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DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 415 257 TM 027 939
AUTHOR Smith, James; Sullivan, MontyTITLE The Effects of Chess Instruction on Students' Level of Field
Dependence/Independence.PUB DATE 1997-11-00NOTE 20p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South
Educational Research Association (26th, Memphis, TN,November 12-14, 1997).Reports Evaluative (142) Speeches/Meeting Papers (150)PUB TYPE
EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Black Students; *Change; Cognitive Psychology; Educational
Games; *Field Dependence Independence; *High SchoolStudents; High Schools; *Instructional Effectiveness;Mathematics Achievement; Problem Solving; Sex Differences;*Thinking Skills; *Visual Perception
IDENTIFIERS African Americans; *Chess; Group Embedded Figures Test;Louisiana
ABSTRACTA study was conducted to determine whether chess instruction
would change the measure of a student's field-dependence orfield-independence as determined by the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) inthe direction of stronger field independence. Field dependence/independenceis a psychological construct referring to a global versus an analytical wayof perceiving that entails the ability to perceive items without beinginfluenced by the background. This was done by comparing. the results ofpretest and posttest scores on the GEFT for 11 African-American high schoolstudents (four males, seven females) in a rural northern Louisiana school.These students had received approximately 50 hours of direct chessinstruction and playing experience. Chess instruction did have a significanteffect on GEFT scores for females, but not male, students. Whether this mighttransfer to improved mathematics achievement is beyond the scope of thisstudy, but it is a problem worth investigating. It is logical to surmise thatwhatever skill chess instruction enhanced for females may have already beenpresent for males. (Contains 6 figures and 15 references.) (SLD)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.
Mid South Educational Research Association1997 Annual Meeting
"The Effects of Chess Instruction on Students' Level ofField Dependence/ Independence"
PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE ANDDISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL
HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
700 e S 501I
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)
EDUCATIONU.S. DEPARTMENT OF and Improvementtfice of Educational Research
RESOURCES INFORMATIONEDUC TIONALCENTER (ERIC)
reproduced ashis document has been or organizationreceived from the personoriginating it.
been made toMinor changes havequality.improve reproduction
stated in thisPoints of view or opinions
necessarily representdocument do notpolicy.official OERI position or
By
James Smith, Supervising Teacher
Grambling State University Laboratory School
and
Monty Sullivan, Director of Continuing Education
Louisiana State Universtiy at Eunice
November 13, 1997
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to determine if chess instruction would change the
measure of a student's field-dependence/independence as determined by the Group
Embedded Figures Test, in the direction of stronger field independence. This was done by
comparing the results of pre and post-test scores on the GEFT for a class of high school
Humanities students who had received approximately 50 hours of chess instruction and
playing experience.
Design
The project began on January 29, 1997 when 11 Humanities students were
administered the Group Embedded Figures Test. Directions for administrating the test
were followed exactly as prescribed in the Group Embedded Figures Test Manual by
Witkin, Oilman, Raskin, and Karp (1971). The students then received approximately 50
hours of chess instruction over the following two months and then were tested again. The
minimum recommended time between test administrations is 60 days.
Subjects
The subjects in this study were 11 high school students enrolled in a Humanities class
in a high school located in rural northern Louisiana. All 11 students are African-
American, aged 16 and 17 years. Four are male and seven are female .
Discussion
As doors of opportunity are opening for minority and female students which were not
previously available, many of these students are encountering extreme difficulty in
succeeding in science or mathematics intensive fields, despite having strong over-all
academic records. It is possible that this lack of success can be linked to a phenomenon
known as Field Dependence/Independence.
Field Dependence/Independence is a psychological construct related to a "global
versus an analytical way of perceiving, and entails the ability to perceive items without
being influenced by the background" (Chinien & Boutin, 1993). This was first researched
during World War II when Herman Witkin discovered that some fighter pilots could
maintain their orientation while traveling long distances through clouds or fog while
others could not. The Group Embedded Figures Test was developed to determine an
individual's FD/I with a high degree ofreliability: r = 0.82 for males and r = 0.63
for females (Chinien and Boutin, 1993).
Research indicates that relatively Field Dependent individuals are drawn to people,
tend to be alert to social cues, and generally have highly developed interpersonal skills.
They like to work in groups and demonstrate a preference for academic subjects and
occupations that are people centered. Field Dependent individuals have a global
perception and need more time to solve problems. They use "external referents for self
definition" (Chinien and Boutin, 1993).
Field Independent individuals are more impersonal, less alert to social cues, and have
less developed interpersonal skills. They tend to be "aloof, theoretical and not sensitive to
other around them. They are not sensitive to social criticisms and are not easily
influenced by others. They are abstract-analytical in orientation and therefore tend to
learn abstract content better. They are known for solving problems rapidly (Chinien and
Boutin, 1993).
