant patron‟s time estimates will be shorter under a structured
music treatment which incorporates music of slow tempos and minor
modalities.
4. Are restaurant patron’s intentions to return to the restaurant higher in
the presence of music? If so, what music is best at maximizing these
intentions?
It is evident that music has a significant impact on consumer behaviour when
utilized and applied correctly to the environment such that the mere presence
of music positively affects consumers‟ intentions to return (Garlin and Owen,
2006). Furthermore, music which is liked significantly affects consumers‟
intentions to return to the store environment (Broekemier et al., 2008). Yet
again, these results have been obtained via experimentation within retail
environments which does not satisfy the current research question with regards
29
to a fine dining establishment. This question is hence carried into the Primary
Research Phase in the form of the following hypothesis:
H4: Restaurant patrons evaluations on their intentions to return will be higher
under a structured music treatment which incorporates music that is liked
(preference).
The contents of the structured music treatment will incorporate the musical
properties revealed in the literature into the process of selecting the relevant
music. However, to be able to do so, it is important to determine the correct
time and place to be able to measure the relative effects e.g. if the BDS
management wanted consumers to purchase expensive items, the literature
suggests that classical music would be played during the time period where
consumers place their food and beverage orders. To do so, a better
understanding of the selected dining environment was required.
5.1. Application of Hypothesis in the BDS Environment The Berceau des Sens (BDS) is a fine dining restaurant found in the Ecole
Hôtelière de Lausanne (EHL), based in Switzerland. Its name translates to the
“the basket of senses” and caters to an upmarket clientele with a capacity of 70
covers.
The BDS sports a classy and upscale- segment design fitted with automated
lighting and an overhead sound system which is controlled within the back-
office. It offers an extensive array of wines from different parts of the world as
well as various menus to choose from which are changed weekly. It is
comprised of a management team and further serves as a practice ground for
the students at the Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne such that the service and
kitchen staff is comprised of students and teachers who guide students through
the restaurants processes. The BDS is operational from Mondays to Thursdays
with lunch and dinner services lasting from 3 to 4 hours maximum each.
30
As the BDS functions as one of the on-campus restaurants, large portions of its
clientele are students, staff and external guests. The ratio between students,
staff and external guests is 40%, 13% and 30% respectively (BDS statistics,
2011). House guests make up the remaining clientele of the BDS. These guests
were not included in the survey as they do not pay for the experience and are
often attending for business purposes. Ages of BDS clientele range from 18 till
55 years of age.
5.1.1. The Dining Phases The process of dining at the BDS is one that is comprised of 3 significantly
different periods unique to the concept of fine dining. These periods were
determined after interviewing the BDS management team about the general
activities within the consumer experience at the BDS.
At the start of the service, guests are presented with menus, given water and
offered bread. It is at this moment where guests will select their preferred
menu‟s and wines. Guests then wait for a series of 7 meals to be presented to
them after the completion of each one. Upon completion of these meals, guests
are then offered a selection of desserts which are shortly followed by the
optional coffee and the bill, a period which is notorious for long waiting times.
The nature of the BDS service presents various opportunities to study the
effects of music on consumers.
To better segment each period within the dining process, „Pre-Phase‟ is the
term given to the first 60 minutes of the dining process, „During-Phase‟ refers
to the next 90 minutes and „Post-Phase‟ is the term given to the last 60
minutes of service at the BDS. Hypothesis are further derived an implemented
in the corresponding sections.
31
5.1.2. The Pre-Phase At the beginning period; consumers decide on what they will spend on and to
what extent their spending will be taken to. As this time period commences the
dining experience and acts as the point of sale for the BDS, it is favourable that
consumers order high revenue items. Once, the order has been recorded,
guests receive their first beverages which are generally comprised of the
different wines at the BDS. As this period involves activities such as wine
purchasing, wine tasting and consumption, associations are of higher socio-
economic status, prestige and intricacy (Areni and Kim, 1993). Music that
matches these social values should be considered when developing a sonic
profile.
It is important to choose music that would complement the contextual
environment of the BDS. As it is by concept a fine-dining restaurant, music of
prestigious associations need be executed to retain and enhance the formal
beginning of the BDS service. Furthermore, as the target is to influence
heightened spending, music should either be regarded as prestigious or be in
minor modalities with slow tempos. Furthermore, as the beverage offer is the
only menu that remains constant, beverages were implemented as part of the
research measurements and the food offer discarded from further tracking.
Hence, for the sake of enhancing the prestigious image of the restaurant while
simultaneously influencing increased spending, classical music is regarded as
the variable most suited to achieving the mentioned results. We can therefore
measure the effects of H1a and H1b in this time frame and accept or reject the
hypothesis according to the findings.
5.1.3. The During-Phase The second period consists of serving the meals that had been ordered in the
„Pre-Phase‟ period and is heavily dependent on the waiter‟s ability to anticipate
and synchronize the guest‟s consumption speed with the kitchen‟s processes as
32
well as the time that it takes to prepare each dish. As this period is heavily
associated with customer evaluation of the dining experience, the opportunity
to measure music‟s effect on consumer‟s evaluation of the experience can be
applied.
At this phase of the dining experience, lights are lowered to promote a sense of
relaxation and comfort rather than the initial atmosphere of formality. During
this period, it is still possible to order additional beverages. Hence, inducing
behaviours of higher spending is favourable along with positive mood
inductions which require music which is slow and in major modality or
perceived as happy. As classical music is associated with emotions of prestige
and sophistication, it is not congruent with the newly altered atmosphere of
relaxation and ease. Therefore, a musical genre which is also associated with
higher socio-economic status but complements the newly defined atmosphere
is that of Jazz music (Shepherd, 1986). Furthermore, music should be chosen
which is known to positively affect consumer‟s patronage intentions as well as
their product and service evaluations. According to the literature, music which
is happy (major modality) has significant effects in positively influencing
product and service evaluations. We can therefore measure the effects of H2 in
this time frame and accept or reject the hypothesis according to the findings.
5.1.4. The Post Phase The third period offers the guest a moment to relax and end the service with a
coffee or any other choice in beverage selection as the period to order food
ends at 8 pm. The Post-Phase is associated with guests using their time to
relax after the lengthy service and consumption of many meals. As customers
usually display a sense of fatigue from the prior meals consumed and time
spent in the restaurant, waiting for the bill can become a tiresome task due to
service staff catering to other customers still dining or also enquiring on other‟s
bills. Hence, the opportunity is provided to exploit music which is known to
33
shorten customer time perceptions. Music known to have such an effect is that
of slow tempos and in minor modalities. We can therefore measure the effects
of H3 in this time frame and accept or reject the hypothesis according to the
findings.
Furthermore, as the management would like the last impressions of the
consumer to be that of heightened return intentions, care was taken to select
music which was liked by the target the audience. Hence, the pre-phase serves
as an appropriate segment to test H4.
5.2. Conceptual Framework In the framework below (figure 4), the proposed hypotheses and its relevant
musical treatments, which were derived from the literature, are displayed in
relation to the variables proposed for measurement.
Figure 4.
6. Music Treatment Development Music has been identified as significant in the development of memories which
promotes the creation and recollection of judgments about oneself, others and
H1a)
H1b)
H2)
H3)
H4)
34
the environment (Jänke, 2008). Knowing this, consumers may rely on the
musical treatment of the restaurant to better facilitate and recall their
experience at the end of the evening. To our knowledge, no attempts have
been made to assimilate a structured musical treatment that adheres to the
objectives set out by management in terms of managing consumer behaviours
that may be beneficial to both the store and the consumer‟s experience. Hence,
the BDS will serve as the environment suited for experimentation where the
use of a structured music treatment will be implemented and tested against an
unstructured music treatment.
6.1. Unstructured Music Treatment Music that pertained to the unstructured treatment was compiled by the BDS
management team. Music was selected according to the management team‟s
own tastes and beliefs as to what type of music should be played and was
controlled according to the intuition of the staff on duty. Unstructured music
adhered to no particular time boundaries or theoretical application and was
again controlled via the intuition of the service staff. Their music treatments
involved putting an artist‟s CD into the sound system and playing it through the
night as the staff pleased. CD‟s of artists involved Diana Kral, Miles Davis,
Cannonball Adderley and Kazumi Watanabe. Although the music does pertain to
the higher socio-economic values known to Jazz music, compositional elements
of the music were executed at random meaning that these elements (slow
tempo, fast tempo, major mode, minor mode etc.) were completely mixed with
no purpose within their placement.
