The Effectiveness of a A THESIS

The Effectiveness of a

Prosocial Skills/Anger Control Program

Involving Adolescents with Behaviour Problems

A THESIS

Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Master of Education

Faculty of Education

University of Regina

BY

Shelley Tamaki

November 1995

Copyright 1996: S. Tamaki

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

The Effectiveness of a Prosocial Skills/Anger Control Program

Involving Adolescents with Behaviour Problems

A THESISSubmitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Education

Faculty of Education University of Regina

BYShelley Tamaki November 1995

Copyright 1996: S. Tamaki


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UNIVERSITY OF REGINA

FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH

PERMISSION TO USE POSTGRADUATE THESES

TITLE OF THESIS: The Effectiveness of a Prosocial Skills/Anger Control Program Involving Adolescents with Behaviour Problems

NAME OF AUTHOR: Shelley Jo-Ann Tamaki

FACULTY: Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research

DEGREE: Master of Education

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree from the University of Regina, I agree that the Libraries of this University shall make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis work, or in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the Faculty in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying, publication or use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Regina in any scholarly use which may be made of my material in my thesis.

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PERMISSION TO USE POSTGRADUATE THESES

TITLE OF THESIS: The Effectiveness of a Pro social Skills/Anger Control Program Involving Adolescents with Behaviour Problems

NAME OF AUTHOR: Shelley Jo-Ann Tamaki

FACULTY: Faculty of G raduate Studies and Research

DEGREE: Master of Education

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree from the University of Regina, t agree that the Libraries of this University shall m ake il freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes m ay be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis work, or in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the Faculty in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying, publication or use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Regina in any scholarly use which m ay be m ade of my material in my thesis.

SIGNATURE:

DATE:

.JtyKVWt'




CERTIFICATION OF THESIS WORK

We, the undersigned, certify that Shelley Jo-Ann Tamaki, candidate for the Degree of Master of Education has presented a thesis on The Effectiveness of a Prosocial Skills/Anger Control Program Involving Adolescents with Behaviour Problem.:, that the thesis is acceptable in form and content, and that the student demonstrated a satisfactory knowledge of the field covered by the thesis in an oral examination held on January 25, 1996.

External Examiner:

Internal Examiners:

Dr. R. Pety cek, Faculty of Education

Dr. . Bessai, Supervisor

fr<

jet1/61 1



FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES A ND RESEARCH

CERTIFICATION OF THESIS WORK

We, the undersigned, certify that Shelley Jo-Ann Tamaki, cand idate for the Degree of Master of Education has presented a thesis on The Effectiveness of a Prosocial Skills/Anger Control Program Involving Adolescents with Behaviour P r o b le m that the thesis is accep tab le in form and content, and that the student demonstrated a satisfactory knowledge of the field covered by the thesis in an oral examination held on January 25, 1996.

External Examiner:

Internal Examiners:

Dr. R. Petfacek, Faculty of Education

Dr. F. Bessai, Supervisor


ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to assess the effects of a prosocial

skills/anger control group treatment program on social skills

and anger. Social skills studied included cooperation,

assertion, empathy, and self-control. Anger measures, composed

of anger experience including state anger and trait anger,

anger temperament and anger reaction, and anger expression

(including anger in and anger out and anger control) were

included. Teachers rated social skills including cooperation,

assertion, self-control, and externalizing and internalizing

problem behaviours, as well as academic competence in

adolescents with behaviour problems. The ten session treatment

program was based on a cognitive-behavioral skills deficit

approach from Goldstein's Anger Control program for

adolescents in Prepare Curriculum (Goldstein, 1988). Eighteen

adolescents with behaviour problems attending four segregated

classrooms in mainstream school settings participated in the

study. Both experimental and control group subjects completed

the Social Skills Rating System Student Form and the State-

Trait Anger Expression Inventory before and after treatment.

The teachers of the behaviour classrooms also completed the

Social Skills Rating System Teacher Form before and after

treatment. Students from the treatment program completed a

post-treatment questionnaire. All four teachers of the

i


ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to assess the effects of a prosocial skills/anger control group treatment program on social skills and anger. Social skills studied included cooperation, assertion, empathy, and self-control. Anger measures, composed of anger experience including state anger and trait anger, anger temperament and anger reaction, and anger expression (including anger in and anger out and anger control) were included. Teachers rated social skills including cooperation, assertion, self-control, and externalizing and internalizing problem behaviours, as well as academic competence in adolescents with behaviour problems. The ten session treatment program was based on a cognitive-behavioral skills deficit approach from Goldstein's ftnoer Control program for adolescents in Prepare Curriculum (Goldstein, 1988). Eighteen adolescents with behaviour problems attending four segregated classrooms in mainstream school settings participated in the study. Both experimental and control group subjects completed the Social Skills Rating System Student Form and the State- Trait Anger Expression Inventory before and after treatment. The teachers of the behaviour classrooms also completed the Social Skills Rating System Teacher Form before and after treatment. Students from the treatment program completed a post-treatment questionnaire. All four teachers of the

i


classrooms used in the study were interviewed for additional

information. No significant differences between the

experimental and control groups were found on the mean scores

of the tests. Data from student questionnaires and teacher

interviews suggest desirable changes in student behaviour and

program value. Teachers thought that the program should be

longer and more intensive. They thought that the concepts were

understood but more time was needed for practice and they

believed that students might well benefit from the program.

Most of the students reported that they enjoyed and benefited

from participating in the program and were able to give

examples of what they -med. Most saw themselves as having

improved in the way they responded to their anger at home, at

school and elsewhere.

ii


classrooms used in the study were interviewed for additional information. No significant differences between the experimental and control groups were found on the mean scores of the tests. Data from student questionnaires and teacher interviews suggest desirable changes in student behaviour and program value. Teachers thought that the program should be longer and more intensive. They thought that the concepts were understood but more time was needed for practice and they believed that students might well benefit from the program. Most of the students reported that they enjoyed and benefited from participating in the program and were able to give examples of what they 1<_. rned. Most saw themselves as having improved in the way they responded to their anger at home, at school and elsewhere.

ii


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to acknowledge the cooperation of the

students, teachers, and guardians who participated in the

study and thank the parents and students for granting

permission. Special thanks are extended to my advisor Dr. Fred

Bessai and the advisory committee members Dr. Peter Hemingway,

Dr. Joseph Neufeld, and Dr. Harold Miller. Special thanks are

also extended to Dr. Peter Hemingway for his assistance with

the analysis of data and his many insights provided.

iii


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe author wishes to acknowledge the cooperation of the

students, teachers, and guardians who participated in the study and thank the parents and students for granting permission. Special thanks are extended to my advisor Dr. Fred Bessai and the advisory committee members Dr. Peter Hemingway, Dr. Joseph Neufeld, and Dr. Harold Miller. Special thanks are also extended to Dr. Peter Hemingway for his assistance with the analysis of data and his many insights provided.

iii


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 1

Introduction 1

Anger Theories and Definitions 2

Anger Expression Development 3

Adolescence: A developmental Process 7

Students with Behaviour Problems 8

Nature of Anger 9

Expression of Anger 10

Need for the study 12

Statement of the Problem 14

Definition of Terms 16

Assumptions of the Study 18

Limitations of the Study 18

Delimitations of the Study 19

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 20

Introduction 20

Adolescent's Behaviour Problems and Anger 20

iv


TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageABSTRACT .............................................. iACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................... iiiTABLE OF CONTENTS........................................vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM..... 1Introduction.......................................... 1Anger Theories and Definitions........................ 2Anger Expression Development ......................... 3Adolescence: A developmental Process ................. 7Students with Behaviour Problems ..................... 8Nature of Anger ...................................... 9Expression of Anger ...................................10Need for the study.....................................12Statement of the Problem...............................14Definition of Terms.................................... 16Assumptions of the Study...............................18Limitations of the Study...............................18Delimitations of the Study.............................19

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.......................20Introduction........................................... 20Adolescent's Behaviour Problems and Anger..............20

iv


Adolescents with Behaviour Problems and Anger Interventions 22

CHAPTER 3: METHOD AND PROCEDURE 32

Introduction 32

The Subjects 32

Pilot Study 35

The Treatment ....36

Content of Sessions 41

Format and Procedures for Conducting the Study 43

Instruments for Data Collection 44

Other Evaluation Methods 47

Statistical Analysis 48

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 50

Statistical Analysis of the Research Data 50

Analysis of Data: Secondary Questions Results 59

Student Questionnaire 59 Teacher Ratings and Interviews 60 Six Months Follow—Up with Two Students 61

Summary of Results 61

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 63

Discussion and Conclusions 63 Instrument Suitability 65 Uncontrolled Variables 66

Recommendations for Further Research 69

v


Adolescents with Behaviour Problems andAnger Interventions................................... 22

CHAPTER 3: METHOD AND PROCEDURE.......................... 32Introduction...........................................32The Subjects...........................................32Pilot Study............................................35The Treatment................................ .... 36Content of Sessions....................................41Format and Procedures for Conducting the Study........ 43Instruments for Data Collection....................... 44Other Evaluation Methods............... 47Statistical Analysis...................................48

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS........................................50

Statistical Analysis of the Research Data............. 50Analysis of Data: Secondary Questions Results......... 59

Student Questionnaire............................ 59Teacher Ratings and Interviews................... 60Six Months Follow-Up with Two Students ........... 61

Summary of Results.....................................61

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS,AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................ 63

Discussion and Conclusions.............................63Instrument Suitability........................... 65Uncontrolled Variables .......................... 66

Recommendations for Further Research.................. 69

v


REFERENCES 70

APPENDICES 79

A. Homework Report Example 79

B. Homework Form for Anger Control 81

C. Student Program Evaluation 83

D. Summary of Responses to the Student Evaluation

Treatment Program Questionnaire 85

E. Experimental and Control Group Pretest and Posttest

Differences For Social Skills from the Social Skills

Rating System Teacher Rating Forms (SSRSt) 90

F. Teacher Rating Comparisons of Pretest and

Posttest Scores for Problem Behaviours and

Academic Competence and Experimental and Control Group

Comparisons from the Social Skills Rating System

Teacher Rating Forms (SSRSt) 93

G. Interviews with Behaviour Classroom Teachers Experimental and Control Groups 96

Themes Regarding Students 96

Themes Regarding Teachers 99

Views on Teaching Anger Management and Social Skills 99

Teachers' Views on the Program Implemented 100

H. Treatment Group Missed Sessions 101

I. University of Regina Ethics Committee

Approval 103

vi


REFERENCES................................................70APPENDICES................................................79

A. Homework Report Example .................... 79B. Homework Form for Anger Control ............... 81C. Student Program Evaluation ..................... 83D. Summary of Responses to the Student Evaluation

Treatment Program Questionnaire ................ 85E. Experimental and Control Group Pretest and Posttest

Differences For Social Skills from the Social Skills Rating System Teacher Rating Forms (SSRSt)...... 90

F. Teacher Rating Comparisons of Pretest and Posttest Scores for Problem Behaviours and Academic Competence and Experimental and Control Group Comparisons from the Social Skills Rating System Teacher Rating Forms (SSRSt).................... 93

G. Interviews with Behaviour Classroom TeachersExperimental and Control Groups................ 96

Themes Regarding Students................... 96Themes Regarding Teachers................... 99Views on Teaching Anger Management and Social Skills...................................... 99Teachers' Views on the Program Implemented...100

H. Treatment Group Missed Sessions................. 101I. University of Regina Ethics Committee

Approval......................................... 103

vi


LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Demographic Data for Subjects 36

Table 2 Tests of Significance of Differences in Social Skills in the Experimental and Control Groups 51

Table 3 Experimental and Control Pretest and Posttest Comparisons of Social Skills Subscales of the Social Skills Rating System Student Form (SSRSs) 53

Table 4 Statistical Comparisons between Experimental and Control Groups in State, Trait and Anger Expression 55

Table 5 Subtest Comparisons: Pre and Post Test Comparisons and Between Experimental and Control Group State—Trait Anger Expression Scale 57

vii


LIST OF TABLESTable 1 Demographic Data for Subjects.................... 36Table 2 Tests of Significance of Differences in Social Skills

in the Experimental and Control Groups.......... 51Table 3 Experimental and Control Pretest and Posttest

Comparisons of Social Skills Subscales of the Social Skills Rating System Student Form (SSRSs)..........................................53

Table 4 Statistical Comparisons between Experimental and Control Groupsin State, Trait and Anger Expression............ 55

Table 5 Subtest Comparisons: Pre and Post Test Comparisons and Between Experimental and Control Group State-Trait Anger Expression Scale............. 57

vii


CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Introduction

Today, schools in Canada share the responsibility of

helping adolescents develop socially, psychologically, and

academically. There is increasing pressure for schools to

react and respond to these needs. Many teachers believe hat

they spend more time dealing with disruptions and conflict in

the classrooms than they do on teaching. Many teachers also

believe that the time spent in trying to deal with these

behaviours would be better spent on preventing problems.

Teaching individuals how to prevent conflicts and how to

respond to their anger effectively would increase adolescents'

chances of becoming more socially accepted and more accepting

of themselves. Adolescents with behaviour problems account

for many behaviours typically included in three basic

categories. These categories include aggression (acts of

anger), withdrawal, and immaturity.

The aggression classification includes fighting,

profanity, disruptiveness, irritability,

defiance of authority, low levels of guilt

high levels of attention-seeking behaviours.

are usually inappropriate acts of anger.

quarrelsomeness,

and empathy, and

These behaviours

In general, this

pattern of behaviour is active antisocial aggressiveness that

results in conflict with peers, parents, and social

institutions (Quay, 1966).


CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

IntroductionToday, schools in Canada share the responsibility of

helping adolescents develop socially, psychologically, and academically. There is increasing pressure for schools to react and respond to these needs. Many teachers believe hat they spend more time dealing with disruptions and conflict in the classrooms than they do on teaching. Many teachers also believe that the time spent in trying to deal with these behaviours would be better spent on preventing problems. Teaching individuals how to prevent conflicts and how to respond to their anger effectively would increase adolescents' chances of becoming more socially accepted and more accepting of themselves. Adolescents with behaviour problems account for many behaviours typically included in three basic categories. These categories include aggression (acts of anger), withdrawal, and immaturity.