Research indicates that certain professions by their nature are more accessible to
individuals with one or the other of these predispositions (Eubank and Sparks, 1993). For
example, mathematics, medicine, engineering, and the physical sciences attract
individuals with Field Independent characteristics because the nature of the skills needed
in these academic areas correspond to their strength. Field Dependent individuals'
strengths lead them to career choices such as education, law, counseling, or other
occupations that rely on communication skills.
Research also indicates that Field Dependence is highest among minorities and
females. In some studies this has been shown to be ac high as 40% (Ley, 1996). Lower
socioeconomic status is also believed to be a contributing factor, but the degree to which
it influences Field Dependence has not been determined. There is also a great deal of
concern about the use of computer aided instruction with Field Dependent individuals
because such factors as the color and pattern of the background have been shown to have
very strong effects on the learners by Chinien and Boutin (1993), Descy (1990), and
Dwyer and Moore (1992).
Chess instruction may prove to a valuable vehicle in enabling students to tap into more
Field Independent behaviors when these behaviors are needed to perform particular
academic tasks. Some research indicates that chess instruction has improved math
performance among middle school students (Christiaen and Verholfstadt, 1981) and that
it has also improved over-all I.Q. scores (Van Zyl, 1991).
Because research concludes that chess expertise in children in heavily dependent upon
spatial ability (Horgan and Morgan, 1990; Harston and Wason, 1983) and chess expertise
among adults is dependent upon logical thinking ability (DeGroot, 1978), high school
students may be the ideal age to select for this type of study because these subjects are in
all likelihood making a transition from reliance on spatial ability to solve problems to
reliance on logical thinking ability.
Methodology
The students received direct chess instruction from a certified teacher. This teacher is
certified to teach Physics, Chemistry, Biology, General Science, Physical Science, and
Mathematics by the state of Louisiana. The instructor has also been an active chess player
for over twenty years and holds a United States Chess Federation rating of 1635.
Textbooks for the class included: Chess Rules for Students, Bain (1994); Chess
Tactics for Students, Bain (1993); Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess, Fischer, Marguilles, and
Mosenfelder, (1966); Chess in the Classroom, Katz (1992); and Comprehensive Chess
Course Volumes I and II, Pelts and Alburt (1992). Instruction consisted of workbook
assignments, limited lecture, and practical application of what the students learned by
competing against each other in classroom tournaments.
Methodology
The students received direct chess instruction from a certified teacher. This teacher is
certified to teach Physics, Chemistry, Biology, General Science, Physical Science, and
Mathematics by the state of Louisiana. The instructor has also beenan active chess player for
over twenty years and holds a United States Chess Federation rating of 1635.
Textbooks for the class included: Chess Rules for Students, Bain (1994); Chess Tactics
for Students, Bain (1993); Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess, Fischer, Marguilles, and Mosenfelder,
(1966); and Comprehensive Chess Course Volumes I and 1I, Pelts and Alburt (1992). Instruction
consisted of workbook assignments, limited lecture, and practical application of what the
students learned from the lessons by competing against each other in classroom tournaments. In
addition to competing against each other, the students participated in a tournament with another
high school.
Results
The null hypothesis of this study was that there is no significant difference between the
mean score of the Group Embedded Figures Test administered before chess instruction compared
to the mean score after receiving chess instruction. The mean score for the whole group on the
pre-test was 6.82 and the post-test mean was 9.09. The calculated t-value was 2.8. The t-table
value for significance at the 0.05 level was 2.238. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected.
Chess instruction did have a significant influence on the GEFT scores.
The calculated t-value for the group ofseven female students was 2.6. The t-table value
for significance at the 0.05 level was 2.447. Again the null hypothesis was rejected,
demonstrating that chess instruction had a significant impact on the GEFT scores for the sub-
group of female students. There was however, no significant difference in the mean scores of the
four male students participating in the study.
Conclusions
The study of chess does have a significant effect on student scores on the Group
Embedded Figures Test. Whether or not this translates to greater mathematics achievement as
reported by Christiaen, or Van Zyl, is beyond the scope of this study. However, because it is
documented that students scoring higher on the GEFT generally score higher on mathematics
achievement tests, the investigation is worth pursuing as a future area of study.
The fact that chess instruction had a significant effect on female students, but not male
students is also extremely interesting. It seems logical to surmise that whatever skill is enhanced
by chess instruction among females, may have already been present among the male participants.
His
tory
of
Fiel
d D
epen
denc
e/In
depe
nden
ce (
FD/I
) C
onst
ruct
The
wor
k of
Witk
in e
t al.
is c
redi
ted
with
the
grea
test
cont
ribu
tions
to th
e FD
A c
onst
ruct
.