6.2. Structured Music Treatment Music herewith was determined from an interview with the management of the
BDS. Please consult Appendix 1 for a representation of the interview in table
format.
35
Music was then selected and organized according to the time period in question
and the desired restaurant patron behaviour associated to the segment in time.
6.2.1. Pre-Phase Music Selection As stated in the literature, music with higher socio-economic associations such
as classical music is known to elevate the consumer‟s perceptions of an
environment such that it is regarded as more prestigious and higher in quality.
Classical music compositions were therefore derived from the works of North et
al. (2002) where classical music was used in a casual restaurant to determine if
classical music could induce higher spending in an upmarket restaurant.
6.2.2. During-Phase Music Selection Music which is regarded as happy (major modality) is known to have positive
effects on service/product evaluations. Furthermore, as the guest still had the
opportunity to order more F&B items, music selection was kept at slow tempos
for its understood effects upon heightened spending. The compositions were
chosen under the genre of Jazz for its higher socio-economic associations.
6.2.3. Post-Phase Music Selection Music which is liked is known to have positive effects on patronage behaviour.
Also, as the aim was to shorten time perceptions, care was taken in selecting
liked music that was slow and in minor modes. However, the process to
selecting “liked” music required a complicated procedure in musical selection
which then had to be approved by the BDS management.
As the majority of the BDS clientele are students and staff from the campus of
the Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne, an informal survey was dispatched which
asked them what type of music they would prefer listening to in a fine dining
establishment as well as any song suggestions. A portion of these were
incorporated into the playlist.
36
The second part of the procedure involved determining music that would fit the
preferences of consumers according to their age. As stated by Holdbrook and
Schindler (1989), musical preference at the age of 23.5 remains a stronger
preference over music which was liked at different stages in one‟s life. Hence,
to cater for clientele who may not have been part of the informal survey and
are also considerably older in age, care was taken to incorporate music that
was liked by older generations in their earlier years. Billboard and Top 40
charts between the years of 1970 and 2012 were consulted in choosing the
relevant musical compositions.
Finally, music was further filtered to ensure that compositions in this section
were in minor modes and slow tempos. Hence, compositions which were in
major modalities and/or fast tempos were discarded.
6.3. CD Control As the experiment is based on the segmented dining service at BDS, it was
necessary for the researcher to control the start and ending of the music per
phase. 3 CD‟s had to be developed which contained the 3 separate playlist
treatments; „Pre‟, „During‟ and „Post‟ phases. Hence, the first CD contained the
musical playlist „Pre-Phase‟, the second CD contained the playlist „‟During-
Phase‟ and the third CD contained the Playlist „Post-Phase‟. The contents of
each CD can be found in Appendix 3.
The researcher commenced the musical treatment at 7 pm and changed the CD
at the shift in dinner service segments. Volumes were kept at background
volumes.
37
7. Survey Design
7.1. Introduction A quantitative approach was necessary in order to collect large amounts of
usable data. To do so, it was necessary to develop a survey that gave
respondents the opportunity to evaluate the different perceptible qualities of
their experience. Hence, by obtaining mass amounts of observable data,
analysis could be made to obtain conclusive results.
Surveys were distributed at the end of the dining service to all of the BDS‟s
guests by the service staff and later collected by the service staff after the
guest(s) had completed their survey(s).
7.2. Survey Structure
The survey required the respondent to indicate their gender, age and guest
type (student, staff, external guest). As the survey required respondents to
evaluate their attitude or opinion upon a topic, a 5 point Likert Scale was
applied to all questions where 1 represented complete disagreement and 5
represented complete agreement (Likert, 1932).
Each question incorporated into the survey measured the characteristics
determined within the conceptual framework and was designed to incorporate
three phases of the dining experience mentioned earlier, namely, the „Pre-
Phase‟, „During-Phase‟ and „Post-Phase‟. Questions pertaining to the „Pre-Phase‟
segment measured perceptions of spending. Questions associated to the
„During-Phase‟ measured evaluations of the over-all dining experience. Finally,
questions related to the „Post-Phase‟ measured consumer time estimates as
well as their intentions to return.
Furthermore, as the clientele of the BDS speak either French or English,
questions were kept in English while a French version of the same survey was
38
given to French speakers. This translation was done by the EHL campus French
teacher, Madame Philippin-Cotillon. Please consult Appendix 2 to view the
surveys.
7.3. Survey Questions The survey is introduced by the question “I was aware of the music tonight” in
order to measure whether the respondent took notice of the music playing. This
may indicate whether these reactions took place at a conscious or unconscious
level.
7.3.1. Pre-Phase Questions: Spending The question “I feel I spent more money than I intended to” was asked to
measure to what extent people felt their spending was exerted. This was done
so as to understanding if consumers felt that they had exerted greater
spending. The intention was to further couple the relative responses with the
actual receipts.
7.3.2. During-Phase Questions: Experience Evaluations “I had an enjoyable experience” was the question posed to measure the
respondent‟s general level of enjoyment within the BDS experience under the
different music conditions. To further segment what may have influenced the
respondent‟s perception of what affected their evaluation of an enjoyable
experience, the respondent was asked to agree to what extent they enjoyed
the company of the people they went with to the BDS, the BDS décor, service
staff, music and the food.
7.3.3. Post-Phase Question: Intentions to Return and Time
Perceptions Time perceptions were measured by the question “I felt that time went by
quickly”. The respondent rated their level of agreement with the statement
according to the previously mentioned scale.
39
The ending question on the survey, “I intend to return to the BDS in the near
future”, was included to understand to what level the respondent may have
been influenced by the two musical treatments in terms of their intentions to
return to the BDS in the future as a means of measuring patronage. Whether
the guest had come back on future occasions was not tracked.
7.4. Sample The field experiment was conducted in the BDS over a 4 week period during the
month of March. The two music treatments were employed in the BDS
environment to investigate the effects of a structured music treatment and an
unstructured music treatment on restaurant patrons without revealing to them
the difference in music conditions. As the restaurant is operational for 4 days of
the week (Monday-Thursday) and has two separate services; lunch and dinner,
the dinner service was selected for experimentation. To equally distribute the
two music treatments, structured music treatments that were played on
Tuesday and Thursday of the first week were swapped with the Monday and
Wednesday of the second week. Unstructured music that was played on
Monday and Wednesday in the first week was played on Tuesday and Thursday
of the second week. Volumes had been pretested in the BDS environment to
ensure that music was kept in the background as opposed to the foreground
and the separate CD content had been put on shuffle to randomly assign the
musical content per CD.
The final sample consisted of 348 total participants, 158 of who had dined
under the unstructured music treatment and 190 under the structured music
treatment. Of the 348 respondents, 151 were male and 197 were female. 181
of the respondents were students, 7 were staff and a 158 were external guests.
2 respondents had failed to indicate their guest type and age. Please refer to
Table 1 represents the previously stated information.
40
Table 1. Sample Participants
Category Selection Amount
Gender Male 151
Female 197
Total 348
Age 18-24 220
25-34 50
35-44 21
45-54 25
55+ 30
Total 346
Guest Type Student 181
Staff 7
External 158
Total 346
Total Missed 2
41
8. Primary Research 8.1. Data Collection
8.1.1. Survey Surveys were distributed and collected at the end of the dinner services from
Monday to Thursday by the staff of the BDS.
8.1.2. Receipts As the food menus at the BDS are changed on a weekly basis, it was decided to
only measure the spending on beverages as these remain constant on offer.
The cost control department of the BDS records all of the orders and
transactions made at both lunch and dinner services. It was hence employed in
separating the beverage receipts for each night service and determining the
spend per head on BDS restaurant patrons per night. These values were then
organized according to their appropriate nights under the two music conditions.
This information could then be incorporated into the relative analysis.
9. Methodology Part 2 This section describes the processes involved in analysing the data that was
collected from the 5th till the 15th of March, 2012.
9.1. SPSS The program SPSS version 20 was used to analyse the data collected from the
surveys. A frequency test was executed to count the number of participants,
gender, guest type and age differences that were present in the experiment at
the BDS. Responses from the survey were recorded on excel and then imported
into SPSS.
9.2. Reliability In order to continue further analysis, Cronbach‟s Reliability Test was conducted
on all questions. As the result displayed and alpha value greater than 0.6
42
(α=0.606), reliability of the questions were satisfactory and further analysis
could be done.