The aggression classification includes fighting, profanity, disruptiveness, irritability, quarrelsomeness, defiance of authority, low levels of guilt and empathy, and high levels of attention-seeking behaviours. These behaviours are usually inappropriate acts of anger. In general, this pattern of behaviour is active antisocial aggressiveness that results in conflict with peers, parents, and social institutions (Quay, 1966).


2

The number of arrests for crimes against persons or

property is escalating. Compared to non-violent crimes,

arrests involving violence, such as murder, manslaughter,

aggravated assault, larceny, forcible rape, and vandalism,

have increased according to United States Federal Bureau of

Investigation Uniform Crime Reports (Goldstein & Glick, 1987).

First time juvenile crime offenses are being committed on the

average at age 13 years, and this age is getting lower

(Goldstein & Glick, 1987). Emotions may be at the root of the

disruptive behaviour. One of the emotions that causes much

anxiety, hurt, disruption, and violence is anger (Defoore,

1991; Williams, & Williams, 1993).

Anger Theories and Definitions

There are many theories and definitions of anger. Anger

is defined in a number of ways which include affective,

physiological, cognitive and behavioral components. It is a

hypothetical construct that exists as a real and familiar

phenomenon and it is difficult to define. According to Novaco

(1975), anger is "an internal process assessed by inference

from behaviour reactions and physiological indices" (p.2), and

anger is described as "an emotional response to provocation"

that is determined by the "cognitive, somatic-affective, and

behavioral" modalities (Novaco, 1977 p. 600). Weber (1991)

defined anger as a natural secondary emotion people experience

when they feel threatened or hurt. Williams and Williams


2The number of arrests for crimes against persons or

property is escalating. Compared to non-violent crimes, arrests involving violence, such as murder, manslaughter, aggravated assault, larceny, forcible rape, and vandalism, have increased according to United States Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime Reports (Goldstein & Glick, 1987). First time juvenile crime offenses are being committed on the average at age 13 years, and this age is getting lower (Goldstein & Glick, 1987). Emotions may be at the root of the disruptive behaviour. One of the emotions that causes much anxiety, hurt, disruption, and violence is anger (Defoore, 1991; Williams, & Williams, 1993).

Anoer Theories and DefinitionsThere are many theories and definitions of anger. Anger

is defined in a number of ways which include affective, physiological, cognitive and behavioral components. It is a hypothetical construct that exists as a real and familiar phenomenon and it is difficult to define. According to Novaco (1975), anger is "an internal process assessed by inference from behaviour reactions and physiological indices" (p.2), and anger is described as "an emotional response to provocation" that is determined by the "cognitive, somatic-affective, and behavioral" modalities (Novaco, 1977 p. 600). Weber (1991) defined anger as a natural secondary emotion people experience when they feel threatened or hurt. Williams and Williams


3

(1993) described anger as "the emotion so often engendered by

the cynical person's expectation of unacceptable behaviour on

the part of others" (p.12). Carter and Minirth (1993) defined

anger as a multifaceted response which is "your emotion of

self preservation" the intent being to preserve "personal

worth", "essential needs" and "basic convictions" (p.8).

Bilodeau (1992) suggested that anger is an emotion or

feeling which is physically based. "Anger is an internal

reaction which an individual learns to name to an external

event" (Bilodeau, 1992, p. 17). According to Dryden (1990),

the term "anger" is used to refer to "an inappropriate

negative emotion that stems from irrational beliefs" (p.6).

Glick and Roose (1993), suggested that his definition of anger

makes reference to "a basic notion whose function is to

provide the organism with motivated capacities to overcome

obstacles" (p.148) Depending on their own perspectives, the

authors mentioned above may agree or disagree with the

different definitions; however, most authors suggest that

acts of anger, that is, inappropriate aggression, is what must

be controlled changed and /or comprehended.

Anger Expression Development

According to social learning theory, children learn

inappropriate ways of expressing anger by observing parents,

siblings, friends, and characters from films and television.

Parke and Colimer (1975) found that parents' aggression


(1993) described anger as "the emotion so often engendered by the cynical person's expectation of unacceptable behaviour on the part of others" (p.12). Carter and Minirth (1993) defined anger as a multifaceted response which is "your emotion of self preservation" the intent being to preserve "personal worth", "essential needs" and "basic convictions" (p.8).

Bilodeau (1992) suggested that anger is an emotion or feeling which is physically based. "Anger is an internal reaction which an individual learns to name to an external event" (Bilodeau, 1992, p. 17). According to Dryden (1990), the term "anger" is used to refer to "an inappropriate negative emotion that stems from irrational beliefs" (p.6). Glick and Roose (1993), suggested that his definition of anger makes reference to "a basic notion whose function is to provide the organism with motivated capacities to overcome obstacles" (p.148). Depending on their own perspectives, the authors mentioned above may agree or disagree with the different definitions; however, most authors suggest that acts of anger, that is, inappropriate aggression, is what must be controlled changed and /or comprehended.

Anger Expression DevelopmentAccording to social learning theory, children learn

inappropriate ways of expressing anger by observing parents, siblings, friends, and characters from films and television. Parke and Collmer (1975) found that parents' aggression


4

increases the risks of behaviour problems in their children.

According to a study of children in maritally violent

families, violence in families may cause behaviour problems in

the children (Gullette, 1987). Several studies indicated a

relationship between watching violent acts and aggressive

behaviour ( Bandura, 1977; Eron, 1982; Huston-Stein, Fox,

Greer, Watlins, & Whitaker, 1981; Winzer, Rogow, & David,

1987). According to a study by Klaczynski and Cummings (1989)

exposure to anger increases a student's aggressiveness towards

peers in grades one to three.

In research on the development of aggression and

television habits, Eron, Heusmann, Brice, Fischer and

Mermalstein (1983), and Winzer, Rogow, and David (1987),

stated that aggressive children "not only preferred violent

programming but believed that violent shows were an accurate

portrayal of everyday life" (p.383).

Recently, promising psychoeducational programs have been

developed in North America. The most successful programs have

a behavioral model for understanding human functioning

(Cullinan & Epstein, 1985). Recent studies show an emphasis

on teaching individuals to behave adaptively. Interventions

are based on behaviour modification, social learning theory,

and cognitive behaviour therapy in social contexts.

Behaviour modification has principles and techniques

designed to control behaviour, that is, to increase or

decrease the frequencies of already learned behaviour. Its


4increases the risks of behaviour problems in their children. According to a study of children in maritally violent families, violence in families may cause behaviour problems in the children (Gullette, 1987). Several studies indicated a relationship between watching violent acts and aggressive behaviour ( Bandura, 1977; Eron, 1982; Huston-Stein, Fox, Greer, Watlins, & Whitaker, 1981; Winzer, Rogow, & David, 1987). According to a study by Klaczynski and Cummings (1989) exposure to anger increases a student's aggressiveness towards peers in grades one to three.

In research on the development of aggression and television habits, Eron, Heusmann, Brice, Fischer and Mermalstein (1983), and Winzer, Rogow, and David (1987), stated that aggressive children "not only preferred violent programming but believed that violent shows were an accurate portrayal of everyday life" (p.383).

Recently, promising psychoeducational programs have been developed in North America. The most successful programs have a behavioral model for understanding human functioning (Cullinan & Epstein, 1985). Recent studies show an emphasis on teaching individuals to behave adaptively. Interventions are based on behaviour modification, social learning theory, and cognitive behaviour therapy in social contexts.

Behaviour modification has principles and techniques designed to control behaviour, that is, to increase or decrease the frequencies of already learned behaviour. Its


5

theory is based on overt behaviours that can be observed and

measured. A behaviourist would suggest that individuals are

taught how to react to anger-provoking situations by the

shaping of their behaviour through stimulus and response

reactions to their environment.

Bandura, a leading social learning theorist believed that

"behaviour must be described in terms of reciprocal

interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental

determinants and not just shaping through reinforcement" (Good

& Brophy, 1990). Social learning theorists, such as Bandura,

believe that reinforcement is important; however, human

mediation capacities allow reinforcement to be used before

responses occur. One can use modelling or verbal explanation

to inform learners about the consequences of producing desired

behaviour and, therefore, cause the learners to produce the

behaviour. Learners can anticipate reinforcement and adjust

behaviour accordingly.

The implications for teaching from social learning theory

are that the teacher needs to see that the students attend to

the correct stimulus situation as observed and interpreted by

the learner. Methods such as modelling cognitive, social,

and motor skills through demonstration and imitation would be

used.

Cognitive behaviour modification techniques, according to

Meichenbaum (1977), are designed to develop the capacity for

controlling the learners own behaviour through goal setting,


5theory is based on overt behaviours that can be observed and measured. A behaviourist would suggest that individuals are taught how to react to anger-provoking situations by the shaping of their behaviour through stimulus and response reactions to their environment.

Bandura, a leading social learning theorist believed that "behaviour must be described in terms of reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants and not just shaping through reinforcement" (Good & Brophy, 1990). Social learning theorists, such as Bandura, believe that reinforcement is important; however, human mediation capacities allow reinforcement to be used before responses occur. One can use modelling or verbal explanation to inform learners about the consequences of producing desired behaviour and, therefore, cause the learners to produce the behaviour. Learners can anticipate reinforcement and adjust behaviour accordingly.

The implications for teaching from social learning theory are that the teacher needs to see that the students attend to the correct stimulus situation as observed and interpreted by the learner. Methods such as modelling cognitive, social, and motor skills through demonstration and imitation would be used.

Cognitive behaviour modification techniques, according to Meichenbaum (1977), are designed to develop the capacity for controlling the learners own behaviour through goal setting,


6

self-instruction, planning, self-monitoring, and self-

reinforcement. Self-talk is used by teaching models to enable

learners to see how to use self-talk to guide one's behaviour

in searching for important cues and to develop ideas on how to

respond. Modelling, combined with verbalized self-

instruction, allows students to solve problems and to apply

learning later (Good & Brophy, 1990).

The social skills deficit theory and assertiveness

literature have led to the conceptualization of social skills

training using cognitive behavioral techniques. The

individual is seen as lacking social skills for interacting

effectively with others. The individual becomes angry and

responds inappropriately. According to Deffenbacher, Story,

Stark, Hogg, and Brandon (1987), "The literature on reducing

anger and aggression through assertiveness, however, is mixed.

Some authors (Moon & Eisler, 1983; Rimm, Hill, Brown, &

Stuart, 1974) have reported positive findings, whereas others

have not (Lee, Hallberg, & Hasssard, 1979; Pentz, 1980)" (p.

171).

Deffenbacher, Story, Stark, Hogg, and Brandon (1987)

proposed that angry individuals lack the capacity to listen

fully to and understand others. They form inaccurate

perceptions and jump to angry conclusions instead of

continuing to use good communication skills and a shared

understanding of the situation.


6self-instruction, planning, self-monitoring, and selfreinforcement. Self-talk is used by teaching models to enable learners to see how to use self-talk to guide one's behaviour in searching for important cues and to develop ideas on how to respond. Modelling, combined with verbalized self-instruction, allows students to solve problems and to apply learning later (Good & Brophy, 1990).

The social skills deficit theory and assertiveness literature have led to the conceptualization of social skills training using cognitive behavioral techniques. The individual is seen as lacking social skills for interacting effectively with others. The individual becomes angry andresponds inappropriately. According to Deffenbacher, Story, Stark, Hogg, and Brandon (1987), "The literature on reducing anger and aggression through assertiveness, however, is mixed. Some authors (Moon & Eisler, 1983; Rimm, Hill, Brown, & Stuart, 1974) have reported positive findings, whereas others have not (Lee, Hallberg, & Hasssard, 1979; Pentz, 1980)" (p. 171).

Deffenbacher, Story, Stark, Hogg, and Brandon (1987) proposed that angry individuals lack the capacity to listen fully to and understand others. They form inaccurate perceptions and jump to angry conclusions instead of continuing to use good communication skills and a shared understanding of the situation.


7

Adolescence: A Developmental Process

Adolescence does not necessarily have to be a time of

emotional turmoil and stress (Coleman, 1965). The period of

adolescence, according to Goldstein and Glick (1987),

"comprises a developmental process in which youth move from

the dependency and immaturity of childhood toward the

physical, psychological, and social maturity of adulthood",

(p. 280). Research indicates that adolescents face many

developmental obstacles, however (Johnson, 1986).

Normal adolescents experience rapid physical growth, the

development of sexual glands and organs, pubic hair, oily and

coarser skin, and changes in chemical secretions and hormones.

These changes affect behaviour and emotions.

Psychologically, adolescents seek independence and the

development of their own identity, and question the authority

and values of their parents and others. Typically they

exhibit an inflated sense of responsibility and a strong need

for adult approval. They wish to make their own decisions,

like adults, but have not yet acquired the skills or the

discipline necessary for effective and appropriate decision-

making. Adolescents tend to be idealistic and tend to

establish unrealistic goals for themselves.

Socially, adolescence is a period when there is a strong

need for peer recognition. According to Goldstein and Glick

(1967), "The peer group becomes a powerful influence and

affects adolescents' behaviour and attitudes" (p. 280).


7Adolescence: A Developmental Process

Adolescence does not necessarily have to be a time of emotional turmoil and stress (Coleman, 1965). The period of adolescence, according to Goldstein and Glick (1987), "comprises a developmental process in which youth move from the dependency and immaturity of childhood toward the physical, psychological, and social maturity of adulthood", (p. 280). Research indicates that adolescents face manydevelopmental obstacles, however (Johnson, 1986).

Normal adolescents experience rapid physical growth, the development of sexual glands and organs, pubic hair, oily and coarser skin, and changes in chemical secretions and hormones. These changes affect behaviour and emotions.

Psychologically, adolescents seek independence and the development of their own identity, and question the authority and values of their parents and others. Typically they exhibit an inflated sense of responsibility and a strong need for adult approval. They wish to make their own decisions, like adults, but have not yet acquired the skills or the discipline necessary for effective and appropriate decisionmaking. Adolescents tend to be idealistic and tend to establish unrealistic goals for themselves.