The
con
stru
ct w
as f
irst
dis
cove
red
duri
ng o
bser
vatio
ns o
ffi
ghte
r pi
lots
dur
ing
Wor
ld W
ar I
I.
Som
e pi
lots
wer
e fo
und
to h
ave
a gr
eate
r pe
rcep
tual
orie
ntat
ion
than
oth
er p
ilots
. Thi
s pr
ompt
ed a
ser
ies
ofex
peri
men
ts b
y W
itkin
and
his
team
of
reas
earc
hers
cent
erin
g on
the
visu
al f
ield
and
the
perc
eive
d gr
avita
tiona
lfa
ctor
s of
the
part
icip
ants
.
The
se p
erce
ptua
l exp
erim
ents
sho
wed
a d
istin
ct d
iffe
renc
ein
the
man
ner
that
the
subj
ects
per
ceiv
ed th
e w
orld
aro
und
them
.
The
con
cept
that
sub
ject
s us
ed e
ither
an
exte
rnea
l vis
ual
fiel
d or
an
inte
rnal
bod
y pe
rcep
tion
to d
eter
min
e up
righ
t led
to th
e de
sign
atio
ns "
fiel
d de
pend
ent"
to d
escr
ibe
a su
bjec
tth
at u
sed
an in
tern
al f
ram
e of
ref
eren
ce, a
nd th
e te
rms
wer
ein
tend
ed o
nly
to d
escr
ibe
the
pref
erre
d fr
ame
of r
efer
ence
inor
ient
atio
n.
The
rea
lizat
ion
that
sub
ject
s in
thes
e st
udie
s w
ere
bein
gre
quir
ed m
enta
lly to
rem
ove
(dis
embe
d) a
n ite
m f
rom
an
orga
nize
d co
mpl
ex f
ield
led
rese
arch
ers
to s
earc
h fo
r ot
her
cogn
itive
task
s th
at r
equi
red
sim
ilar
oper
atio
ns.
Fiel
d D
epen
denc
e/In
depe
nden
ceas
a C
ogni
tive
Styl
e
One
of
the
area
s m
ost h
eavi
ly r
esea
rche
d in
this
reg
ard
is th
atof
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
anal
ytic
al p
robl
em s
olvi
ng a
nd th
eFD
/I C
onst
ruct
.
By
taki
ng th
e el
emen
ts o
f a
prob
lem
out
of
the
cont
ext o
f th
eex
istin
g si
tuat
ion,
Fl s
ubje
cts
wer
e be
tter
able
to a
naly
zepr
oble
ms.
FD
wer
e le
ss c
apab
le o
f pe
rfor
min
g th
is ta
sk&
Goo
deno
ugh,
198
1).
Witk
in, M
oore
, Goo
deno
ugh,
and
Cox
(19
77)
also
fou
nd th
atFI
sub
ject
s w
ere
bette
r ab
le to
res
turc
ture
uno
rgan
ized
info
rmat
ion,
whi
le F
D s
ubje
cts
stru
ggle
d to
pro
cess
and
rest
ruct
ure
unor
gani
zed
info
rmat
ion.
Thi
s di
scov
ery
broa
dene
d th
e co
ncep
t fro
m a
per
cept
ual a
bilit
yto
incl
ude
cogn
itive
abi
lity.
Bec
ause
cog
nitiv
e st
yle
repr
esen
ts a
lear
ner's
pre
ferr
ed m
ode
of p
erce
ivin
g an
d pr
oces
sing
info
rmat
ion,
und
erst
andi
ng h
owit
func
tions
in th
e in
divi
dual
is o
f pa
ram
ount
impo
rtan
ce.
Vis
ual p
erce
ptio
n an
d pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng/ c
ritic
al th
inki
ng a
refa
ctor
s re
latin
g to
bot
h th
e FD
/I C
onst
ruct
and
che
ss p
layi
ngab
ility
.
Res
earc
h on
Che
ss I
nstr
uctio
n
Che
ss in
stru
ctio
n m
ay p
rove
to b
e a
valu
able
veh
icle
inen
ablin
g st
uden
ts to
tap
into
mor
e FI
beh
avio
rs w
hen
thes
eta
sks
are
need
for
aca
dem
ic ta
sks.
Som
e re
sear
cher
s ha
ve s
how
n th
e va
lue
of c
hess
inst
ruct
ion
asit
rela
tes
to im
prov
ing
mat
h pe
rfor
man
ce (
Chr
istia
en a
ndV
erho
lfst
adt,
1981
).O
ther
s ha
ve s
how
n ev
iden
ce o
f im
prov
ed o
ver-
all I
.Q. s
core
sas
a r
esul
t of
ches
s in
stru
ctio
n (V
anZ
yl, 1
991)
.