9.3. Independent Samples T-Test It was necessary to determine whether a significant difference in responses
under the two music conditions existed. To do so, Independent Samples T-test
proved appropriate in providing means and significance levels to confirm a
significant difference in the responses under the two musical conditions of
structured and unstructured musical treatments. In order to determine whether
a significant difference existed, the 2-tailed significance had to be below 5%
(0.05). This test was applied to all data that was related to the survey
questions.
9.4. Independent Samples T-Test on Spending After identifying the average spend per head, the averages were then imported
into SPSS to the corresponding days and respondent numbers. Furthermore, as
the figures determined were average spend per head of the different beverage
categories; wines, beers, liquor and minerals, these values were hence aligned
on the number of respondents that had participated in the test. This was done
so as to make Independent Samples T-tests possible in order to determine
whether the two music conditions produced significant differences in terms of
spending. If the value presented by the 2-tailed significance was under 5%
(0.05), the difference in spending was hence considered as significant.
43
9.5. Methodological Limitations 1. Experimentation was conducted in only one environment and hence the
data set pertains to only the BDS environment. Further research might
consider executing the experiment in various environments of similar
characteristics.
2. As answering the survey was voluntary, the absence of certain
participant‟s evaluations may have deterred from the data set. This may
have affected the results.
3. The cost control department had presented the researcher with final
values. As it was already against their policies to release financial
information, the values used may not have been representative of the
real spending at the BDS on beverages.
4. Although analysis had received an acceptable size of data from a large
sample size, choice in analyses was kept simple so as to merely indicate
the difference in responses under the two conditions. Such as simple
manner in analysis may thus be considered a limitation and that future
research might consider more vigorous methods of analysis upon closer
investigation of the variables.
5. It was difficult to control the dispersion of surveys due to the large
number of staff distributing them under limited monitoring. Hence, such
an error may result in affecting the reliability of the data.
44
10. Findings and Analysis
10.1. Receipts Higher spending was recorded under the condition of a structured music
treatment and lesser spending under the unstructured music treatment such
that spending on wines experienced an average increase of 4.35 CHF, 30 C
increase on minerals and 7 C increase on beer. These increases were
considered as significantly different due to the 2-tailed significance being below
5% (0.05). The only beverage item that did not experience a significant
difference in increase was liquor. These values can be further found in Table 2
presented below.
10.2. Perceptions on spending Average scores for respondents perceptions on how much they feel they spent
was higher under the structured music treatment (2.46) than under the
unstructured music treatment (2.03). These differences were prompted as
significant and can be found in Table 3.
10.3. Awareness of music The survey revealed that there was a significant difference in the respondents
evaluation in their awareness of the music played under the two music
treatments. They were more aware of the presence of music under the
Table 2: Independent Sample T-Test on beverage receipts
Music Structured Unstructured Sig. (2-tailed)
Mean Equal Variances Assumed
Equal Variances Not Assumed
Receipts Per Day
Wine 32.15 27.80 0.00 0.00
Mineral 0.44 0.14 0.00 0.00
Beer 0.22 0.15 0.01 0.01
Liquor 0.40 0.47 0.142 0.16
45
structured music treatment (3.34) than under the unstructured music
treatment (2.24). The relative values presented in Table 3.
10.4. Overall Experience Evaluation Respondents indicated that their overall experience was higher under the
structured music treatment (4.68) as opposed to the unstructured music
treatment (4.38) at significant levels.
However, when respondents were asked to evaluate individual aspects of the
service environment, no differences were reflected in their evaluations under
the two different musical treatments. The only variable that was significantly
different was their higher preference evaluations for the music under the
structured music treatment (3.48) as opposed to the unstructured music
treatment (1.99). These values can be found in Table 3.
10.5. Time Perceptions Under the structured musical treatment, respondent evaluations indicate a
higher response (4.34) in their time perception evaluation under the structured
musical treatment than under the unstructured musical treatment (3.65). It
was indicated that these values were significantly different as represented in
Table 3.
10.6. Return Intentions Respondents indicated higher evaluations of their intentions to return under the
structured music treatment (4.54) than under the unstructured music
treatment (4.27) which were indicated as significantly different. Furthermore,
these values can be found in Table 3.
46
Table 3: Independent Samples T-Test on survey evaluations
Music Structured Unstructured Sig. (2-tailed)
Mean Equal Variances
Assumed
Equal Variances Not
Assumed
Consciousness
I was aware of the music tonight 3.34 2.24 0.00 0.00
Spending
I feel I spent more money than I intended to 2.46 2.03 0.00 0.00
Overall Experience Evaluation
I had an enjoyable experience 4.68 4.38 0.00 0.00
I enjoyed my evening because of the:
People I went with to BDS 4.84 4.8 0.47 0.46
BDS décor 3.92 3.8 0.24 0.24
Service staff 4.14 4.01 0.17 0.17
Music 3.48 1.99 0.00 0.00
Food 4.25 4.11 0.15 0.15
Time Perceptions
I felt that time went by quickly 4.34 3.65 0.00 0.00
Intention to Return
I intend on dining at the BDS again 4.54 4.27 0.00 0.00
47
12. Discussion
12.1. Awareness towards the Music According to the analysis, higher awareness of the music under the structured
music treatment was likely due to the respondent‟s heightened exposure to the
music which was kept at pre-tested volumes. Furthermore, the continuous
duration of the structured music treatment may have given the respondent
greater opportunity to recognize that there was music playing over the BDS‟s
sounds system. In light of the unstructured music treatment, which was
controlled by the intuition of the BDS management, inconsistent volumes and
time durations of the music may have hindered the respondent‟s ability to
acknowledge the presence of music. Due to the respondent‟s higher evaluations
of certain elements under the structured music treatment, it would be
beneficial for restaurant environments (and more specifically the BDS) to keep
their musical profile under consistent usage of time and volume levels as
opposed to control based on intuition. Further research is however required to
understand whether these restaurant patrons‟ decisions were made at a
conscious or unconscious level.
12.2. Perceptions on Spending vs. Actual Receipts Receipt tracking revealed that restaurant patrons attending the BDS displayed
behaviour of higher spending under the structured music treatment which
incorporated classical music played during the order-taking period.
Furthermore, restaurant patrons of the BDS felt that they had spent more
money than they had intended to under the structured music treatment than
under the unstructured music treatment. These findings supports the research
of Milliman (1986) as well as North and Hargreaves (1998) who highlight the
higher socio-economic associations of classical music and its ability to induce
prestigious behaviour such as higher spending. Therefore, H1a) is accepted.
48
Furthermore, as consumers indicated that they exerted higher spending in their
survey evaluations under the structured music treatment, H1b) is also accepted.
12.3. Overall Experience Evaluation Under the structured music treatment, respondents indicated that their overall
enjoyment of the dining experience was higher than respondents under the
unstructured music treatment. This finding further supports the findings of
researchers such as Alpert et al. (2003) and Garlin and Owen (2006). However,
this did not seem to be reflected in respondent‟s evaluations of the individual
elements that composed the dining experience, except for the higher
appreciation of the music indicated in the survey responses. It might be argued
that the elements put to question were not the appropriate elements to
measure and that there are other factors which may have been affected but not
incorporated into the survey such as questions related to “atmosphere” and
“mood”.
As respondents did indicate a higher enjoyment of the overall experience,
accepting H2 might be a viable option as a structured music treatment which
incorporated music that was in line with the customer‟s musical preferences,
coupled with music associated with positive mood inductions (major mode)
positively influenced restaurant patron‟s evaluations of their dining experience.
However, it remains tentative as to what variables were actually affected in
their experience evaluations. Further research is necessary to better
understand this phenomenon.
12.4. Time Perceptions Survey responses indicated that consumers felt that time went by faster when
exposed to the structured music treatment. These findings support the
research of Oakes (2003). This means that such treatments which incorporate
music at slow tempos and in minor modes could have a significant effect upon
decreasing consumer estimates on time durations. Hence, H3 is accepted.
49
12.5. Return Intentions Under the structured music condition, respondents indicated higher evaluations
on their intentions to return to the BDS in the future as compared to
evaluations under the unstructured music condition. This finding hence
supports the workings of Harris and Ezeh, (2008). As the structured music
treatment incorporated music known to positively affect patronage, H4 is
accepted.