Socially, adolescence is a period when there is a strong need for peer recognition. According to Goldstein and Glick (1987), "The peer group becomes a powerful influence and affects adolescents' behaviour and attitudes" (p. 280).


8

In order to achieve a successful transition into adult

life, adolescents need to receive appropriate direction,

nurturing, encouragement and guidance from significant adults.

If children and adolescents do not receive these from their

families, schools, communities or social systems, the result

is that they may be,

Impulsive, lack planning skills, decision-making skills, problem-solving skills, negotiating skills, and the ability to appropriately control and deal with their anger. The result of these deficiencies has frequently been involvement in delinquent activities, verbal and physical aggression, and the acceptance of an antisocial value system.(Goldstein & Glick, 1987, p. 280)

Students with Behaviour Problems

The definition of behaviour problems among adolescents is

inconsistent. Professionals cannot agree on whether to call

these children emotionally disturbed, behaviorally disordered,

socially maladjusted, deviant, psycholog.cally impaired,

educationally handicapped, character-disordered, or delinquent

(Winzer, Rogow, & David, 1987). Deviant behaviours in children

have been defined in many ways depending on a variety of

perspectives and disciplines, according to Cullinan, Epstein,

and Lloyd, (1983). The common elements in most literature

definitions are: (1) the individual's behaviour deviates from

the norm; (2) the behaviours recur chronically; (3) the

behaviours violate social or cultural norms; and (4) the

behaviour affects the child's self-esteem, interpersonal

relationships, and school achievement (Winzer, Rogow, & David,

1987).


8In order to achieve a successful transition into adult

life, adolescents need to receive appropriate direction,nurturing, encouragement and guidance from significant adults.If children and adolescents do not receive these from theirfamilies, schools, communities or social systems, the resultis that they may be,

Impulsive, lack planning skills, decision-making skills, problem-solving skills, negotiating skills, and the ability to appropriately control and deal with their anger. The result of these deficiencies has frequently been involvement in delinquent activities, verbal and physical aggression, and the acceptance of an antisocial value system.(Goldstein & Glick, 1987, p. 280)

Students with Behaviour ProblemsThe definition of behaviour problems among adolescents is

inconsistent. Professionals cannot agree on whether to call these children emotionally disturbed, behaviorally disordered, socially maladjusted, deviant, psychologically impaired, educationally handicapped, character-disordered, or delinquent (Winzer, Rogow, & David, 1987). Deviant behaviours in children have been defined in many ways depending on a variety of perspectives and disciplines, according to Cullinan, Epstein, and Lloyd, (1983). The common elements in most literature definitions are: (1) the individual's behaviour deviates from the norm; (2) the behaviours recur chronically; (3) the behaviours violate social or cultural norms; and (4) the behaviour affects the child's self-esteem, interpersonal relationships, and school achievement (Winzer, Rogow, & David, 1987).


9

A student's observable behaviour deviance is considered

more important than the label attached to it. Behaviour

problems have been conceptualized in many ways, according to

Cullinan, Epstein, and Lloyd, (1983). Winzer, Rogow, & David

(1987) reported that half of the schools surveyed in 1981, in

British Columbia, had no working definition for emotional

disturbance.

The Nature of Anger

Anger is a feeling expressed in physical and emotional

ways and is often connected to other emotions. It is a

feeling response to a situation based on personal

interpretation of the situation, given one's values, beliefs

and past experiences (Sisco, 1991). This emotional response

"can range from feelings of mild displeasure or irritation to

feelings of fury or rage" (Sisco, 1991, p.3). The physical

response to anger includes increased adrenalin flow, increased

heart rate, rise in blood pressure, dilated pupils, tensed

muscles, flushed faces, clenched hands, and hotness, coldness,

or numbness in different parts of the body (Sisco, 1991). All

or some of these symptoms can occur. These are natural

signals and reactions which indicate to the individuals that

something is threatening or wrong (DeFoore, 1991; Sisco, 1991;

Tarvis, 1989). Anger protects people by warning them when

they feel their safety is threatened. Anger can also be


9A student's observable behaviour deviance is considered

more important than the label attached to it. Behaviour problems have been conceptualized in many ways, according to Cullinan, Epstein, and Lloyd, (1983). Winzer, Rogow, & David (1987) reported that half of the schools surveyed in 1981, in British Columbia, had no working definition for emotional disturbance.

The Nature of AngerAnger is a feeling expressed in physical and emotional

ways and is often connected to other emotions. It is a feeling response to a situation based on personal interpretation of the situation, given one's values, beliefs and past experiences (Sisco, 1991). This emotional response "can range from feelings of mild displeasure or irritation to feelings of fury or rage" (Sisco, 1991, p.3). The physical response to anger includes increased adrenalin flow, increased heart rate, rise in blood pressure, dilated pupils, tensed muscles, flushed faces, clenched hands, and hotness, coldness, or numbness in different parts of the body (Sisco, 1991). All or some of these symptoms can occur. These are natural signals and reactions which indicate to the individuals that something is threatening or wrong (DeFoore, 1991; Sisco, 1991; Tarvis, 1989). Anger protects people by warning them when they feel their safety is threatened. Anger can also be


14

related to other emotions. Sisco (1991) stated that,

"Sometimes other emotions such as fear, hurt, guilt, shame,

sadness, jealousy, frustration, loneliness, even joy, will

trigger anger in us. When this happens, anger can become a

way of covering up or defending ourselves from these other

emotions" (p.4). Anger is natural; however, the manner in

which a person decides to express his anger can be

problematic.

The Expression of Anger

If anger is expressed inappropriately, it can turn into

other disturbing emotions such as hostility, resentment,

bitterness, and hate (Sisco, 1991). How a person expresses

anger in a given situation depends on past experiences, values

and beliefs. People learn what is acceptable from their

families, friends, schools, society, culture, and personal

experiences.

The way one expresses anger affects the outcome of the

situations and feelings about oneself (Defoore, 1991; Lerner,

1985; Sisco, 1991). The most commonly identified ways of

expressing anger are the "exploding" approach, the "stuffing"

approach, the "ventilating" approach, and the "problem-

solving" approach (Sisco, 1991). The problem-solving approach

is recognized as the most effective way to express one's

anger.


10related to other emotions. Sisco (1991) stated that, "Sometimes other emotions such as fear, hurt, guilt, shame, sadness, jealousy, frustration, loneliness, even joy, will trigger anger in us. When this happens, anger can become a way of covering up or defending ourselves from these other emotions" (p.4). Anger is natural; however, the manner in which a person decides to express his anger can be problematic.

The Expression of AngerIf anger is expressed inappropriately, it can turn into

other disturbing emotions such as hostility, resentment, bitterness, and hate (Sisco, 1991). How a person expresses anger in a given situation depends on past experiences, values and beliefs. People learn what is acceptable from their families, friends, schools, society, culture, and personal experiences.

The way one expresses anger affects the outcome of the situations and feelings about oneself (Defoore, 1991; Lerner, 1985; Sisco, 1991). The most commonly identified ways of expressing anger are the "exploding" approach, the "stuffing" approach, the "ventilating" approach, and the "problemsolving" approach (Sisco, 1991). The problem-solving approach is recognized as the most effective way to express one's anger.


11

Parents and teachers are frequently the target of the

violence expressed by students. Educators in the process of

moulding students need to develop interventions to assist

students in discontinuing the violent behaviour, particularly

in the school setting. Many educational interventions come

after disruptions and anger outbursts. The interventions

usually concentrate on decreasing problematic and undesirable

behaviours by telling students "to behave" rather than

teaching them how to be more effective in dealing with anger.

"Few programs teach socially acceptable ways of being

angry or even respect the basic right (and inevitable need) to

feel anger" (Lovett, 1985, p.16). Punishment forms of

interventions, such as time-out, scolding, expelling (from

schools) and incarceration, are common and often unsuccessful

(Goldstein, Sprafkin, Gershaw, & Klein, 1980). Lowered self-

esteem and self-concepts result from the punishment

interventions (Lovett, 1985). "The problem is that punishment

tends to suppress all interest in doing things" (Lovett, 1985,

p.16). Students with low self-concepts display more acting out

behaviours.

Prosocial skill development allows students to interact

with others effectively and to develop better feelings about

themselves (Goldstein, 1988). A number of interventions to

address individuals' inappropriate expressions of anger have

been developed and implemented (Cullinan & Epstein, 1985).


11Parents and teachers are frequently the target of the

violence expressed by students. Educators in the process of moulding students need to develop interventions to assist students in discontinuing the violent behaviour, particularly in the school setting. Many educational interventions come after disruptions and anger outbursts. The interventions usually concentrate on decreasing problematic and undesirable behaviours by telling students "to behave" rather than teaching them how to be more effective in dealing with anger.

"Few programs teach socially acceptable ways of being angry or even respect the basic right (and inevitable need) to feel anger" (Lovett, 1985, p.16). Punishment forms of interventions, such as time-out, scolding, expelling (from schools) and incarceration, are common and often unsuccessful (Goldstein, Sprafkin, Gershaw, & Klein, 1980). Lowered selfesteem and self-concepts result from the punishment interventions (Lovett, 1985). "The problem is that punishment tends to suppress all interest in doing things" (Lovett, 1985, p. 16). Students with low self-concepts display more acting out behaviours.

Prosocial skill development allows students to interact with others effectively and to develop better feelings about themselves (Goldstein, 1988). A number of interventions to address individuals' inappropriate expressions of anger have been developed and implemented (Cullinan & Epstein, 1985).


12

Some studies have indicated that anger is reduced as

individuals learn to engage in a realistic cognitive settling

of events and the use of relaxation coping skills, according

to Novaco (1975), Moon and Eisler (1983), Sarason and Sarason

(1981), Johnson (1986), and Schlichter and Horan, (1981).

Goldstein (1988) has developed a program in response to

the need for prosocial skill development with adolescents.

This program includes anger control training based on

Feindler's Anger Control Training (Feindler, Marriott, &

lwata, 1984). Research supports Goldstein's process in a

number of institutional settings with different populations.

Supporting research will be reviewed in Chapter 2.

Need for the Study

Today, schools in Saskatchewan share an increasing

responsibility for helping adolescents develop socially and

psychologically, as well as academically. School programs for

students with behaviour problems need to be examined to

determine their effectiveness. A preventive or proactive

focus has greater advantages than responding to crises.

Programs, like the one examined in this study, may be

effective in the prevention of inappropriate behaviour and

inappropriate expressions of anger as well as in improving

students' social skills.

Mandatory school attendance until age 16 requires that


12Some studies have indicated that anger is reduced as individuals learn to engage in a realistic cognitive settling of events and the use of relaxation coping skills, according to Novaco (1975), Moon and Eisler (1983), Sarason and Sarason (1981), Johnson (1986), and Schlichter and Horan, (1981).

Goldstein (1988) has developed a program in response to the need for prosocial skill development with adolescents. This program includes anger control training based on Feindler's Anger Control Training (Feindler, Marriott, & Iwata, 1984). Research supports Goldstein's process in a number of institutional settings with different populations. Supporting research will be reviewed in Chapter 2.

Need for the StudyToday, schools in Saskatchewan share an increasing

responsibility for helping adolescents develop socially and psychologically, as well as academically. School programs for students with behaviour problems need to be examined to determine their effectiveness. A preventive or proactive focus has greater advantages than responding to crises. Programs, like the one examined in this study, may be effective in the prevention of inappropriate behaviour and inappropriate expressions of anger as well as in improving students' social skills.

Mandatory school attendance until age 16 requires that


13

schools accommodate and retain students who pose serious

behaviour problems. In the past, these students may have been

expelled or may have dropped out. School systems must explore

avenues to help students with appropriate expressions of their

anger. Anger management among students is a major concern of

local school personnel, according to a Regina Public School

psychologist, J. Tom (personal communication, March 18, 1992).

Students need to be prepared to face anger-provoking

situations effectively. Students must be able to control

their anger and respond to it appropriately by having more

prosocial behaviours, skills and abilities in their

repertoires (Goldstein, Sprafkin, Gershaw, & Klein, 1980).

According Feindler and Ecton (1986), there is a need for

further research on anger, particularly with adolescents.

They stated that

the most critical areas for intervention are those of anger and aggression. Those problem behaviours interfere with the adolescent's adaptive functioning in school, in the family or at work, and they strain the tolerance limits of those in authority positions. (p. 2)

The Goldstein (1988) intervention program was selected

for the following reasons. There is very little literature on

the effects of interventions with adolescents in schools

settings, especially in Canada. Positive findings of the

Goldstein (1988) program were found with adolescents in

clinical settings in the United States and the program was


13schools accommodate and retain students who pose serious behaviour problems. In the past, these students may have been expelled or may have dropped out. School systems must explore avenues to help students with appropriate expressions of their anger. Anger management among students is a major concern of local school personnel, according to a Regina Public School psychologist, J. Tom (personal communication, March 18, 1992).

Students need to be prepared to face anger-provoking situations effectively. Students must be able to control their anger and respond to it appropriately by having more prosocial behaviours, skills and abilities in their repertoires (Goldstein, Sprafkin, Gershaw, & Klein, 1980).

According Feindler and Ecton (1986), there is a need forfurther research on anger, particularly with adolescents.They stated that

the most critical areas for intervention are those of anger and aggression. Those problem behaviours interfere with the adolescent's adaptive functioning in school, in the family or at work, and they strain the tolerance limits of those in authority positions, (p. 2)

The Goldstein (1988) intervention program was selected for the following reasons. There is very little literature on the effects of interventions with adolescents in schools settings, especially in Canada. Positive findings of the Goldstein (1988) program were found with adolescents in clinical settings in the United States and the program was


14

recommended (Goldstein, 1988) for transfer to the classroom.

The program was also recommended by a locally employed school

psychologist, A. Wilke (personal communication, March 20,

1992). The program was also considered for use by other local

children services agencies.