Res
earc
h ha
s co
nclu
sive
ly s
how
n th
at c
hess
exp
ertis
e in
child
ren
is h
eavi
ly d
epen
dent
upo
n sp
atia
l abi
lity
(Hor
gan
and
Mor
gan,
199
0; H
arst
on a
nd W
ason
, 198
3).
Che
ss e
xper
tise
amon
g ad
ults
is d
epen
dent
upo
n lo
gica
lth
inki
ng a
bilit
y (D
e G
root
, 197
8).
Hig
h sc
hool
stu
dent
s ar
e a
popu
latio
n th
at m
ay r
epre
sent
a
stag
e of
dev
elop
men
ttha
t for
ms
the
tran
sitio
n po
int f
or c
hess
play
ers
rely
ing
on lo
gica
l thi
nkin
g ra
ther
than
spa
tial a
bilit
y.T
his
criti
cal s
tage
of
tran
sitio
n m
ay b
e a
vita
l are
a fo
r co
gniti
vest
udy.
Che
ss in
stru
ctio
n m
ay b
e a
vehi
cle
for
impr
ovin
gst
uden
ts a
rsen
al o
f co
gniti
ve a
bilit
ies.
Females (n = 7)
Pre Post di (di - d)29 13 4 (4 - 3)2 = 1
1 4 3 (3 - 3)2 = 05 11 6 (6 - 3)2 = 910 13 3 (3 - 3)2 = 06 3 -3 (-3 - 3)2 = 362 4 2 (2 - 3)2 = 1
11 17 6 (6 - 3)2 = 9n = 7 21 .(di - d)2 = 56
d = di/n = 21/7 = 3
Sd = [Z(di - d)2/(n - 1)] 1/2 = [56/6] 1/2 = [9.33] 112 = 3.055
t = (d)(Sd)1(n)1/2 = (3)(3.055)-1(7)1/2 = 2.598 = 2.6
Calculated t-value = 2.6 Table Value (0.05 Level) = 2.447
Males (n = 4)
Pre Post di (di - d)218 18 0 (0 + 1)2 = 18 9 1 (1 + 1)2 = 04 7 3 (3 + 1)2 = 4
1 1 0 (0 + 1)2 = 14 E(di - d)2 = 6
d = di/n = 4/4 = 1
[6/311/2Sd = [E(di - d)2/(n - 1)11/2 21/2 = 1.414
t = (d)(Sd)-1(n)1/2 = (1)(1.414)1(4)12 = 2/1.414 = 1.414
Calculated t-value = 1.414 Table Value (0.05) = 3.182
Difference inGEFT Scores
10+ 3 0 0
9 3 0 0
8 10 0 0
7 4 0 1
6 3 0 0
5 5 1 0
4 3 2 0
3 5 1 0
2 4 1 0
1 5 5 0
0 2 2 0
GEFT TestDifference
Winning Probability ofplayer with higher score
8+ 99
5-7 89
2-4 75
0-1 50
References
Bain, J. A. (1994). Chess rules for students. Corvallis, OR: Learning Plus.
Bain, J. A. (1993). Chess tactics for students. Corvallis, OR: Learning Plus.
Chinien, C. A., & Boutin, F. (1993). Cognitive style FD/I: An important learner
characteristics for educational technologists. Journal of Educational Technology Systems,
21(4), 303-311.
Christiaen, J. L. (1976). Chess and cognitive development: An experimental
psychological study of youths at the end of the primary school period. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Gent National University, Gent, Belgium. (Translated by S.
Epstein).
DeGroot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague: Mouton.
Descy, D. (1990). Effects of color change of the ground of a visual on picture
recognition or field dependent/independent individuals. International Journal of
Instructional Media, 17(4), 283-291.
Dwyer, F. M., & Moore, D. M. (1992). Effect of color coding on visually and
verbally oriented tests with students of different field dependence levels. Journal of
Educational Technology, 20(4), 311-320.
Eubank, T. F., & Sparks, B. I. (1993). The relationship between hemispheric
preference and learning style. Optometric Education, 19(1), 22-25.
Fischer, B., Marguilies, S., & Mosennfelder, D. (1966). Bobby Fischer teaches
chess. Stamford, CT: Xerox Corporation.
Harston, L., & Watson, J. (1988). The psychology of chess. New York: Facts on
File.
Horgan, D., & Morgan, D. (1990). Chess expertise in children. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 4, 109-128.
Ley, K. (1996). Personal communication.
Pelts, R., & Alburt, L. (1992). Comprehensive Chess Course Volumes I & II.
New York, NY: Chess Information and Research Center.
Van Zyl, A. S. (1991). The significance of playing chess in improving a child's
intellectual actualization. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pretoria,
Pretoria, SA.
Witkin, H.A., Oltman, P. K., Raskin, E., & Karp, S. A. (1971). Group embedded
figures test manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.
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U.S. Department of Education(OERI)Office of Educational Research and Improvement
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