50
13. Conclusion and Implications Although intuitive means of selecting music is not necessarily a destructive
activity, by adhering to a rigorous process of musical selection, the restaurant
can forego the hazard of incorrectly selecting music which might produce
counter-productive effects. This is achieved by incorporating music that
pertains to the market segments musical preferences and correctly matching
these tastes to the identity of the restaurant environment in question.
Furthermore, paying attention to the numerous theoretical components of
music, such as genre, tempo and modality; restaurant establishments are able
to make musical decisions based on conceptual knowledge instead of
judgments supported by intuition.
As it has been demonstrated, music has a significant effect upon the restaurant
patron‟s dining experience. If an analytical approach is incorporated into
designing and applying the musicscape to the restaurant environment, it is
possible to produce behaviours which are favourable in optimizing the
restaurant experience and hence complement operational procedures aimed at
bettering customer evaluations of the restaurant environment.
These findings add to prior research such that restaurant establishments can
look to music as a useful tool in increasing revenues with regards to beverage
purchases, increased evaluations of the overall enjoyment of the experience,
induce shorter time perceptions over periods which require long waiting times
and positively affect the restaurants patron‟s intentions to return to the
establishment. As these findings add to an existing but limited content with
regards to the use of music in restaurants, such establishments can look to
music as a tool which complements its service offer and differentiates itself
from its competitors.
51
14. Further Research Recommendations 1. The use of only one restaurant environment may not be representative for the
whole population, especially since the restaurant caters to a very specific type
of clientele. Further research might incorporate more than one restaurant
establishment under the same music treatment conditions to see if findings
remain consistent within various restaurant environments.
2. As the restaurant environment wished to keep a prestigious atmosphere during
the main part of the BDS service without it being as formal as the classical
music atmosphere, the use of Jazz music was incorporated. However, the
nature of Jazz music is one that is synonymous with constantly changing
modalities. Hence, Jazz music might start off in a major mode and then
transition into a minor mode. This may explain why music played during the
dining experience didn‟t have a particular effect on respondent‟s evaluations of
the service, décor or product. Although the structured music treatment
produced higher evaluations of enjoyment than the unstructured music
treatment, it might be said that the consistent presence of music during this
period as well as its incorporation due to its song structure remaining
predominantly in a major mode, had a general positive effect. Future research
might consider selecting music which does not incur too many modal changes
within the structured treatment.
3. By dealing out the surveys at the end of the night, it does not allow the
researcher to isolate what variables may have had a direct impact on the
restaurant patron. Ideally, the different parts of the survey should have been
dealt directly after the corresponding period e.g. Perceptions of time would
have been more accurate if the respondent received the survey directly after
phase designated to music known to induce such effects.
4. Some tables had experienced unisex seating while other tables experienced
same sex seating. These differences may have had an effect on the
respondent‟s evaluations. However, these factors were not tracked. Future
52
research might consider tracking such information to determine more accurate
results.
5. Table size varied between 2 per table till 9 per table. As there was intention to
track this variable, staff often forgot to indicate the table size of the
respondents table. This resulted in abandoning the tracking of table size due to
the inconsistency in collections. However, this variable may have had some
influence over the results. Further research should incorporate this into the
research design.
6. Guests seated at different ends of the restaurant environment were all at
different distances from the sources of amplification. Hence, this may have
affected the respondent‟s evaluations as the volumes may have been
inconsistent amongst the different seating plans. Future research could
consider conducting experimentation on only the tables which are nearest to
the sources of amplification.
7. Service staff who was meant to distribute and collect the surveys often
distributed the surveys at different times. Although this is expected due to
different tables finishing their dining experience either sooner or later than
others, this may had some effect on the level of evaluation from the different
respondents. Furthermore, attitudes and behaviours of the service staff when
handing out the survey may have affected respondent‟s evaluations. Future
research might consider developing some form of monitoring staff in their
distribution of surveys.
8. The survey questions may have been worded incorrectly as certain words and
phrases may not have been understood by everyone under the same context.
As a result, this may have resulted in inconsistencies within the respondents
evaluations. Future research might consider evaluating the wording of the
surveys via a focus group to produce more accurate wording structures.
9. The quality of the sound system within the BDS may have deterred from the
music‟s ability to be well perceived by everyone dining at the BDS.
53
Furthermore, the equalization controls for the sound system were very limited
and did not allow much opportunity to adjust the sound of the CD content and
contextualize it to the acoustics of the BDS environment. As a result, the
hindrance sound technology led to lower sound quality which may have had an
effect on the respondent‟s evaluations. Future research should be conducted in
environments that have a high quality sound system to avoid deterioration in
sound quality.
10. Although literature exists concerning the effects of music on consumer
behaviour in service environments, a very limited portion of it is focused on
dining environments. Hence, using information that was more related to other
environments may have had an effect on the experiment. More research in the
fields of a dining environment could help avoid this problem in the future. This
finding however deals some contrasting information.
11. According to Ornstein‟s “storage model”, the more stimulation cognitive
processes are subjected to, the longer time estimates should be. Hence, by
theory, silence should have the most optimal effect in decreasing consumer‟s
time perceptions. Often times, BDS management would refrain from playing
music when the environment was experiencing full capacity as management
felt that the noise produced by “chatter” would come into conflict with the
music. Although this management of the music was not consistent, it still
brings to question as to why a structured music treatment produced shorter
time perceptions, especially since its music acted as an additional layer of
sound over the existing chatter. This might be that the music exposed by the
structured music treatment distracted people from the disorganized sound of
the “chatter” and provided a more organized platform of sound for cognitive
processes to decode. Whatever the reason, it is clear that further research is
necessary to better understand the proposed model and its implications in the
context of music and restaurant environments.
54
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Appendix
61
Appendix 1- Phase schedule from interview
Phases Time (pm) Dining Period Desired Results
Use of Music from lit.
Tracking evaluations
Pre-Phase
07 : 00 08 : 30
Selection of wine and
course meals for the rest of the evening
Prestige and formal
atmosphere Induce higher spending
Classical music
Receipts Survey
During-Phase
08 : 30 10 : 30
Dining Experience commences
with series of meals
Perceived (+)Experience Relaxed
atmosphere which is still formal
Jazz music in slow tempos and major
modes
Survey
Post-Phase 10 : 00 11 : 00
Sit-down and coffee before the end of the evening
Short Time Perceptions High intentions to return
Music in minor modes and slow tempos (+) music must be liked
Survey
62
Appendix 2- Survey
We thank you for dining at the BDS this evening. Please take a moment to fill out the survey below Gender Male Female
Guest Type Student Staff External
Age Category
18-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
+55
Please indicate to what level you agree with the following statements, where 1= completely disagree and 5=completely agree 1 2 3 4 5
I was aware of the music tonight
I feel I spent more money than I intended to
I had an enjoyable experience
I enjoyed my evening because of the: 1 2 3 4 5
People I went with to BDS
BDS décor
Service staff
Music
Food
1 2 3 4 5
I felt that time went by quickly
I intend on dining at the BDS again
Thank you for your time and we wish you a pleasant journey home
63
Nous vous remercions pour votre présence au BDS ce soir. Nous vous serions gré de prendre quelques minutes pour remplir le questionnaire suivant: Genre Homme Femme
Vous êtes… Etudiant Externe Employé
Catégorie d’âge 18-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
+55
S’il vous plait, dites si vous êtes tout à fait d’accord ou pas du tout d’accord avec les affirmations suivantes: 1=pas du tout d’accord ; 5=tout à fait d’accord 1 2 3 4 5 J’ai remarqué la musique pendant la soirée
J’ai l’impression d’avoir dépensé plus d’argent que j’en avais l’intention
J’ai passé un moment (très) agréable
J’ai aimé cette soirée pour les raisons suivantes: 1 2 3 4 5
Les gens avec lesquels je suis venu au BDS
Le décor du BDS
Le service (du personnel)
La musique
La nourriture/le repas
1 2 3 4 5
Le temps a passé plus vite que prévu
J’ai l’intention de revenir dîner au BDS
Merci d’avoir pris le temps de remplir ce questionnaire, nous vous souhaitons un bon retour chez vous.