This intervention program was a cognitive behavioral

social skills program. Studies indicate that cognitive

behavioral social skills interventions which have focused on

assertiveness and rehearsals of skills for specific situations

have been successful in the development of stable behaviour

patterns (Feindler & Guttman, 1994; Moon & Eisler, 1983; Rimm,

Hill, Brown, & Stuart, 1974). Other social skill intervention

studies have had negative findings (Lee, Hallberg, & Hassard,

1979; Pentz, 1980). The results of this study may be helpful

in determining if this particular program would benefit

students with behaviour problems in the selected schools.

Statement of the Problem

The main purpose for this study was to examine whether

young adolescents who were identified as students with

behaviour problems and participated in a six week prosocial

skills/anger control intervention program would exhibit

improved social skills and anger control relative to a

comparison group of adolescents who were not participating in

such a program. A secondary purpose was to study student and


14recommended (Goldstein, 1988) for transfer to the classroom. The program was also recommended by a locally employed school psychologist, A. Wilke (personal communication, March 20, 1992). The program was also considered for use by other local children services agencies.

This intervention program was a cognitive behavioral social skills program. Studies indicate that cognitive behavioral social skills interventions which have focused on assertiveness and rehearsals of skills for specific situations have been successful in the development of stable behaviour patterns (Feindler & Guttman, 1994; Moon & Eisler, 1983; Rimm, Hill, Brown, & Stuart, 1974). Other social skill intervention studies have had negative findings (Lee, Hallberg, & Hassard, 1979; Pentz, 1980). The results of this study may be helpful in determining if this particular program would benefit students with behaviour problems in the selected schools.

Statement of the ProblemThe main purpose for this study was to examine whether

young adolescents who were identified as students with behaviour problems and participated in a six week prosocial skills/anger control intervention program would exhibit improved social skills and anger control relative to a comparison group of adolescents who were not participating in such a program. A secondary purpose was to study student and


15

teacher evaluations of the prosocial skills/anger control

program.

The following primary questions were explored:

1.what were the effects of the prosocial skills/anger

control program on the social skills of participating

students?

2. What were the effects of the prosocial skill/anger

control program on the anger experience and expression scores

of the participating students?

3. What were the effects of the prosocial skills/anger

control program on the anger control scores of the

participating students?

4. Were there any significant changes in social skills

scores, anger experience and expression scores, and anger

control scores amongst those students who did not participate

in the prosocial skills/anger control program over a six week

period?

The following secondary questions were examined:

1. What were the student evaluations of the prosocial

skills/anger control program?

2. What were the teacher evaluations of the effects of

the prosocial skills/anger control program on the students?


15

teacher evaluations of the prosocial skills/anger control program.

The following primary questions were explored:1.What were the effects of the prosocial skills/anger

control program on the social skills of participating students?

2. What were the effects of the prosocial skill/anger control program on the anger experience and expression scores of the participating students?

3. What were the effects of the prosocial skills/anger control program on the anger control scores of the participating students?

4. Were there any significant changes in social skills scores, anger experience and expression scores, and anger control scores amongst those students who did not participate in the prosocial skills/anger control program over a six week period?

The following secondary questions were examined:1 . What were the student evaluations of the prosocial

skills/anger control program?2. What were the teacher evaluations of the effects of

the prosocial skills/anger control program on the students?


16

Definition of Terms

Operational definitions of the terms used in the study

are stated as follows:

Social skills: These are abilities and behaviours needed to be

socially competent; operationally these were the composite

scores from the cooperation, assertion, self-control,

responsibility and empathy subtests of the Social Skills

Rating System (SSRS) by Gresham and Elliott (1990).

Prosocial skills: Positive personal, interpersonal, and

social-cognitive skills such as altruism, cooperation,

sharing, empathy as defined by Goldstein and Glick (1987).

State anger: State anger is an emotional state marked by

subjective feelings that vary in intensity from mild annoyance

or irritation to intense fury and rage (Spielberger, 1991).

It was operationally defined in this study by scores derived

from the State subscale of the State-Trait Anger Expression

Scale - Research Edition (Spielberger 1991).

Trait anger: Trait anger is the disposition to perceive a wide

range of situations as annoying or frustrating, and the

tendency to respond to such situations with more frequent

elevations in state anger (Spielberger 1991). It was

operationally defined in this study by scores derived from the

Trait subscale of the State-Trait Anger Expression Scale -

Research Edition (Spielberger 1991).

Anger experience: Anger experience includes both components,


16Definition of Terms

Operational definitions of the terms used in the study are stated as follows:Social skills: These are abilities and behaviours needed to be socially competent; operationally these were the composite scores from the cooperation, assertion, self-control, responsibility and empathy subtests of the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) by Gresham and Elliott (1990).Prosocial skills: Positive personal, interpersonal, andsocial-cognitive skills such as altruism, cooperation, sharing, empathy as defined by Goldstein and Glick (1987). State anger: State anger is an emotional state marked bysubjective feelings that vary in intensity from mild annoyance or irritation to intense fury and rage (Spielberger, 1991). It was operationally defined in this study by scores derived from the State subscale of the State-Trait Anger Expression Scale - Research Edition (Spielberger 1991).Trait anaer: Trait anger is the disposition to perceive a wide range of situations as annoying or frustrating, and the tendency to respond to such situations with more frequent elevations in state anger (Spielberger 1991). It was operationally defined in this study by scores derived from the Trait subscale of the State-Trait Anger Expression Scale - Research Edition (Spielberger 1991).Anoer experience: Anger experience includes both components,


17

state anger and trait anger, according to Spielberger (1991).

Anger experience was operationally defined by scores as

represented by the two ten-item State and Trait sub-scales of

the State-Trait Anger Expression Scale - Research Edition

(Spielberger 1991). There was no aggregate score for anger

experience on this test.

Anger expression: Anger expression includes anger scores as

represented by the Anger-in (the holding in or suppression of

angry feelings), Anger-out (the expression of anger toward

other people or objects in the environment), and Anger Control

(the extent to which a person attempts to control the

expression of anger) sub-scales of the State-Trait Anger

Expression Scale -Research Edition as defined by Spielberger

(1991).

Anger control: Anger control is the extent to which a person

attempts to control the expression of anger as represented by

scores from the anger control subscale of the State-Trait

Anger Expression Scale -Research Edition as defined by

Spielberger (1991).

Adolescents with behaviour problems : Students ages 12 to 18,

identified by school personnel as experiencing behaviour

difficulties at school, at home, and in the community.


17state anger and trait anger, according to Spielberger (1991). Anger experience was operationally defined by scores as represented by the two ten-item State and Trait sub-scales of the State-Trait Anger Expression Scale - Research Edition (Spielberger 1991). There was no aggregate score for anger experience on this test.Anger expression: Anger expression includes anger scores asrepresented by the Anger-in (the holding in or suppression of angry feelings), Anger-out (the expression of anger toward other people or objects in the environment), and Anger Control (the extent to which a person attempts to control the expression of anger) sub-scales of the State-Trait Anger Expression Scale -Research Edition as defined by Spielberger (1991 ) .Anger control: Anger control is the extent to which a person attempts to control the expression of anger as represented by scores from the anger control subscale of the State-Trait Anger Expression Scale -Research Edition as defined by Spielberger (1991).Adolescents with behaviour problems : Students ages 12 to 18, identified by school personnel as experiencing behaviour difficulties at school, at home, and in the community.


18

Assumptions of the Study

1. Adolescent subjects are able to read and comprehend test

instruments which have a readability level of Grade 5.

2. Test instrument responses given by the subjects represent

what they are intended to test and that other factors such as

social desirability do not interfere.

Limitations of the Study

1. The final sample used in this study contained 18 students

with behaviour problems from four classrooms of students. The

small number of subjects made the statistical tests weak

because the variance is large. Attrition and incomplete data

were due to school suspension, truancy, unwillingness to

cooperate, and running away from home.

2. The results of the study are intended to apply only to

urban Saskatchewan adolescent students of behaviour classrooms

or other similar populations. Generalizations of the findings

beyond the sample participating in this study should be made

with due caution.

Delimitations of the Study

1. In this study no special consideration was given to

variables such as maturity level, IQ, previous involvement in

anger control programs, on-going counselling support, variable

school programs, cultural or value system differences,


18Assumptions of the Study1. Adolescent subjects are able to read and comprehend test instruments which have a readability level of Grade 5.2. Test instrument responses given by the subjects represent what they are intended to test and that other factors such as social desirability do not interfere.

Limitations of the Study1. The final sample used in this study contained 18 students with behaviour problems from four classrooms of students. The small number of subjects made the statistical tests weak because the variance is large. Attrition and incomplete data were due to school suspension, truancy, unwillingness to cooperate, and running away from home.2. The results of the study are intended to apply only to urban Saskatchewan adolescent students of behaviour classrooms or other similar populations. Generalizations of the findings beyond the sample participating in this study should be made with due caution.

Delimitations of the Study1. In this study no special consideration was given to variables such as maturity level, IQ, previous involvement in anger control programs, on-going counselling support, variable school programs, cultural or value system differences,


19

treatment group interpersonal dynamics, state of mind when

completing instruments and sex differences. The rationale for

this decision was to limit the many possible comparisons.

Some of these variables might have been included had the

sample been larger.


19treatment group interpersonal dynamics, state of mind when completing instruments and sex differences. The rationale for this decision was to limit the many possible comparisons. Some of these variables might have been included had the sample been larger.


CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

There are several studies which have attempted to shed

light on the interventions that can help individuals control

anger. The majority of research reported in the available

literature has been done with adults or with adolescents in

detention and hospital settings. There were few studies

available which were conducted in school settings.

In the first section an overview on research related to

adolescents' behaviour problems and anger is provided. The

next section includes studies on interventions and their

effectiveness. The final section includes a summary of the

findings of the studies related to the Goldstein (1988)

program for students with behaviour problems.

Adolescent's Behaviour Problems and Anger

Many studies have found that adolescents are at risk for

psychological, emotional, social, physical and, in turn,

behaviour problems which are due to a wide range of factors.

An adolescent's anger experience and expression is one factor

which has a major impact on his/her life.

According to Kauffman (1985) hyperaggressive and highly

disruptive children form the majority of those identified in


CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

IntroductionThere are several studies which have attempted to shed

light on the interventions that can help individuals control anger. The majority of research reported in the available literature has been done with adults or with adolescents in detention and hospital settings. There were few studies available which were conducted in school settings.

In the first section an overview on research related to adolescents' behaviour problems and anger is provided. The next section includes studies on interventions and their effectiveness. The final section includes a summary of the findings of the studies related to the Goldstein (1988) program for students with behaviour problems.

Adolescent's Behaviour Problems and AngerMany studies have found that adolescents are at risk for

psychological, emotional, social, physical and, in turn, behaviour problems which are due to a wide range of factors. An adolescent's anger experience and expression is one factor which has a major impact on his/her life.

According to Kauffman (1985) hyperaggressive and highly disruptive children form the majority of those identified in


21

the schools as emotionally disturbed or behaviourly

disordered. Bullock and Brown (1972) asked 112 teachers of

emotionally disturbed school-aged children in Florida to

itemize principal behavioral problems using behaviour rating

scales. They found that aggression (acts of anger) was the

highest of concerns among teachers relative to other behaviour

problems.

Metcalf and Gaier (1987) studied 87 grade 11 and 12

students from Buffalo, New York, and found that parental

pressures and expectations aroused reactions of anger,

resentment, rebellion, and underachievement. Learning

disabilities are often related to behaviour problems, and

school related anger was found to be higher among students

with learning disabilities (Heavey, 1989). Stehouwer, Bultsma

and Blackford (1985) found in their study of inpatient

neurotic or reactive depressed adolescents that these

individuals feel anger at themselves and a sense of failure.

Gispert, Wheeler, Marsh and Davis (1985) found that suicidal

adolescents were depressed and angry. As well, they

experienced family disruption and performed poorly in school.

In this study, 82 hospitalized adolescents in the U.S., aged

12 to 18, were examined for contributing factors to suicide

attempts. Increasing irritability, hostility and aggression

were found in most subjects. The majority expressed anger

overtly.


21the schools as emotionally disturbed or behaviourly disordered. Bullock and Brown (1972) asked 112 teachers of emotionally disturbed school-aged children in Florida to itemize principal behavioral problems using behaviour rating scales. They found that aggression (acts of anger) was the highest of concerns among teachers relative to other behaviour problems.

Metcalf and Gaier (1987) studied 87 grade 11 and 12 students from Buffalo, New York, and found that parental pressures and expectations aroused reactions of anger, resentment, rebellion, and underachievement. Learning disabilities are often related to behaviour problems, and school related anger was found to be higher among students with learning disabilities (Heavey, 1989). Stehouwer, Bultsma and Blackford (1985) found in their study of inpatient neurotic or reactive depressed adolescents that these individuals feel anger at themselves and a sense of failure. Gispert, Wheeler, Marsh and Davis (1985) found that suicidal adolescents were depressed and angry. As well, they experienced family disruption and performed poorly in school. In this study, 82 hospitalized adolescents in the U.S., aged 12 to 18, were examined for contributing factors to suicide attempts. Increasing irritability, hostility and aggression were found in most subjects. The majority expressed anger overtly.


22

Hershbeger (1986), found that school-aged children have

angry feelings that they are not able to express in acceptable

ways. They often lack the skills in expression that are

socially sanctioned. Children are punished for aggressive

outbursts and destructive behaviours, but are seldom provided

with a means of coping with feelings of anger (Omizo,

Hershberger & Omizo, 1988). According to Ellenburg (1985),

McHolland (1985), and Renfron (1985), when individuals are

unable to cope with their anger, the result may be violence,

crime, substance abuse, depression, suicide and behaviours

which are self-destructive.

Adolescents with Behaviour Problems and Anger Interventions

In their study of 54 regular and special education

teachers, Martens, Witt, Elliot, and Darveaux (1985) found

that treatment interventions for behaviour problems that could

be implemented directly by the teacher were rated as more

acceptable to teachers than interventions that were not

implemented directly by the teacher. In this study, the

teachers completed a test instrument which measured various

aspects of intervention acceptability when presented with

behaviour problems and different interventions.

Omizo, Hershberger and Omizo (1988) studied 47

intermediate grade school children from a wide range of ethnic

and socioeconomic backgrounds and found that students


22Hershbeger (1986), found that school-aged children have

angry feelings that they are not able to express in acceptable ways. They often lack the skills in expression that are socially sanctioned. Children are punished for aggressive outbursts and destructive behaviours, but are seldom provided with a means of coping with feelings of anger (Omizo, Hershberger & Omizo, 1988). According to Ellenburg (1985), McHolland (1985), and Renfron (1985), when individuals are unable to cope with their anger, the result may be violence, crime, substance abuse, depression, suicide and behaviours which are self-destructive.

Adolescents with Behaviour Problems and Anger InterventionsIn their study of 54 regular and special education

teachers, Martens, Witt, Elliot, and Darveaux (1985) found that treatment interventions for behaviour problems that could be implemented directly by the teacher were rated as more acceptable to teachers than interventions that were not implemented directly by the teacher. In this study, the teachers completed a test instrument which measured various aspects of intervention acceptability when presented with behaviour problems and different interventions.

Omizo, Hershberger and Omizo (1988) studied 47 intermediate grade school children from a wide range of ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds and found that students


23

nominated by teachers for aggressive or hostile behaviour

showed significant decreases in aggressiveness and hostile

behaviours after a 10 session group counselling intervention.

Children learned appropriate ways of handling frustration and

anger provoking situations which were then applied to their

overt behaviours in other settings. The intervention focused

on cognitive behaviour techniques, modelling, role playing,

and positive reinforcement.

Studies on various populations, such as abusive adults,

preschoolers, elementary school children, institutionalized

individuals, mentally handicapped individuals, learning

disabled students and others, have supported the use of

cognitive behavioral psychology into social skills and anger

control training. Gumaer (1990) reported the successful use

of this cognitive behavioral approach with a male adolescent

suffering from encoppresis. Wodarski (1989) found that

adolescents with developmental disabilities require a

cognitive anger control component in an overall job

preparation program.

One study of angry boys carried

indicated that group intervention

out by Lochman (1988)

(cognitive behavioral

psychology into social skills and anger control) was

effective. Lochman (1988) studied 25 highly aggressive

children and adolescents in a residential treatment program.

Subjects participated in a cognitive behavioral treatment


23nominated by teachers for aggressive or hostile behaviour showed significant decreases in aggressiveness and hostile behaviours after a 10 session group counselling intervention. Children learned appropriate ways of handling frustration and anger provoking situations which were then applied to their overt behaviours in other settings. The intervention focused on cognitive behaviour techniques, modelling, role playing, and positive reinforcement.

Studies on various populations, such as abusive adults, preschoolers, elementary school children, institutionalized individuals, mentally handicapped individuals, learning disabled students and others, have supported the use of cognitive behavioral psychology into social skills and anger control training. Gumaer (1990) reported the successful use of this cognitive behavioral approach with a male adolescent suffering from encoppresis. Wodarski (1989) found that adolescents with developmental disabilities require a cognitive anger control component in an overall job preparation program.

One study of angry boys carried out by Lochman (1988) indicated that group intervention (cognitive behavioral psychology into social skills and anger control) was effective. Lochman (1988) studied 25 highly aggressive children and adolescents in a residential treatment program. Subjects participated in a cognitive behavioral treatment


24

program called Re-ED. The treatment included structured daily

activities devised to remediate social and academic deficits,

group activities to teach problem solving skills, behavioral

interventions to shape behaviour and social competencies, and

renewed contact with parents and the community. Several test

instruments were used to determine the effects of the program.

He found an increase in anger control during the social skills

oriented part of the program. Evening staff reported

significant changes in anger arousal and aggressive behaviour.

Day staff reported no significant changes in behaviour. The

study also found that aggressive adolescents who also show

signs of emotional distress, social isolation and dependency

are more receptive and respond more positively to the Re-ED

program.

Deffenbacher (1988) compared social skills and cognitive-

relaxation interventions with no treatment programs for anger

reduction with first year psychology students. These students

were identified by a test instrument as having anger problems.

Treatment programs were eight weekly one hour sessions.

Positive findings for both kinds of interventions were found.

The social skills intervention included specific skills

learning, whereas, cognitive-relaxation was more universally

relevant. The study suggests using the cognitive-relaxation

intervention as the primary treatment and targeting social and

other skill deficits toward the end of treatment.


24program called Re-ED. The treatment included structured daily activities devised to remediate social and academic deficits, group activities to teach problem solving skills, behavioral interventions to shape behaviour and social competencies, and renewed contact with parents and the community. Several test instruments were used to determine the effects of the program. He found an increase in anger control during the social skills oriented part of the program. Evening staff reported significant changes in anger arousal and aggressive behaviour. Day staff reported no significant changes in behaviour. The study also found that aggressive adolescents who also show signs of emotional distress, social isolation and dependency are more receptive and respond more positively to the Re-ED program.

Deffenbacher (1988) compared social skills and cognitive- relaxation interventions with no treatment programs for anger reduction with first year psychology students. These students were identified by a test instrument as having anger problems. Treatment programs were eight weekly one hour sessions. Positive findings for both kinds of interventions were found. The social skills intervention included specific skills learning, whereas, cognitive-relaxation was more universally relevant. The study suggests using the cognitive-relaxation intervention as the primary treatment and targeting social and other skill deficits toward the end of treatment.


25

Working with adolescents in groups has produced positive

results. Group work provides two major strengths: (1) the

power of peer group of adolescents used to reinforce

appropriate behaviour, and (2) teacher time is more

efficiently used, according Cullinan & Epstein (1985).

Cognitive behavioral social skills curriculum packages

are available such as the Chill-Out Program (Feindler &

Guttman, 1994), ASSET (Hazel, Schumaker, Sherman, & Sheldon-

Wildgen, 1981), Anger Control Program (Lochman, Nelson, &

Sims, 1981), (Lochman, & Lenhart 1993), Anger Management for

Youth (Eggert & Long, 1994), and Structured Learning

Goldstein, Sprafkin, Gershaw, & Klein, 1980).

The assumption of Structured Learning (Goldstein,

Sprafkin, Gershaw, & Klein, 1980) is that unskilled

adolescents must become proficient at learning adaptive

behaviours, such as getting along with others, controlling

feelings, and coping. Another assumption is that learning to

recognize anger must be followed by appropriate learned

reaction.

There have been many studies using aspects of this

program which provide positive results on various populations.

Research by Berlin (1977), found teaching empathy in conflict

situations and non-conflict situations using structured

learning to be effective with 42 adolescent boys who had a

history of acting-out behaviours in an institutional setting.


25Working with adolescents in groups has produced positive

results. Group work provides two major strengths: (1) the power of peer group of adolescents used to reinforce appropriate behaviour, and (2) teacher time is more efficiently used, according Cullinan & Epstein (1985).

Cognitive behavioral social skills curriculum packages are available such as the Chill-Out Program (Feindler & Guttman, 1994), ASSET (Hazel, Schumaker, Sherman, & Sheldon- Wildgen, 1981), Anger Control Program (Lochman, Nelson, & Sims, 1981), (Lochman, & Lenhart 1993), Anger Management for Youth (Eggert & Long, 1994), and Structured Learning Goldstein, Sprafkin, Gershaw, & Klein, 1980).

The assumption of Structured Learning (Goldstein, Sprafkin, Gershaw, & Klein, 1980) is that unskilled adolescents must become proficient at learning adaptive behaviours, such as getting along with others, controlling feelings, and coping. Another assumption is that learning to recognize anger must be followed by appropriate learned reaction.

There have been many studies using aspects of this program which provide positive results on various populations. Research by Berlin (1977), found teaching empathy in conflict situations and non-conflict situations using structured learning to be effective with 42 adolescent boys who had a history of acting-out behaviours in an institutional setting.


26

Cobb (1973) studied the acquisition and retention of

cooperative behaviour in first grade boys through

instructions, modelling, and structured learning. In this

study there were significant increases in the skill

acquisition of cooperation through structured learning on both

immediate and delayed tests. In one study by D. Fleming

(1977), significant increases were found in negotiating skill

acquisition with preadolescents when the group leader is a

respected peer or an adult. The transfer of the skills across

settings was not found. According to Goldstein et al (1986),

sixty incarcerated adolescents were randomly selected for a

ten session program (similar to the program in this study).

Results showed significantly less impulsiveness and fewer

behavioral incidents as reported by staff. In L.R. Flemming

(1977) structured learning with educable mentally retarded

children was successful in increasing assertiveness. Using

structured learning to teach self-control to aggressive

fathers from Puerto Rican low socioeconomic families was

effective in a study by Figueroa-Torres (1978). Structured

learning was used in training police officers to deal with

techniques in family crises intervention (Goldstein, Spafkin,

Gershaw, & Klein, 1980). Structured learning was also used

with psychiatric patients for learning independence and

assertiveness skills (Goldstein, Spafkin, Gershaw, & Klein,

1980). Structured learning for starting conversations with


26Cobb (1973) studied the acquisition and retention of cooperative behaviour in first grade boys through instructions, modelling, and structured learning. In this study there were significant increases in the skill acquisition of cooperation through structured learning on both immediate and delayed tests. In one study by D. Fleming (1977), significant increases were found in negotiating skill acquisition with preadolescents when the group leader is a respected peer or an adult. The transfer of the skills across settings was not found. According to Goldstein et al (1986), sixty incarcerated adolescents were randomly selected for a ten session program (similar to the program in this study). Results showed significantly less impulsiveness and fewer behavioral incidents as reported by staff. In L.R. Flemming (1977) structured learning with educable mentally retarded children was successful in increasing assertiveness. Using structured learning to teach self-control to aggressive fathers from Puerto Rican low socioeconomic families was effective in a study by Figueroa-Torres (1978). Structured learning was used in training police officers to deal with techniques in family crises intervention (Goldstein, Spafkin, Gershaw, & Klein, 1980). Structured learning was also used with psychiatric patients for learning independence and assertiveness skills (Goldstein, Spafkin, Gershaw, & Klein, 1980). Structured learning for starting conversations with


27

institutionalized elderly patients was effective according to

Goldstein, Spafkin, Gershaw, & Klein (1980).

Goldstein, Spafkin, Gershaw, & Klein (1980) cited 13 more

studies that used structured learning (developed by Goldstein)

resulting in positive program outcomes. Structured learning

in these studies was used to teach aggressive and socially

maladjusted adolescents skills, such as empathy, ability to

negotiate, self-control, assertiveness, helping others,

responding to a complaint, and ability to follow directions.

Structured learning techniques were used in Goldstein &

Glick (1987) for aggressive replacement training, and a

comprehensive curriculum was developed to teach many prosocial

skills (Goldstein, 1988). Goldstein's anger control program

was developed from a program by Feindler's Anger Control

Training for multisuspended delinquents in Baltimore

(Feindler, Marriott, & Iwata, 1984). Anger Control Training

is a program based on cognitive-behaviour modification.

According to Cullinan and Epstein (1985), this program has had

many successes in improving maladapted students' self-control,

problem-solving ability, and disruptiveness.

Feindler, Marriott, and Iwata, (1984) found that

"behaviour modification programs have manipulated the

consequences of aggressive behaviour through either

reinforcement (Anderson, Fodor, & Alpert, 1976; Hobbs and

Holt, 1976), contracting (Weathers & Liberman, 1975), or


27institutionalized elderly patients was effective according to Goldstein, Spafkin, Gershaw, & Klein (1980).

Goldstein, Spafkin, Gershaw, & Klein (1980) cited 13 more studies that used structured learning (developed by Goldstein) resulting in positive program outcomes. Structured learning in these studies was used to teach aggressive and socially maladjusted adolescents skills, such as empathy, ability to negotiate, self-control, assertiveness, helping others, responding to a complaint, and ability to follow directions.

Structured learning techniques were used in Goldstein & Glick (1987) for aggressive replacement training, and a comprehensive curriculum was developed to teach many prosocial skills (Goldstein, 1988). Goldstein's anger control program was developed from a program by Feindler's Anger Control Training for multisuspended delinquents in Baltimore (Feindler, Marriott, & Iwata, 1984). Anger Control Training is a program based on cognitive-behaviour modification. According to Cullinan and Epstein (1985), this program has had many successes in improving maladapted students' self-control, problem-solving ability, and disruptiveness.

Feindler, Marriott, and Iwata, (1984) found that "behaviour modification programs have manipulated the consequences of aggressive behaviour through either reinforcement (Anderson, Fodor, & Alpert, 1976; Hobbs and Holt, 1976), contracting (Weathers & Liberman, 1975), or


28

response cost and time-out (Kaufman & O'Leary, 1972)" (p.300)

while these programs take place. Kazdin (1977) and Feindler,

Marriott, & Iwata (1984) concluded that while these programs

have been productive, behavioral improvements usually decrease

after the withdrawal of these types of programs. Behaviour

modification alone is not enough. Olweus (1979) assessed

adolescent aggression as a non-situation-specific phenomenon.

Therefore, treatment programs should incorporate maintenance

and transfer of behaviour change.

A cognitive component is necessary for learning

appropriate behaviour and for generalizing behaviour. This

cognitive component includes self-control techniques and

social skills training through educating the skill-deficient

adolescent. According to Saunders, Reppucci, and Sarato

(1973), aggression in adolescents lacks instrumentality, and

exists as an impulsive reaction to provocation. This would

support self control programs.

According to Cullinan and Epstein (1985), "social skills

training is a fast growing, highly favourable approach to

educating behaviorally disordered adolescents" (p.5).

Goldstein's structured learning program (based on Feindler's

program) incorporates techniques such as modelling, role-

playing, and graduated homework assignments. Sarason and

Sarason (1981) report that these techniques reduce behaviour

problems of delinquent adolescents. Elder, Edelstein, and


28response cost and time-out (Kaufman & O'Leary, 1972)" (p.300) while these programs take place. Kazdin (1977) and Feindler, Marriott, & Iwata (1984) concluded that while these programs have been productive, behavioral improvements usually decrease after the withdrawal of these types of programs. Behaviour modification alone is not enough. Olweus (1979) assessed adolescent aggression as a non-situation-specific phenomenon. Therefore, treatment programs should incorporate maintenance and transfer of behaviour change.