64
Appendix 3- Structured Music Treatments
Phase Desired Result Style Songs P
re-P
hase
Sele
ct
of H
igh R
evenue I
tem
s
Pre
stigio
us M
usic
identified a
s c
lassic
al
1. Minuet in G- Bach
2. Orchestral Suite no. 3- Bach
3. Concerto in E Flat- Bellini
4. Waltz in A Flat- Brahms
5. Nocturne- Chopin
6. Courante and Sarabande- Bach
7. Dvork
8. Fure Elsie- Beethoven
9. Harp Concerto- Handel
10.Love Dream- Liszt
11.Concerto Harp and Flute- Mozart
12.Pachabel Canon
13.Romantic Classical
14.Serenade- Schubert
15.Turkish March
16.Violin Romance- Beethoven
17.Summer- Vivaldi
Duration of music: 96 minutes
65
Phase Desired Result
Style Songs D
urin
g-P
hase
Perc
eiv
ed (
+)E
xperience
Short
Tim
e P
erc
eptions
Jazz in M
ajo
r Keys
Slo
w T
em
po M
usic
1. Bye Bye Blackbird- Public Enemies
2. Body and Soul- Freddie Hubbard
3. Do I love you „cause you‟re beautiful-
Coltraine
4. Everytime we say Goodbye
5. Here‟s that Rainy Day- Freddie
Hubbard
6. I Love Her
7. Girl from Ipenema
8. Guess I‟m Falling for you
9. All I have
10.Lions Song
11.Stardust
12.My One and Only Love- Coltraine &
Hartman
13.Prelude to a Kiss- Duke Ellington
14.Sensual Saxophone
15.Slow Dance
16.Sophisticated Lady
17.Travellin Blues
18.When I fall in Love
19.William Hernandez
20.You leave me breathless
Duration: 102 minutes
66
Phase Desired
Result Style Songs
Po
st-
Ph
ase
Decre
ased T
ime P
erc
eptions
Inte
ntions t
o r
etu
rn
Slo
w t
o m
odera
te m
usic
in m
inor
modes
1. Air
2. La Mangrave
3. Behold These Days
4. Cinematic Orchestra
5. French Lounge Music
6. Summer Madness
7. Lights
8. Matrix
9. NERD
10.Can‟t Take that Away from Me
11.Fly Me to the Moon
12.Que Sera- Wax Tailor
13.L‟amour
14.Destiny- Zero 7
Duration: 60 Minutes
67
Appendix 4- Reference descriptions
N° Authors Definitions Dimensions Scales of Measurement
Domain Hypothesis Findings
1-Music &
Consumption
Experience
Rajanish Jain,
Shilpa
Bagdare
(2010)
Literature
review-
To Examine
the influence
of music on
consumption
experience
,explore the
relationships
between
musical
variables and
consumer
responses in
the context of
retailing
1) Musical
Construct
Structural
elements,
Liking
2)Response
Cognitive,
emotional and
behavioural
3)Experience
4)Moderators
Customer
profile, Type of
store, ambience
factors
Literature
review
Consumer
Experience
none Accumulation of
findings in the
context of
retailing
2-Resources for
Selecting Popular
Music
Eamon Tewell
(2009)
Providing
resources
useful for
selecting
popular sound
recordings
while
emphasizing
the need for
monitoring
trends and
new releases
in popular
music
Online world none Musical
Resources
none Refer to table
titled „Resources
for selecting
popular music‟
3- Effects of web Jung-Hwan The effects of Product Mehrabian Consumer H2: those H2 rejected
68
site atmospherics
on consumer
responses: music
and product
presentation
Kim,
Minjeong
Kim, Sharron
J. Lennon
(2009)
web site
atmospherics
such as music
and product
presentation
on consumers‟
emotional,
cognitive and
conative
responses
presentation
Music
Emotional
States
Attitude
Purchase Intent
and Russell
(1974)
Experience exposed to
background
music in online
shopping will
exhibit more
positive emotion
towards the
website
4-Effects of
Background Music
on Consumer
Behaviour: A field
Experiment in an
Open-Air Market
Nicolas
Guéguen,
Céline Jacob,
Marcel
Lourel,
Hélène Le
Guellee
(2007)
The effects of
music on
consumer
behaviour
outside ( from
without the
confines of a
building)
Length of stay
Sales rate
Average amount
of sales per
customer
Background
Music
numerical Consumer
Behaviour
H1:pleasant
music retains
clientele vs. no
music at all
H2: Background
music will have
a positive effect
on sales volume
H1 accepted
H2 accepted
although
tenuous
5- Are highly
satisfied restaurant
customers really
different? A quality
perception
Young
Namkung,
Soocheong
Jang
(2007)
Identifying
the key
quality
attributes that
significantly
distinguish
highly
satisfied
dinners from
non-highly
satisfied
diners
Quality of food
Presentation
Quality of
Atmospherics
Service Quality
Survey
questionnaire
-restaurant
experience
-perceived
quality
-customer
satisfaction
Logistic
Regressions
Customer
Satisfaction
H1:
atmospherics
have a
significant
importance to
high customer
satisfaction
H1 accepted
6- Meaning,
communication,
music: towards a
revised
communication
model
Charles
Inskip,
Andrew
MacFarlane,
Pauline
Rafferty
Examining the
meaning of
music, how
meaning of
music is
communicated
Literature
review
none Music
Information
Systems
none None useful but
contents of
research very
helpful
69
(2007) and suggests
this may
affect music
retrieval
7-How can Music be
used in Business
Darrell
Coloma,
Brian H.
Kleiner
(2005)
Management
Research
News
Time Perception
Advertising
none Consumer
Behaviour
none Please refer to
the table titled „
Music Business
findings‟
8- An exploration of
happy/sad and
liked/disliked
music effects on
shopping intentions
in women’s
clothing stores
Greg
Broekemier,
Ray
Marquardt,
James W.
Gentry
(2005)
Which two
dimensions of
music have
significant
effects on
shopping
intentions
Happy/sad
Liked/disliked
Focus group Consumer
Perceptions
H1: Subjects
who judge the
stimulus music
as happy have
greater
intentions to
shop in stimulus
store than
subjects who
judge the
stimulus music
to be sad
H2:Shoppping
intentions will
be greater if
exposed to liked
music
H3:Music that is
both happy and
liked will be
associated with
the greatest
intentions to
shop in the
stimulus store
H1 accepted
H2 accepted
H3 accepted
9-Purchase
Occasion of Music
Mark I.
Alpert, Judy
The use of
variations in
Major and minor
modes of music
Surveys
Seven-point
Consumer
Behaviour
H1: Music
whose structural
H1 accepted
H2 rejected yet
70
in the Role of
Advertising
I. Alpert,
Elliot N. Maltz
(2003)
formal music
structure of
background
music in
commercials
which may
have a
significant
influence over
the emotional
response of
the consumer
Emotional state
of the person at
question
bipolar scales profile is happy
influences
listener moods
to become more
positive than if
exposed to sad
music
H2:when
evoked mood is
congruent with
the mood of the
purchase
occasion, buying
intention is
higher than
when the buyer
and occasion
moods are
inconsistent
tentative
10- The Influence
of Music Tempo and
Musical Preference
in Restaurant
Patrons’ Behaviour
Clare
Caldwell,
Sally A.
Hibbert
(2002)
The effects of
music on
consumer
behaviour in
the casual
dining
experience
Tempo
Musical
Preference
Money spent
Time spent
Dining
experience
Self-
completed
questionnaires
Consumer
behaviour
H1:Music tempo
will affect actual
time spent in
the restaurant
such that
individuals
dining under the
slower tempo
condition will
spend more
time in the
restaurant than
those exposed
to fast tempo
music
H2: Musical
preference will
H1 accepted
H2 accepted
H3 rejected
H4 rejected
H5 rejected
H6 rejected
H7 accepted
H8 accepted
H9 rejected
H10 rejected
H11 accepted
H12rejected
71
be positively
associated with
time spent in
the restaurant
H3:There is an
interactive
effect of music
tempo and
preference on
actual time
spent in the
restaurant
H4:slow tempo
music will lead
to
underestimating
the time spent
vs. faster tempo
will
overestimate
H5: people who
like the music
being played will
underestimate
time spent
H6: the
interaction of
music tempo
and preference
on time
perceptions
H7:slow tempo
conditions will
induce higher
spending than
fast tempo
72
condition
H8: Musical
preference will
have a positive
influence on
spending
H9: Music
Tempo and
preference will
have an
interactive
influence on the
amount of
money spent
H10:Music
tempo will have
a positive
influence on
individuals
evaluation of
the dining
experience
H11: Music
preference will
have a positive
effect on
individuals
evaluation of
their enjoyment
of dining
H12:music
tempo and
preference will
have an
interactive
effect on the
73
consumer
evaluation of
their dining
experience
11-Having the
Right taste for
Music
Adrian North,
Amber
Shilcock,
David
Hargreaves
(2002)
The effects of
musical styles
on consumer
spending in a
dining
experience
Pop
Classical
Silence
receipts
none Consumer
behaviour
H1: different
styles of music
have different
effects on
consumer
behaviour
H1 Accepted
12- Effects of music
in service
environments: a
field study
J. Duncan
Herrington
(1996)
The effects of
background
music on
consumer
behaviour in a
supermarket
environment
Tempo
Volume
Musical
preferences
Size of
household
Mood state of
Gender
Time constraints
Factor
Analysis
Consumer
Behaviour
H1:Loud music
will reduce the
time shoppers
spend shopping
H2: The amount
of money spent
will be
unaffected by
loud music
H3:The tempo
of background
music will affect
the total
shopping time
of shoppers
H4:The tempo
of background
music will affect
the amount of
money spent by
shoppers
H5:Preference
for background
music will affect
shoppers length
of stay
H1 rejected
H2 accepted
H3 rejected
H4 rejected
H5 accepted
H6 accepted
74
H6: Preference
for background
music will affect
the amount of
money shoppers
spend in the
service
environment
13-The experience
of time as a
function of musical
loudness and
Gender of Listener
James J.