A cognitive component is necessary for learning appropriate behaviour and for generalizing behaviour. This cognitive component includes self-control techniques and social skills training through educating the skill-deficient adolescent. According to Saunders, Reppucci, and Sarato (1973), aggression in adolescents lacks instrumentality, and exists as an impulsive reaction to provocation. This would support self control programs.

According to Cullinan and Epstein (1985), "social skills training is a fast growing, highly favourable approach to educating behaviorally disordered adolescents" (p.5). Goldstein's structured learning program (based on Feindler's program) incorporates techniques such as modelling, role- playing, and graduated homework assignments. Sarason and Sarason (1981) report that these techniques reduce behaviour problems of delinquent adolescents. Elder, Edelstein, and


29

Narick (1979) found that these added techniques increased

appropriate social and assertive behaviours.

Bandura (1973) and Camp (1977) integrated cognitive

mediation along with operant and respondent procedures. They

found that a lack of verbal skills, a difficulty in coping

with stress and not enough cognitive mediation may lead to

anger and aggression. Rule and Nesdale (1976) reviewed

research on emotional behaviour and aggressive behaviour and

found that anger arousal serves as a cognitive mediator of

aggressive behaviour. Shure and Spivack (1972) found that

lack of problem-solving skills and an impulsivity are related

to aggressive behaviour in disturbed children. They tested

108 subjects from special schools and normal regular schools

for their cognitive capacity to solve life-related problems.

They found that independent of social class and intellectual

functioning, aggressive disturbed children expressed

pragmatic, impulsive, and physically aggressive "means-ends"

thinking. Shure and Spivak stated that "Means-ends thinking

is defined as an ability to construct a story plot that

reflects planning, awareness of potential obstacles, and

recognition of time necessary to reach a stated goal" (p.348).

Out of these findings, Meichenbaum (1977) extended

procedures to address these observed cognitive correlates and

developed the stress inoculation treatment paradigm. Stress

inoculation was originally proposed by Meichenbaum for the


29Narick (1979) found that these added techniques increased appropriate social and assertive behaviours.

Bandura (1973) and Camp (1977) integrated cognitive mediation along with operant and respondent procedures. They found that a lack of verbal skills, a difficulty in coping with stress and not enough cognitive mediation may lead to anger and aggression. Rule and Nesdale (1976) reviewed research on emotional behaviour and aggressive behaviour and found that anger arousal serves as a cognitive mediator of aggressive behaviour. Shure and Spivack (1972) found that lack of problem-solving skills and an impulsivity are related to aggressive behaviour in disturbed children. They tested 108 subjects from special schools and normal regular schools for their cognitive capacity to solve life-related problems. They found that independent of social class and intellectual functioning, aggressive disturbed children expressed pragmatic, impulsive, and physically aggressive "means-ends" thinking. Shure and Spivak stated that "Means-ends thinking is defined as an ability to construct a story plot that reflects planning, awareness of potential obstacles, and recognition of time necessary to reach a stated goal" (p.348).

Out of these findings, Meichenbaum (1977) extended procedures to address these observed cognitive correlates and developed the stress inoculation treatment paradigm. Stress inoculation was originally proposed by Meichenbaum for the


30

treatment of anxiety; Novaco adapted it for anger management.

Novaco suggested that restructuring cognitions is necessary to

control anger arousal and consequent aggressive behaviour. In

this method, the therapeutic task is to develop coping skills

in the client by exposing the client to manageable doses of a

stressor that would normally cause anger; the client would

then build up an immunity to anger provoking events and learn

to generalize these reactions to life situations. Novato

found that a combination of self-instruction (cognitive-

coping) and relaxation training is best with adult normal

populations (Anderson, 1985).

According to Deffenbacher, Story, Stark, Hogg and Brandon

(1987), cognitive-relaxation and social skills interventions

in the treatment of anger with adults produce significantly

positive outcomes. Cognitive-relaxation interventions were

slightly more effective than social skills interventions. A

follow up study was done a year later by Deffenbacher (1988).

He found that cognitive relaxation and social skills

interventions continued to show equally positive long term

effects.

Research indicates that any direct intervention program

for the treatment of anger is better than none (Anderson,

1985). Relaxation training, stress inoculation, and social

skills or problem solving are the best known interventions.

More research is needed to determine the effectiveness of the


30treatment of anxiety; Novaco adapted it for anger management. Novaco suggested that restructuring cognitions is necessary to control anger arousal and consequent aggressive behaviour. In this method, the therapeutic task is to develop coping skills in the client by exposing the client to manageable doses of a stressor that would normally cause anger; the client would then build up an immunity to anger provoking events and learn to generalize these reactions to life situations. Novaco found that a combination of self-instruction (cognitive- coping) and relaxation training is best with adult normal populations (Anderson, 1985).

According to Deffenbacher, Story, Stark, Hogg and Brandon (1987), cognitive-relaxation and social skills interventions in the treatment of anger with adults produce significantly positive outcomes. Cognitive-relaxation interventions were slightly more effective than social skills interventions. A follow up study was done a year later by Deffenbacher (1988). He found that cognitive relaxation and social skills interventions continued to show equally positive long term effects.

Research indicates that any direct intervention program for the treatment of anger is better than none (Anderson, 1985). Relaxation training, stress inoculation, and social skills or problem solving are the best known interventions. More research is needed to determine the effectiveness of the


31

Goldstein and Feindler programs with young adolescents in

schools.

Intervention programs for anger control may only be

useful in displaying short term positive effects in reducing

aggressiveness and disruptiveness. There is no indication

that they are effective over the long term. Most are too

brief to assess maintenance. Lochman and Lampron (1988)

indicate that these programs be used only as an adjunct to

more traditional therapeutic approaches. According to Lachman

and Lampron (1988), cognitive-behavioral interventions for

aggressive behaviour disorders are most effective when more

operant behaviour procedures, including reinforcement for goal

attainment, are used to augment the training and to ensure

maintenance of change.


31Goldstein and Feindler programs with young adolescents in schools.

Intervention programs for anger control may only be useful in displaying short term positive effects in reducing aggressiveness and disruptiveness. There is no indication that they are effective over the long term. Most are too brief to assess maintenance. Lochman and Lampron (1988) indicate that these programs be used only as an adjunct to more traditional therapeutic approaches. According to Lochman and Lampron (1988), cognitive-behavioral interventions for aggressive behaviour disorders are most effective when more operant behaviour procedures, including reinforcement for goal attainment, are used to augment the training and to ensure maintenance of change.


CHAPTER 3

METHODS

Introduction

This chapter contains a description of the subjects, the

intervention procedures, the test instruments used, and the

data collecting procedures.

The researcher obtained permission (Appendix I) from the

University of Regina Research Ethics Committee, the school

board administrations, the teachers, principals, parents or

guardians of each student subject. All student subjects

freely volunteered to take part in the study.

The Sublects

This study was quasi-experimental with a pretest-posttest

experimental and control group design. There were 10 subjects

in the experimental group and 8 in the control group from four

classrooms. In the initial research plan in the study, the

author intended to use 32 subjects from each of three

classrooms. Due to a large number of unforseen circumstances

beyond the researcher's control, complete data were obtained

from only ten subjects in the experimental group and eight in

the control group. These circumstances included student

truancy or suspension for various reasons, parents or

guardians not available for consent, and temperamental

dispositions.


CHAPTER 3METHODS

IntroductionThis chapter contains a description of the subjects, the

intervention procedures, the test instruments used, and the data collecting procedures.

The researcher obtained permission (Appendix I) from the University of Regina Research Ethics Committee, the school board administrations, the teachers, principals, parents or guardians of each student subject. All student subjects freely volunteered to take part in the study.

The SubjectsThis study was quasi-experimental with a pretest-posttest

experimental and control group design. There were 10 subjects in the experimental group and 8 in the control group from four classrooms. In the initial research plan in the study, the author intended to use 32 subjects from each of three classrooms. Due to a large number of unforseen circumstances beyond the researcher's control, complete data were obtained from only ten subjects in the experimental group and eight in the control group. These circumstances included student truancy or suspension for various reasons, parents or guardians not available for consent, and temperamental dispositions.


33

A short description of the students participating in the

treatment program is presented to give further insight into

the dynamics of the study period and to enhance the study

description. Students had various histories of running away,

aggressive and or withdrawal behaviours, young offender

infractions, childhood sexual abuse, attention deficits,

substance abuse, and/or family problems.

The students had a number of immediate concerns during

the study period. These concerns may have affected students'

moods or focused attention and were not necessarily out of the

realm of their usual stressful daily existence. These

concerns were reported by the students, their teachers,

parents or guardians during the study period. Most

difficulties related to their daily living activities outside

of school. For example, several reported they were in court

for various reasons such as sex offenses, theft, assault and

mischief. One student reported she was pregnant, and one

reported that his girlfriend was pregnant. Some lived in

temporary placements because of court rulings, family problems

or the unavailability of permanent places. One student's

family was involved with cult activities, and some students

and/or their families or extended families were involved in

illegal activities. Several families and extended families of

students were in the process of marriage breakups and changing

residences. Two students expressed a fear of physical abuse


33A short description of the students participating in the

treatment program is presented to give further insight into the dynamics of the study period and to enhance the study description. Students had various histories of running away, aggressive and or withdrawal behaviours, young offender infractions, childhood sexual abuse, attention deficits, substance abuse, and/or family problems.

The students had a number of immediate concerns during the study period. These concerns may have affected students' moods or focused attention and were not necessarily out of the realm of their usual stressful daily existence. These concerns were reported by the students, their teachers, parents or guardians during the study period. Most difficulties related to their daily living activities outside of school. For example, several reported they were in court for various reasons such as sex offenses, theft, assault and mischief. One student reported she was pregnant, and one reported that his girlfriend was pregnant. Some lived in temporary placements because of court rulings, family problems or the unavailability of permanent places. One student's family was involved with cult activities, and some students and/or their families or extended families were involved in illegal activities. Several families and extended families of students were in the process of marriage breakups and changing residences. Two students expressed a fear of physical abuse


34

at home. All students had enormous daily living pressures

outside of school which may have affected their focusing on

the tasks at hand. These pressures were noted when filling

out the pretest and posttest materials and the level of

participation during the sessions.

All subjects were students residing in an urban

Saskatchewan setting. They were 12 to 18 years of age and

were identified by school personnel through evaluations along

behavioral and emotional dimensions as having behaviour

problems. Subjects were from four behaviour program

classrooms. Behaviour program classrooms (within a mainstream

school) were designated for students with behaviour problems

identified at school, home and in the community.

Two classrooms combined to serve as the experimental

group and the remaining two matching classrooms served as the

control groups. The classrooms were matched by including one

classroom serving younger adolescents in an elementary setting

and the second classroom serving older adolescents in a high

school setting. One of each type of classroom was included in

the experimental and control group.

Students were selected from four classrooms designated

specifically for students with behaviour problems. One

classroom with students aged 12 to 15 participated in the

treatment program. Another classroom with students aged 16 to

18 participated also in the treatment program.


34at home. All students had enormous daily living pressures outside of school which may have affected their focusing on the tasks at hand. These pressures were noted when filling out the pretest and posttest materials and the level of participation during the sessions.

All subjects were students residing in an urban Saskatchewan setting. They were 12 to 18 years of age and were identified by school personnel through evaluations along behavioral and emotional dimensions as having behaviour problems. Subjects were from four behaviour program classrooms. Behaviour program classrooms (within a mainstream school) were designated for students with behaviour problems identified at school, home and in the community.

Two classrooms combined to serve as the experimental group and the remaining two matching classrooms served as the control groups. The classrooms were matched by including one classroom serving younger adolescents in an elementary setting and the second classroom serving older adolescents in a high school setting. One of each type of classroom was included in the experimental and control group.

Students were selected from four classrooms designated specifically for students with behaviour problems. One classroom with students aged 12 to 15 participated in the treatment program. Another classroom with students aged 16 to 18 participated also in the treatment program.


35

The remaining students served as the no intervention

program control group. These students attended their regular

daily programs within their behaviour classrooms.

The subjects ranged in age from 12 to 18 years, as of the

commencement of the treatment program (May 6, 1992). The ages

of the 18 subjects who participated are shown in Table 1.

Half of subjects were 12 to 14 years of age. Two thirds of

the subjects were between 14 and 15 years. The mean age of

the subjects 14.5 years.

All subjects were boys except for two girls. One girl

was in the experimental group and the other was in the control

group. Both were the same age (15 years old).

No attempts were made to control for sex, race,

socioeconomic status, or previous involvement in any other

anger control program. The only criterion for inclusion was

that the clients were identified as having behaviour problems

by school officials and attended alternate school behaviour

programs.

Pilot Studv

The author conducted a pilot study on adolescent students

with behaviour problems from another urban Saskatchewan

behaviour classroom. The students appeared responsive to the

treatment program and were willing to fill out the written

test instruments. Program design and implementation details,


35The remaining students served as the no intervention

program control group. These students attended their regular daily programs within their behaviour classrooms.

The subjects ranged in age from 12 to 18 years, as of the commencement of the treatment program (May 6, 1992). The ages of the 18 subjects who participated are shown in Table 1. Half of subjects were 12 to 14 years of age. Two thirds of the subjects were between 14 and 15 years. The mean age ofthe subjects 14.5 years.

All subjects were boys except for two girls. One girlwas in the experimental group and the other was in the controlgroup. Both were the same age (15 years old).

No attempts were made to control for sex, race, socioeconomic status, or previous involvement in any other anger control program. The only criterion for inclusion was that the clients were identified as having behaviour problems by school officials and attended alternate school behaviour programs.

Pilot StudyThe author conducted a pilot study on adolescent students

with behaviour problems from another urban Saskatchewan behaviour classroom. The students appeared responsive to the treatment program and were willing to fill out the written test instruments. Program design and implementation details,


36

Table 1

Demographic Data for Subjects

Aqe Number of Subjects Percentage of Total

12 1 5.5

13 3 6.6

14 5 27.7

15 7 38.8

16 0 0

17 1 5.5

18 1 5.5

N=18

such as classroom management and leader preparation details,

time limits, and responsiveness to learning specific social

skills and role play examples, were also determined during the

pilot study.

The Treatment

Over a 6 week period two treatment programs were

conducted by the researcher and assisted by the Teacher

Assistant from each of the two classrooms. Treatment programs

were conducted in the school setting during school program

hours. Participants in the non—treatment program continued


Table 1Demographic Data for Subjects

36

Age Number of Subjects Percentage of Total

12 1 5.513 3 6.614 5 27.715 7 38.816 0 017 1 5.518 1 5.5

N=1 8such as classroom management and leader preparation details, time limits, and responsiveness to learning specific social skills and role play examples, were also determined during the pilot study.

The TreatmentOver a 6 week period two treatment programs were

conducted by the researcher and assisted by the Teacher Assistant from each of the two classrooms. Treatment programs were conducted in the school setting during school program hours. Participants in the non-treatment program continued


37

with their daily academic school program.

The treatment was based on Goldstein's curriculum (1988)

which included ten sections of skill competencies. The first

of these provided a set of procedures to enhance prosocial

skills in the area of interpersonal skills. This section was

formerly referred to as Structured Learning Skills in

Goldstein and Glick (1987) and in Goldstein, Sprafkin, Gershaw

and Klein (1980). The second section used in this program's

study was adapted from the section referred to as Anger

Control training. This section provided specific training

procedures for teaching youth a means for decelerating anger

arousal, which according to Goldstein, is "a major precursor

of antisocial, aggressive behaviour."(p. 247). Two sections

of this curriculum were used in this study.

Goldstein's (1988) program supported Bandura's (1969,

1973) social learning, behaviour-deficit model. The program

provides a series of social learning instructional procedures

for skills such as expressing a complaint, responding to the

feelings of others, preparing for a stressful conversation,

responding to anger, keeping out of fights, helping others,

dealing with an accusation, dealing with group pressure,

expressing affection, and responding to failure. This

intervention program was based on active and deliberate

teachings of desirable behaviours and is designed to

strengthen various prosocial behaviours such as problem


37with their daily academic school program.

The treatment was based on Goldstein's curriculum (1988) which included ten sections of skill competencies. The first of these provided a set of procedures to enhance prosocial skills in the area of interpersonal skills. This section was formerly referred to as Structured Learning Skills in Goldstein and Glick (1987) and in Goldstein, Sprafkin, Gershaw and Klein (1980). The second section used in this program's study was adapted from the section referred to as Anger Control training. This section provided specific training procedures for teaching youth a means for decelerating anger arousal, which according to Goldstein, is "a major precursor of antisocial, aggressive behaviour."(p. 247). Two sections of this curriculum were used in this study.

Goldstein's (1988) program supported Bandura's (1969, 1973) social learning, behaviour-deficit model. The program provides a series of social learning instructional procedures for skills such as expressing a complaint, responding to the feelings of others, preparing for a stressful conversation, responding to anger, keeping out of fights, helping others, dealing with an accusation, dealing with group pressure, expressing affection, and responding to failure. This intervention program was based on active and deliberate teachings of desirable behaviours and is designed to strengthen various prosocial behaviours such as problem


38

solving, interpersonal skills and accurate situational

perception. The anger control program component attempted to

decelerate anger arousal and, in turn, reduce aggressive

behaviour. It was designed for small group work. Specific

skills were taught in each session. The following were

examples of skills to choose to work on in the prosocial

skills part of the Goldstein (1988,p. 91-91) program: giving

instructions, following instructions, apologizing, convincing

others, knowing your feelings, understanding the feelings of

others, dealing with someone else's anger, expressing your

feelings, negotiating, using self control, standing up for

your rights, rewarding yourself, responding to teasing,

keeping out of fights, avoiding trouble with others, making a

complaint, sportsmanship after a game, answering a complaint,

dealing with embarrassment, dealing with being left out,

standing up for a friend, responding to persuasion, responding

to failure, dealing with contradictory messages, dealing with

an accusation, and concentrating on a task.

The skills chosen for this study were identified by the

students' teachers and the author as skills from which the

students could benefit most. These were dealing with group

pressure, using self-control, standing up for your rights,

responding to teasing, and keeping out of fights.

The format of this program was presented in four steps.

In the first step, the leader (the researcher) and the co-


38solving, interpersonal skills and accurate situational perception. The anger control program component attempted to decelerate anger arousal and, in turn, reduce aggressive behaviour. It was designed for small group work. Specific skills were taught in each session. The following were examples of skills to choose to work on in the prosocial skills part of the Goldstein (1988,p. 91-91) program: giving instructions, following instructions, apologizing, convincing others, knowing your feelings, understanding the feelings of others, dealing with someone else's anger, expressing your feelings, negotiating, using self control, standing up for your rights, rewarding yourself, responding to teasing, keeping out of fights, avoiding trouble with others, making a complaint, sportsmanship after a game, answering a complaint, dealing with embarrassment, dealing with being left out, standing up for a friend, responding to persuasion, responding to failure, dealing with contradictory messages, dealing with an accusation, and concentrating on a task.

The skills chosen for this study were identified by the students’ teachers and the author as skills from which the students could benefit most. These were dealing with group pressure, using self-control, standing up for your rights, responding to teasing, and keeping out of fights.

The format of this program was presented in four steps. In the first step, the leader (the researcher) and the co


39

leader (the classroom teacher/aid) modeled for the students

several examples of expert use of the behaviours that

comprised of the skills in which the students were deficient.

For example, an alternative to aggression skill, may be the

skill of "staying out of fights". This was modeled following

the specific steps outlined by Goldstein's program.

In the second step, the students were given several

guided opportunities to practice these skills through role

playing. (Students were asked to volunteer to role play, but

were not forced.) Role playing was intended to serve as a

behavioral rehearsal and practice for potential future use of

the skill. Made-up situations were real-life plausible

situations to which the students could relate. Students

practised the behavioral steps that were modelled in step one.

In the third step, the students were given performance

feedback. This feedback was given with reference to how well

the role-play skill enactments match the expert model's

portrayals. Comments were given in relation to how well the

steps were followed and to provide social reinforcement.

The final step included transfer training which included

homework activities designed to increase the chances that

skills learned in the training sessions would also be used in

school, home, community, that is, in real situations.

Students were given home work sheets in order to practice the

skills outside the classroom should a similar situation occur.


39leader (the classroom teacher/aid) modeled for the students several examples of expert use of the behaviours that comprised of the skills in which the students were deficient. For example, an alternative to aggression skill, may be the skill of "staying out of fights". This was modeled following the specific steps outlined by Goldstein's program.

In the second step, the students were given several guided opportunities to practice these skills through role playing. (Students were asked to volunteer to role play, but were not forced. ) Role playing was intended to serve as a behavioral rehearsal and practice for potential future use of the skill. Made-up situations were real-life plausible situations to which the students could relate. Students practised the behavioral steps that were modelled in step one.

In the third step, the students were given performance feedback. This feedback was given with reference to how well the role-play skill enactments match the expert model's portrayals. Comments were given in relation to how well the steps were followed and to provide social reinforcement.

The final step included transfer training which included homework activities designed to increase the chances that skills learned in the training sessions would also be used in school, home, community, that is, in real situations. Students were given home work sheets in order to practice the skills outside the classroom should a similar situation occur.


40

While the prosocial skills part of the program had the

goal of interpersonal skill behaviour facilitation, the anger

control part of the program taught anti-social behaviour

inhibition. This section included the reduction and

management or control of aggression and anger.

Youths were taught to respond to provocations which

elicit anger in more acceptable ways. Students learn a chain

of responses consisting of:

(1) triggers-- identifying internal (self statement) and external events that function as one's anger stimuli; (2) cues-- kinaesthetic or other physiological sensations or experiences signifying anger arousal; (3) reminders-- the first of several anger-reducing techniques taught ( in this instance, how to generate arousal-reducing self-statements); (4) reducers-- techniques such as backward counting, deep breathing, peaceful imagery, and reflection on long-term consequences; (5) utilization of the appropriate Structured Learning skill (interpersonal skill) alternative to anger or aggression; (6) self-evaluation-- of the utilization and results of steps 1 through five in the anger control sequence (Goldstein and Glick,1987,p.14-15).

The program consisted of ten 45 to 60 minute biweekly

lessons. Students practised one skill during each session.

Skills practised and learned in lessons were further practised

outside the class by way of homework assignments. The

homework included the completion of a "Homework report"

(Appendix A), or "Hassle Logs" (see Appendix B), in which the

students or trainees described current conflicts and the

manner in which the conflicts were resolved. These "Hassle

Logs" were filled out between sessions. The homework was


40While the prosocial skills part of the program had the

goal of interpersonal skill behaviour facilitation, the anger control part of the program taught anti-social behaviour inhibition. This section included the reduction and management or control of aggression and anger.

Youths were taught to respond to provocations which elicit anger in more acceptable ways. Students learn a chain of responses consisting of:

(1) triggers— identifying internal (self statement) and external events that function as one's anger stimuli; (2) cues— kinaesthetic or other physiological sensations or experiences signifying anger arousal; (3) reminders— the first of several anger-reducing techniques taught ( in this instance, how to generate arousal-reducing self-statements); (4) reducers— techniques such as backward counting, deep breathing, peaceful imagery, and reflection on long-term consequences; (5) utilization of the appropriate Structured Learning skill (interpersonal skill) alternative to anger or aggression; (6) self-evaluation— of the utilization and results of steps 1 through five in the anger control sequence (Goldstein and Glick,1987,p.14-15).

The program consisted of ten 45 to 60 minute biweekly lessons. Students practised one skill during each session. Skills practised and learned in lessons were further practised outside the class by way of homework assignments. The homework included the completion of a "Homework report" (Appendix A), or "Hassle Logs" (see Appendix B), in which the students or trainees described current conflicts and the manner in which the conflicts were resolved. These "Hassle Logs" were filled out between sessions. The homework was


41

important for transfer learning outside the sessions.

Content of Sessions

During the first session, introductions took place, the

researcher explained an overview of the program, and discussed

group rules, and the introduction and practice of the first

skill took place. The step components of each lesson were

explained. These consisted of modelling (Researcher and

Teacher Aid showing the skill), role-playing (students trying

the skill), performance feedback (discussing what happened),

and transfer (practice with others and use of the homework).

During sessions two to five, homework forms were

explained and completed and one new skill learning each

session took place. Skill learning was taught in the same

format as in lesson one.

During session six, the introduction to Anger Control

Training, rules and procedures, and the A-B-Cs of aggressive

behaviour took place. The A is "What led up to the anger?"

The B is "What did you do?" The C is "What were the

consequences?" The "Hassle Log" was introduced at this time.

During session seven, the class discussed how to identify

and react when one is angry (cues). Then students were

introduced to three anger reducers. They were as follows:

Anger reducer one was deep breathing; Anger reducer two was

backward counting; Anger reducer three is pleasant imagery.


41important for transfer learning outside the sessions.

Content of SessionsDuring the first session, introductions took place, the

researcher explained an overview of the program, and discussed group rules, and the introduction and practice of the first skill took place. The step components of each lesson were explained. These consisted of modelling (Researcher and Teacher Aid showing the skill), role-playing (students trying the skill), performance feedback (discussing what happened), and transfer (practice with others and use of the homework).

During sessions two to five, homework forms were explained and completed and one new skill learning each session took place. Skill learning was taught in the same format as in lesson one.

During session six, the introduction to Anger Control Training, rules and procedures, and the A-B-Cs of aggressive behaviour took place. The A is "What led up to the anger?" The B is "What did you do?" The C is "What were the consequences?" The "Hassle Log" was introduced at this time.

During session seven, the class discussed how to identify and react when one is angry (cues). Then students were introduced to three anger reducers. They were as follows: Anger reducer one was deep breathing; Anger reducer two was backward counting; Anger reducer three is pleasant imagery.


42

The students then role played the cues followed by anger

reducers and discuss their "Hassle Logs".

In the eighth session, the class discussed what makes one

angry (triggers). A discussion about internal and external

triggers followed. Students then role played triggers, cues,

and anger reducers. Then the author introduced how to use

"reminders" such as "stay cool" and "take a deep breath."

Next, they modelled and role-played the developing sequence,

that is, triggers, cues, reminders, and anger reducers.

During session nine, the author introduced "self-

evaluation" in terms of self-rewards and self-coaching through

role-playing the sequence: (1)triggers, (2) cues, (3)

reminders, (4) anger reducer(s) plus, (5) self-evaluation.

There was an introduction to "thinking ahead" in terms of

short and long-term consequences, most and least serious

consequences, and internal, external and social consequences.

The students are asked to name three things that they do to

make others angry, role-play, practice, and try to change one

thing for the next session. The "Hassle Logs" were

encouraged.

In session ten, a rehearsal of the full sequence of anger

control took place. The class would review the "Hassle Logs",

practice and role-play. The anger control techniques were

then recapped, and the students were encouraged to continue to

use the cycle.


42The students then role played the cues followed by anger reducers and discuss their "Hassle Logs".

In the eighth session, the class discussed what makes one angry (triggers). A discussion about internal and external triggers followed. Students then role played triggers, cues, and anger reducers. Then the author introduced how to use "reminders" such as "stay cool" and "take a deep breath." Next, they modelled and role-played the developing sequence, that is, triggers, cues, reminders, and anger reducers.

During session nine, the author introduced "self- evaluation" in terms of self-rewards and self-coaching through role-playing the sequence: (1)triggers, (2) cues, (3)reminders, (4) anger reducer(s) plus, (5) self-evaluation. There was an introduction to "thinking ahead" in terms of short and long-term consequences, most and least serious consequences, and internal, external and social consequences. The students are asked to name three things that they do to make others angry, role-play, practice, and try to change one thing for the next session. The "Hassle Logs" were encouraged.

In session ten, a rehearsal of the full sequence of anger control took place. The class would review the "Hassle Logs", practice and role-play. The anger control techniques were then recapped, and the students were encouraged to continue to use the cycle.


43

The study's experimental intervention program concluded

after the tenth session. The classroom teachers of the

students regular behaviour program may encourage the

continuation of the "Hassle Logs" and review the sequence, or

teach more skills after the tenth session. This would

encourage more skill development and transfer learning.