Kellaris,
Moses B.
Altsech
(1992)
The influence
of music and
gender on the
experience of
time
Loudness
volumes
Perceived
service duration
LAB
Duration
estimate item
and
perceived
pace scale
Consumer
Behaviour
and
Perceptions
H1. Louder
music will be
perceived as
longer in
duration
H2: The effect
of music
loudness on
time perception
will be more
positive for
female listeners
H3: The
loudness of
music will have
a positive effect
on perceived
pace
H4: the effect of
music loudness
on perceived
space will be
more positive
for females
H1 accepted
H2 accepted
H3 accepted
H4 rejected
14-The influence of
background music
on the behaviour of
restaurant patrons
Ronald E.
Milliman
(1986)
Music tempo
variations can
greatly affect
consumers
Slow and fast
music
Time
perception:
Replicated
randomized
block
experimental
Consumer
Behaviour
Tempo of music
will have a
significant effect
on consumer
Slow music
influenced
diners to spend
more time at
75
purchasing
intentions,
length of stay
and other
variables
examined
Waiting time
Length of stay
Actual waiting
and dining time
design
Observers
behaviour in a
dining venue
venue
Waiting time is
greatly reduced
when fast
tempo music is
played
Bar receipts
increased with
the
incorporation of
slow tempo of
music
Slow
music>patrons
stayed longer,
ate the same
amount of food
but consumed
more beverages
15-Exploring
managers implicit
theories of
atmospheric music
Charles S.
Areni
(2003)
Interviews of
a total of 90
hotel, rest
and pub
managers
explaining
their
experience
and theories
of
incorporating
music
Different
manager types
perception of on
the use of music
Survey
Interviews
Managerial
perception
NA Hotel managers
have a more
sophisticated
theory of music
than pub and
rest. managers
16-A model of
consumer response
to advertising
music
Geoffrey P.
Lantos,
Lincoln G.
Craton
(2012)
A model of
consumer
response to
music in
broadcast
Listening
situations
Musical stimuli
Listener
characteristics
Thorough
literature
review
Consumer
behaviour
NA A model of
consumer
response
sufficiently
robust to
76
commercials Attitude towards
the brand
Purchase
intention
Brand choice
Cognitive
Affective
provide food for
thought
amongst
practitioners
17-Environmental
background music
and in store selling
(labelled as 1999)
Jean-Charles
Chebat,
Claire Gelinas
Chebat,
Dominique
Vaillant
(2001)
Measuring the
use of music
via a
proposed
model which
focuses on
cognitive
responses
rather than
emotional
Cognitive
activity
Attitudes
Music familiarity
Music fit
Music arousal
Music induced
dominance
Music induced
pleasure
Ecological
validity
Control
groups
Consumer
behaviour
H1: The
relationship
between music
tempo-induced
arousal and
cognitive
activity is
significantly
stronger when
arguments are
rather than
strong
H1.2: The
relationship
between music
tempo-induced
arousal and
cognitive
activity is
significantly
stronger when
the involvement
is low rather
than high
H2:The effects
of music tempo
on cognitive
activity are
strongest under
H1 accepted
H1.2 Rejected
H2 accepted
H3 accepted
77
soothing music
than under no-
vs-moderate
tempo-vs- fast
tempo
H3: Under
soothing
music(slow
tempo), the
effects of
cognitive
activity on the
attitudes are
stronger than
under no music
conditions
18-The influence of
background music
on shopping
behaviour; classical
versus top 40
Charles S.
Areni, David
Kim
(1993)
A study
conducted in
a wine cellar
according to
consumer
choices vs the
music played
at the current
moment
Ind.
Var.:Classical vs
Top 40
Dep
Var.:Information
search
Purchase
behaviour
Consumption
behaviour
Additional
Measures
Field
environment
Receipts and
observations
Consumer
behaviour
exploratory More expensive
merchandise is
purchased
under classical
music conditions
19-The influence on
consumer’s
temporal
perceptions: does
time fly when you
are having fun?
James J.
Kellaris,
Robert J.
Kent
(1992)
The perceived
duration of a
time period
may be
influenced by
properties of
the
environmental
Music: major,
minor, atonal
Controlled
environment
of 150 upper
level business
students
Consumer
Behaviour
Music in
H1 Major
H2 Minor
H3 Atonal
Modes will
decrease time
perceptions
Music pitched in
minor keys
produced
significantly
shorter average
time
perceptions
78
stimuli
20-How does verbal
non-diagnostic
information affect
product evaluation?
Heribert
Gierl, Verena
Huettl
(2012)
The study of
the interaction
effect of the
dilution effect
and the
connotation
transfer effect
on product
evaluation
NA NA Consumer
Behaviour
NA NA
21-In-store music
and consumer
brand relationships
Michael
Beverland,
Elison Ai
ChingLim,
Michael
Morrison,
Mile
Terziovski
(2006)
The role of in-
store music-
brand „fit‟ in
reinforcing
brand position
using in-depth
interviews
Questioning
respondents on
their opinions
and
understanding
various
characteristics
Background
interviews,
observational
research, in-
depth
interviews
Consumer
perceptions
exploratory Conceptual
model
Music plays a
central role in
integrating
other
atmospheric
variables
22-Influence of
audio effects on
consumption
emotion and
temporal
perception
Dr. Chien-
Huang Lin,
Shih-Chia Wu
(2006)
Audio effects
in all aspects
on consumers
shopping
behaviour
Pretesting of
music,
Virtual retail
store experience
Music
familiarity
Consumer
behaviour
H1: Music
familiarity will
not cause
variation in
consumption
emotion
H2: Variation in
time perception
is affected by
the change of
music familiarity
not by
consumption
emotion
H3:Radio
broadcasting
will not cause
-Lower music
volume induced
positive
emotions as
compared to
louder volumes
-Low music
volume led to
shorter time
perceptions
-joyful music
elicits better
emotional
responses than
neutral/sad
music
79
the variation of
consumption
emotion
H4: Variation of
time perception
is affected by
radio
broadcasting
and not by
consumption
emotion
23-The interactive
effect of music
tempo and mode on
in-store selling
Klemens M.
Knoferle, Eric
R.
Spangenberg,
Andreas
Herrmann,
Jan R.
Landwehr
(2012)
A field
experiment
wherein the
positive main
effect of slow
tempo and
musical mode
on actual
retail sales is
discussed
Tempo of music
Modality of
music
Field
experiment
Consumer
behaviour
Exploratory
Minor vs major
Slow vs fast
Minor music in
slow tempo are
most effective
24- Listen to the
music: its impact
on affect, perceived
time passage and
applause
Brian
Wansink,
(1992)
Relation of
interesting
findings to
how one
responds to
musical
stimulus
Wendt Model Literature
review
Musical
complexity
in
information
absorption
Music in minor
modes is
regarded as less
common and
hence requires
more retrieval
of information
NA
25-Does
atmospheric music
expand or contract
perceived time?
Nicole Bailey,
Charles S.
Areni
(2006)
The use of
familiar
opposed to
unfamiliar
music on
consumers
time
perceptions
Familiar Music
Unfamiliar music
Laboratory
setting
Interviews
Surveys
Consumer
Behaviour
H1: The
estimated
duration of an
interval is
shorter for
individuals
engaged in a
non-temporal
H1 accepted
H2 accepted
H3 rejected
H4 tentative
H5 tentative
H6 accepted
H7 accepted
H8 tentative
80
task during the
interval
compared to
individuals
waiting for an
upcoming event
H2: For
individuals
waiting for an
upcoming event
during an
interval time,
estimated
duration is
shorter when
familiar as
opposed to
unfamiliar
atmospheric
music is played
H3:For
individuals
engaged in a
non-temporal
task during an
interval of time,
estimated
duration is
longer when
familiar as
opposed to
unfamiliar music
H4: For
individuals
engaged in a
non-temporal
H9 tentative
H10 tentative
81
task during an
interval,
estimated
duration is
longer when
many rather
than few
familiar songs
are played
during the
interval
H5: For
individuals
engaged in a
non-temporal
task during an
interval, song
number has
little or no
influence on
perceived
duration when
familiar music is
played.
H6: The
subjective
experience of an
interval is
shorter for
individuals
engaged in a
non-temporal
task during the
interval
compared to
individuals
82
waiting for an
upcoming event
H7:For
individuals
waiting for an
upcoming event
during an
interval time,
the subjective
experience of
the interval is
shorter when
familiar as
opposed to
unfamiliar
atmospheric
music is played
H8: For
individuals
engaged in a
non-temporal
task during an
interval of time,
the music
elements
remembered as
having occurred
during the
interval is larger
when familiar as
opposed to
unfamiliar music
is played
26- Music influence
on Mood and
Purchase
Judy I.
Alpert, Mark
I. Alpert
Examing the
relationship
between
Happy, sad and
no music
Laboratory
study
Looking and
Consumer
behaviour
H1: All else
equal, music
whose structural
Sad music had
significantly
higher purchase
83
Intentions (1990) music and
consumers
moods ,
attitudes and
behaviours
marking
experience of
greeting cards
while listening
to the various
proposed
musical
compositions
profile is happy
will influence
listener moods
to become more
positive than
music analysed
prior as sad
H2:Variations in
musical
structure may
not necessarily
influence
perceptions of
happiness,
sadness of the
greeting cards
H3: Variations
in musical
structure may
not necessarily
influence overall
attitude towards
the greeting
cards
H4: Variations
in musical
structure will
influence
behavioural
intentions
towards the
greeting cards
intentions than
happy music or
no music
27-Background
music pleasure and
store evaluation
Intensity effects
Laurette
Dubé, Sylvie
Morin
(1999)
A field study
where the
effects of
music on
Slow
background
music, no music
Field study Consumer
Behaviour
H1: the
background
music pleasure
intensity will
H1 rejected
H2 accepted
H3 rejected
H4 accepted
84
and psychological
mechanisms
different
pleasure
intensity on
store
evaluation is
examined
influence
directly and
positively the
store evaluation
H2:The
background
pleasure
intensity will
indirectly and
positively
influence the in
store evaluation
via the attitude
towards the
servicesacpe
H2a: the
background
music pleasure
intensity will
directly and
positively
influence the
attitude towards
the servicescape
H2b: The
attitude towards
the servicescape
will directly and
positively
influence the
store evaluation
H3 The
background
music pleasure
intensity will
indirectly and
85
positively
influence the
store evaluation
via the attitude
towards service
personal
H3a: The
background
music pleasure
intensity will
directly and
positively
influence the
attitude towards
the sales
personal
H3b: The
attitude towards
the sales
personnel will
directly and
positively
influence the
store evaluation
28-Music and
consumption: an
experience review
Rajnish Jain,
Shilpa
Bagdare
(2010)
Exploring the
relationship
between
consumer
behaviour and
musical
variables in
the context of
retail
Literature
review
NA NA NA Refer to table
titled
accumulated
findings
29-practical
applications of
music in service
J. Duncan
Herrington,
Louis M.
A discussion
of the various
musical
Literature
review
NA NA NA -Music and store
selection:
Image
86
settings Capella
(1994)
characteristics
of music that
potentially
evoke certain
desirable
consumer
behaviours,
thus resulting
in some
practical
implications
reinforcement,
product
credibility
-Music and
shopping
experience:
Appropriately
fitted music will
fulfil customers
shopping
intentions/needs
30-Reviewing
congruency effects
in the service
environment
musicscape
Steve Oakes,
Adrian C.
North
(2007)
A literature
review which
highlights
significant
findings from
empirical
research
Literature
review
NA NA NA Please refer to
table titled
„Congruency
Table‟
31-Service scape
and loyalty
intentions: an
empirical
investigation
Lloyd C.
Harris, Chris
Ezeh
(2007)
This paper
seeks better
to
conceptualize,
operationalize
and test a
multi-
dimensional
and more
social view of
servicescape
and the direct
and
moderated
linkages with
loyalty
intentions
Literature
review
Music
Aroma
Décor
Service staff
Item scale
gauging?
Consumer
behaviour
H1: The greater
customer
perception of
music
appropriateness,
the greater the
intention of
customers to be
loyal
H1: rejected
87
32-A meta-analytic
review of the
effects of
background music
in retail settings
Francine V.
Garlin,
Katherine
Owen
(2006)
A study of
music on
consumer
behaviour in
retailers
148 samples
from 32 studies
Meta-analysis Consumer
behaviour
NA Familiarity/liking
has a positive
effect on
patronage
The mere
presence of
music has a
positive effect
on patronage as
well as pleasure
Slower tempo,
lower volume
and familiar
music results in
subjects staying
marginally
longer at a
venue
A higher tempo
and volume and
the more less
liked music, the
longer
customers
perceive time
duration
Tempo has the
greatest effect
on arousal
33- Some
exploratory
findings on musical
taste
Morris B
Holdbrook,
Robert M.
Schindler
(1989)
Popular music
tastes seem
to be acquired
during late
adolescence
or early
adulthood.
30 second
excerpts of 28
musical stimuli
Empirical
investigation
Correlation
Approach
Survey(10
point scale)
Consumer
musical
tastes
NA Popular music
which was liked
during the age
of 23.5 remains
a stronger
preference over
other music
88
This paper
analysis this
proposition
34-The influence of
store environment
on quality
inferences and
store image
Julie Baker,
Dhruv Grewal
A.
Parasuraman
(1994)
This study
examines how
combinations
of specific
elements in
the retail
store
environment
influence
consumers
inferences
about
merchandise
and service
quality
Classical music
Top 40
Western
Oldies
Jazz
Questionnaire Consumer
behaviour
H1 Consumers
will infer higher
merchandise
quality in a
prestige-image
ambient
environment
H2 Consumers
will infer higher
service quality
in a prestige-
image ambient
environment
than in a
discount-image
ambient
environment
H1 & H2
supported
35-Effects of
background music
on consumer
behaviour
Diogo Conque
Seco
Ferreira,
Jorge Mendes
Oliveira-
Castro
(2011)
This paper
examines the
effects of
music on
consumer
behaviour in a
mall
Brazilian Popular
music
Observation
and
Questionnaire
Consumer
Behaviour
NA
Exploratory
Reports of
pleasure were
higher with
music than
without(
although
negligible)
36-The role of
aesthetic taste in
consumers
Wayne D.
Hoyer, Nicola
E.
Stokburger-
Sauer
(2012)
Review of the
literature of a
variety of
fields in order
to develop a
conceptual
framework
A literature
review of a very
broad spectrum
of research
about consumer
taste
Literature
Review
Consumer
Tastes
NA NA
37- The role of Jochen Wirtz, This paper High, moderate 3x2 valence Consumer H1: In pleasant H1 accepted
89
arousal congruency
in influencing
consumers’
satisfaction
evaluations and in-
store behaviours
Anna S.
Mattila,
Rachel L.P.
Tan
(2007)
aims to
investigate
the matching
effects
between
arousal-level
and perceived
stimulation on
satisfaction
and in store
behaviour.
and low levelled
arousal video
clips
£(music tempo
and volume,
pleasurable
environment
etc.)
factorial
design in a
music store
and book
store (field
study?)
Questionnaire
Six item
semantic
differential
scale
Behaviour environments,
satisfaction will
be maximized at
the point of
arousal
congruency.
Over or under
stimulation will
result in
reduced
satisfaction
H2: Arousal
congruency will
be a more
important
predictor of
satisfaction in
pleasant than in
unpleasant
environments.
Specifically,
satisfaction in
the latter will be
uniformly low as
it is mostly
driven by the
valence of the
environment
rather than by
arousal
congruency
H3. In pleasant
environments,
in store
approach
behaviours will
H2 accepted
H3 accepted
H4 accepted
H5 accepted
90
be maximized at
the point of
arousal-
congruency
H4: In pleasant
environments,
under-
stimulation will
lead to higher
levels of in-store
approach
behaviours than
over-stimulation
H5: In
unpleasant
environments,
in-store
approach
behaviours will
uniformly low as
such behaviours
are mostly
driven by the
valence (i.e.
unpleasantness)
of the
environment
rather than by
arousal
congruency
38- The role of
pleasant music in
servicescapes: a
test of the dual
model of
environment
Sylvie Morin,
Laurette
Dubé, Jean-
charles
Chebat
(2007)
This article
explores the
psychological
processes by
which
background
Classical music ,
no music on
baseline videos
Participants
functioning in
small groups,
three item
seven point
scale
Consumer
Behaviour
H1: The
servicescape
and service
provider are
perceived
according to
H1 accepted
H2 accepted
H3 accepted
91
perceptions music in
servicescapes
influence
service
evaluation
and purchase
intention
ambient and
focal modes,
respectively,
and the former
has both direct
and provider-
mediated effects
on service
outcomes.
H2: The
presence of
music has a
moderating
effect on the
mediating role
played by the
service provider
for the impact of
the servicescape
on service
outcomes.
Specifically, the
power of the
provider to
influence service
out comes is
stronger in a
music-present
condition
H3: The effect
of music valence
on service
outcomes is
accounted for
by a double
mediation, such
92
that the effect
of music valence
on service
outcomes is
mediated by:
(a) the direct
effect of the
servicescape
and (b) the
provider-
mediated effect
of the
servicescape on
service
outcomes
39- The influence of
the musicscape
within the service
environments
Steve Oakes
(2000)
A literature
review of
relevant
empirical
research
examining the
effect of
background
music with
the context of
service
environments
is presented.
Literature
review
Music on
consumer
behaviour
under
various
segments
Areas of focus:
Music
Framework
Detailed focus
Individual
musical
variables
Managerial
applications
Musical Tempo
Supermarket
shopper study
Musical
examples
Major mode
more appealing
Musical volume
Decibal meter
settings
Time Period
Musical
NA
93
Preference
Single gender
target
advertising
Show musical
preference
Music and
consumer
expectations
Positively
valanced music
Music in
advertising
Behaviour
Primary
Research
Loud music
increases the
rate of spending
per minute
Classical music
induced
customers to
purchase more
expensive items
Fast music
causes fast
drinking
40-The effects of
music, wait-length
evaluation and
mood on a low-cost
wait experience
Michaelle Ann
Cameron,
Julie Baker,
Mark
Peterson,
Karin
Braunsberger
Waiting time
research has
implicitly
assumed
customers
incur high
waiting costs
Classical music
Tempo 90-120
bpm
Handwritten
questions
Consumer
Behaviour
H1: In a low-
cost wait, music
likeability is
negatively
related to wait-
length
evaluation
H1 accepted
H2 accepted
H3 accepted
H4 rejected
94
(2003) during service
delays. This
study
examines the
effect of
judgement on
music, wait-
length
evaluation
and customer
moods on
overall
experience
H2: In a low-
cost wait, music
likeability is
positively
related to
customer moods
H3: In a low-
cost, wait-
length
evaluation is
negatively
related to
evaluation of
the consumers
overall
experience
H4: In a low-
cost wait, mood
is positively
related to
evaluation of
the consumers
overall
experience
41- What really
brings them back?
The impact of
tangible quality on
affect intention for
casual dining
restaurant patrons
Clark Kincaid
and Seyhmus
Baloglu,
Zhenxing
Mao, James
Busser
(2010)
Evaluating the
usefulness of
Tangible
Quality
(TANGSERV)
by examining
the effect of
tangible
quality
constructs on
restaurant
patrons affect
Dimensions:
Ambience,
Social,
Accessibility,
Building,
Cleanliness
Two part
questionnaire,
7 point bipolar
scale
Consumer
behaviour
Exploratory Restaurants
should strive for
cultivating
positive feelings
for their brand
name by
manipulating
tangible
attributes
95
and
behavioural
intentions
42- Performing
music can induce
greater modulation
of emotion-related
psychophysiological
response than
listening to music
Hidehiro
Nakahara,
Shinichi
Furuya,
Tsutomu
Masuko,
Peter R.
Francis,
Hiroshi
Kinoshita
(2011)
This study
examines the
effect of
playing piano
vs. listing to
music on
heart rate
Performing a
composition and
listening to a
composition
Measuring
systems
determined by
machines to
calculate
perspiration,
Heart rate
etc.
Human
Biology and
music
Exploratory 2 findings:
1)emotion
induction during
perception of
the selected
piece of music
as well as
during
performance of
the same music
modulated
Heart rate and
indices
autonomic
nerve activity
2)such
modulations
were much
greater during
performance
than during
perception
43- Clinical Issues:
Music Therapy in an
Adult Cancer
Inpatient
Treatment Setting
Clare
O'Callaghan
PhD,
(2006)
The use of
music therapy
on cancer
patients
Patients
Psychological
and physical
health
Subjecting
patients under
different
musical
conditions
Music and
Medicine
Music will
improve moods
of patients
Accepted
44-Staff Attitudes
and Expectations
about Music
Therapy:
Paediatric Oncology
versus Neonatal
Annie
Bouhairie
BEng, Kathi
J. Kemper
MD, MPH,
Kathleen
Employee
perceptions
on the use of
music on
patients
Psychological
and physical
health
Staff attitudes Music and
Medicine
Music will induce
positive moods
and act as a
means of
relieving stress.
Accepted
96
Intensive Care Unit Martin BA,
Charles
Woods MD,
MPH
(2006)
45- Music in
Business
Environments
Adrien North,
David
Hargreaves
(2006)
A review on
music in the
various
segments of
business
Consumers and
Employees
within the
workplace
Consumer
behaviour,
moods,
purchase
intentions,
time
perceptions
Employee
mood, work
ethic
Consumer
behaviour
Literature
review
NA
46-The effects of
dining
atmospherics: An
extended
Mehrabian and
Russel model
Yinghua Liu
, SooCheong
(Shawn) Jang
(2009)
A review on
the Mehrablan
and Russel
Model on
consumers
perceptions of
value
Consumers
perceptions of
value
Emotions
Perceived
value
Behaviour
Consumer
behaviour
H1a.
Dining
atmospherics
has a positive
effect on
positive
emotions.
H1b.
Dining
atmospherics
has a negative
effect on
negative
emotions.
H2a.
Positive emotion
has a positive
effect on
behavioural
intentions.
H2b.
All Hypothesis
accepted
97
Negative
emotion has a
negative effect
on behavioural
intentions
H3.
Dining
atmospherics
has a positive
effect on
perceived value
H4.
Perceived value
has a positive
effect on
behavioural
intentions.
98
Appendix 5- Online sources for music Type Source Description
Online Directories Extensive directory of
music listening
resources
Review Sources “All Music”, “Billboard”
& “Barnes & Noble
Music” offer the most
accredited reviews on
music, artists, albums
etc.
Reference: All music
(www.allmusic.com)
Billboard
(www.billboard.com)
CD Hotlist
(http://cdhotlist.btol.com)
Retailers:
Barnes & Noble Music
(http://music.barnesandnoble.com)
Amazon
(www.amazon.com)
Periodical
Tools
Country
www.countryweekly.com
Specific information
and music regarding
different styles etc. Electronic
www.thewire.co.uk
Folk
www.dirtylinen.com
www.singout.org
Jazz
www.downbeat.com
http://jazztimes.com
Latin
www.descarga.com
Metal and Alternative Rock
www.altpress.com/reviews
Pop and Rock
www.rollingstone.com
Rap and Hip Hop
www.hiphopdx.com
Reggae
www.unitedreggae.com
Rock
www.nme.com
World
www.rootsworld.com
Staying
Current
Notes
www.musiclibraryassoc.org
Music libraries which
constantly update
themselves with the
latest in music
consumption
information.
Last.fm
www.last.fm
Music Library Association E-mail Listserv
www.musiclibraryassoc.org