Format and Procedures for Conducting the Study

At the beginning of the ten sessions, all subjects in the

two control groups and the two experimental groups were tested

with the two standardized tests. All teachers completed the

teacher forms of one standardized test, and all parents

completed the parent form of the same test.

The author took attendance at each session and also kept

detailed notes on student reactions, training processes,

session success and sessional abnormalities. At two students'

request, no sessions were recorded.

At the end of the ten sessions, all subjects in the two

control groups and the two experimental groups were again

tested with the two tests administered in the pretesting.

Teachers also completed the teacher forms again with the test

administered in the pretesting.


43The study's experimental intervention program concluded

after the tenth session. The classroom teachers of the students regular behaviour program may encourage the continuation of the "Hassle Logs" and review the sequence, or teach more skills after the tenth session. This would encourage more skill development and transfer learning.

Format and Procedures for Conducting the StudyAt the beginning of the ten sessions, all subjects in the

two control groups and the two experimental groups were tested with the two standardized tests. All teachers completed the teacher forms of one standardized test, and all parents completed the parent form of the same test.

The author took attendance at each session and also kept detailed notes on student reactions, training processes, session success and sessional abnormalities. At two students' request, no sessions were recorded.

At the end of the ten sessions, all subjects in the two control groups and the two experimental groups were again tested with the two tests administered in the pretesting. Teachers also completed the teacher forms again with the test administered in the pretesting.


44

Instruments for Data Collection

The following instruments were used for collecting data.

These instruments were selected from a scarce pool of

applicable measurement devices appropriate to the reading

level and interests of the adolescent subjects. The test

instruments were the most up to date in the current available

literature, and were recommended (Bisken, 1990; Laff, 1990).

1. State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory

The State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI)-

Research Edition (Speilberger, 1991) was used to measure

subjects' anger control levels. It is designed to measure

experiences of anger and the expressions of anger. The test

has 44 items which measure the subjects experiences of anger.

Experiences of anger are subdivided into state and trait

anger. Scores for anger temperament and anger reaction are

obtained from subscales of trait anger. Anger expression

includes anger control as defined by Speilberger (1991) in the

test manual. Anger expression is measured by Anger-In, and

Anger-Out, and Anger Control subscales.

The STAXI inventory is designed for individuals aged 13

years and older. The instrument can be group administered to

individuals who have at least fifth grade reading skills. The

test takes 15 minutes to administer. The STAXI is used as a

screening and outcome measure in psychotherapy and stress


44Instruments for Data Collection

The following instruments were used for collecting data. These instruments were selected from a scarce pool of applicable measurement devices appropriate to the reading level and interests of the adolescent subjects. The test instruments were the most up to date in the current available literature, and were recommended (Bisken, 1990; Laff, 1990).

1 . State-Trait Anger Expression InventoryThe State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI)-

Research Edition (Speilberger, 1991) was used to measure subjects' anger control levels. It is designed to measure experiences of anger and the expressions of anger. The test has 44 items which measure the subjects experiences of anger. Experiences of anger are subdivided into state and trait anger. Scores for anger temperament and anger reaction are obtained from subscales of trait anger. Anger expression includes anger control as defined by Speilberger {1991) in the test manual. Anger expression is measured by Anger-In, and Anger-Out, and Anger Control subscales.

The STAXI inventory is designed for individuals aged 13 years and older. The instrument can be group administered to individuals who have at least fifth grade reading skills. The test takes 15 minutes to administer. The STAXI is used as a screening and outcome measure in psychotherapy and stress


45

management programs. Studies support its use in research on

behaviour disorders programs, particularly in the field of

behaviour medicine. Kinder, Curtiss, and Kalichman (1986) have

used the STAXI scales in a number of studies of psychological

factors that contribute to chronic pain. The STAXI scales

have been used in studies of anger management and treatment by

Deffenbacher and his colleagues (Deffenbacher, Demm, &

Brandon, 1986; Hazaleus & Deffenbacher, 1986).

The scale was standardized on 246 individuals, aged 13 to

65, in the Brandenton normative sample (Spielberger 1991).

The median reliability (coefficients alpha) reported for all

the STAXI scales was .82, for the State and Trait subscales

.85, and for the anger expression subscales .78. Construct

validity was supported by Biskin (1984). Trait anger

correlated with hostility scales. Face validity and

reliability was supported by Retzlaff (1984). Internal

consistencies for the main scales were as follows: State Anger

.93, Trait Anger .87, Anger-in .82, Anger-out .74, Anger

Control .84, Angry Temperament .86, and the Angry Reaction

scale .70. High correlations are reported between Anger-Out

and Anger Control and between Anger-Out and Trait Anger

(Retzlaff, 1984).

2. The Social Skills Rating System (SSRS)

The Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) developed by


45management programs. Studies support its use in research on behaviour disorders programs, particularly in the field of behaviour medicine. Kinder, Curtiss, and Kalichman (1986) have used the STAXI scales in a number of studies of psychological factors that contribute to chronic pain. The STAXI scales have been used in studies of anger management and treatment by Deffenbacher and his colleagues (Deffenbacher, Demm, & Brandon, 1986; Hazaleus & Deffenbacher, 1986).

The scale was standardized on 246 individuals, aged 13 to 65, in the Brandenton normative sample (Spielberger 1991). The median reliability (coefficients alpha) reported for all the STAXI scales was .82, for the State and Trait subscales .85, and for the anger expression subscales .78. Construct validity was supported by Biskin (1984). Trait anger correlated with hostility scales. Face validity and reliability was supported by Retzlaff (1984). Internal consistencies for the main scales were as follows: State Anger .93, Trait Anger .87, Anger-in .82, Anger-out .74, Anger Control .84, Angry Temperament .86, and the Angry Reaction scale .70. High correlations are reported between Anger-Out and Anger Control and between Anger-Out and Trait Anger (Retzlaff, 1984).

2. The Social Skills Rating System (SSRS)The Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) developed by


46

Gresham and Elliot (1990) is a series of Questionnaires

designed to evaluate social skills (including subtests of

cooperation, assertion and self-control), problem behaviours

(including subtests of externalizing and internalizing) and

academic competence. There are three forms for rating

children, ages 3 to 18. One form is completed by the teacher,

another form by the parent, and another form by the student.

The teacher and student forms were used in this study. Each

test takes 15 to 25 minutes to complete.

The SSRS was standardized in 1988 on a United States

sample of over 4,000 children, ages three to 18 years and

stratified by sex and grade. Internal consistency

reliabilities ranged from .71 to .94 on total scores and

subscales scores. Test-retest reliability coefficients (four

to six weeks) ranged from .52 to .88 on total scores and

subscale scores. The SSRS teacher and parent forms

demonstrated a correlation range from .60 to .80 with the

Social Behaviour Assessment, the Walker-McConnell Scale of

Social Competence, and Harter Teacher Rating Scale.

Correlations for social skills and problem behaviours using

student raters was from .20 to .45 when compared to the Child

Behaviour Checklist - Youth Self-Report Form and the Piers-

Harris Children's Self Concept Scale. Spielberger (1991)

suggests the lack of measures for students may contribute to

the weak evidence for construct validity for the SSRS student


46Gresham and Elliot (1990) is a series of Questionnaires designed to evaluate social skills (including subtests of cooperation, assertion and self-control), problem behaviours (including subtests of externalizing and internalizing) and academic competence. There are three forms for rating children, ages 3 to 18. One form is completed by the teacher, another form by the parent, and another form by the student. The teacher and student forms were used in this study. Each test takes 15 to 25 minutes to complete.

The SSRS was standardized in 1988 on a United States sample of over 4,000 children, ages three to 18 years and stratified by sex and grade. Internal consistency reliabilities ranged from .71 to .94 on total scores and subscales scores. Test-retest reliability coefficients (four to six weeks) ranged from .52 to .88 on total scores and subscale scores. The SSRS teacher and parent forms demonstrated a correlation range from .60 to .80 with the Social Behaviour Assessment, the Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Competence, and Harter Teacher Rating Scale. Correlations for social skills and problem behaviours using student raters was from .20 to .45 when compared to the Child Behaviour Checklist - Youth Self-Report Form and the Piers- Harris Children's Self Concept Scale. Spielberger (1991) suggests the lack of measures for students may contribute to the weak evidence for construct validity for the SSRS student


47

form.

Other Evaluation Methods

1. Students' Informal Evaluation of the Intervention

In addition to the two standardized tests administered

both before and after the treatment period, students evaluated

the program through a questionnaire. The students responded

to the following: whether they have participated in anger

programs previously, how this program compared to any previous

programs, what they learned from the program, how they rated

the instructor, how helpful they felt the program was to them,

and if they have changed any of their behaviours and if so,

the location, that is, at home, school or in the community

(Appendix C).

2. Two students were interviewed six months after the end of

the intervention. They were asked about what they remembered

about the program and if they have made use of any of the

information and techniques from the program. Information from

the interviews was examined and interpretations were made.

3. Teacher Interviews

Each of the four classroom teachers were interviewed

after the program. Interviews were taped and transcribed with

permission. Themes were collected from teachers who were

asked to talk about themselves as teachers, their students,


47

form.

Other Evaluation Methods1. Students' Informal Evaluation of the Intervention

In addition to the two standardized tests administered both before and after the treatment period, students evaluated the program through a questionnaire. The students responded to the following: whether they have participated in anger programs previously, how this program compared to any previous programs, what they learned from the program, how they rated the instructor, how helpful they felt the program was to them, and if they have changed any of their behaviours and if so, the location, that is, at home, school or in the community (Appendix C).2. Two students were interviewed six months after the end of the intervention. They were asked about what they remembered about the program and if they have made use of any of the information and techniques from the program. Information from the interviews was examined and interpretations were made.

3. Teacher InterviewsEach of the four classroom teachers were interviewed

after the program. Interviews were taped and transcribed with permission. Themes were collected from teachers who were asked to talk about themselves as teachers, their students,


48

vievs on teaching anger management and social skills,

outcomes, and reactions to the treatment program.

Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics consisting of means and standard

deviations of the pretest and posttest scores of the State-

Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI) -Research Edition

and the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) were calculated.

Significance of differences was tested by t tests for

independent means. Additionally, pretest and posttest

subtests scores of anger state, anger trait, anger

temperament, anger reaction, anger experience, anger in, anger

out, anger expression, and anger control from the STAXI test

and the social skills, behaviour problems, and academic

competence subtests of the SSRS scales were compared. One-way

analysis of variance was used to test the significance of

difference between experimental and control groups on the

social skills and anger variables.

The following comparisons were made on the pretest and

posttest administrations of the Social Skills Rating System:

(a) Significant differences between teacher pretest and

posttest scores and (b) differences between student pretest

and posttest scores.

Differences between the two experimental groups were also

tested for significance. A one-way analysis of variance was


48viev.’S on teaching anger management and social skills, outcomes, and reactions to the treatment program.

Statistical AnalysisDescriptive statistics consisting of means and standard

deviations of the pretest and posttest scores of the State- Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI) -Research Edition and the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) were calculated. Significance of differences was tested by t tests for independent means. Additionally, pretest and posttest subtests scores of anger state, anger trait, anger temperament, anger reaction, anger experience, anger in, anger out, anger expression, and anger control from the STAXI test and the social skills, behaviour problems, and academic competence subtests of the SSRS scales were compared. One-way analysis of variance was used to test the significance of difference between experimental and control groups on the social skills and anger variables.

The following comparisons were made on the pretest and posttest administrations of the Social Skills Rating System: (a) Significant differences between teacher pretest and posttest scores and (b) differences between student pretest and posttest scores.

Differences between the two experimental groups were also tested for significance. A one-way analysis of variance v/as


49

used to analyze social skills and anger experience and

expression measures between experimental and control groups.

A content analysis of the sessions and written records was

carried out to study the potential effects of the program.


49used to analyze social skills and anger experience and expression measures between experimental and control groups. A content analysis of the sessions and written records was carried out to study the potential effects of the program.


CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

Statistical Analysis of the Research Data

Comparisons of mean scores using t tests and a one-way

analysis of the variance between groups on the tests are

presented in Table 2.

The statistical results show no statistically significant

differences in social skills between treatment and non-

treatment groups.

Table 2 presents the pretest and posttest comparisons within

and between experimental and control groups using the Social

Skills Rating System student rating form (SSRSs).

Results for the student ratings of the subscales of

Cooperation, Assertion, Empathy, and Self-Control are

presented in Table 3. Table 3 shows differences between

pretest experimental group scores and posttest experimental

and control group scores. No statistically significant

differences in the social skills subtests of cooperation,

assertion, empathy, and self control were found between

experimental and control groups using the Social Skills Rating

System student rating form (SSRSs). An analysis of covariance

which accounted for the pretest differences still showed no

significant difference on this posttest by group.


CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

Statistical Analysis of the Research DataComparisons of mean scores using t. tests and a one-way

analysis of the variance between groups on the tests are presented in Table 2.

The statistical results show no statistically significant differences in social skills between treatment and nontreatment groups.Table 2 presents the pretest and posttest comparisons within and between experimental and control groups using the Social Skills Rating System student rating form (SSRSs).

Results for the student ratings of the subscales of Cooperation, Assertion, Empathy, and Self-Control are presented in Table 3. Table 3 shows differences between pretest experimental group scores and posttest experimental and control group scores. No statistically significant differences in the social skills subtests of cooperation, assertion, empathy, and self control were found between experimental and control groups using the Social Skills Rating System student rating form (SSRSs). An analysis of covariance which accounted for the pretest differences still showed no significant difference on this posttest by group.


51

Table 2

Tests of Significance of Differences in Social Skills in the Experimental and Control Groups

Mean S.D. df t Values*

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

Pretest Social Skills (Student Rating) 82.6 23.12

9 -1.61 Posttest Social Skills (Student Rating) 90.6 14.11

CONTROL GROUP

Pretest Social Skills (Student Rating) 91.25 19.29

7 -2.26 Posttest Social Skills (Student Rating) 99.63 13.29

POSTTEST SOCIAL SKILLS EXPERIMENTAL x CONTROL

Experimental 90.60 14.11 16 -1.39

Control 99.63 13.29

* all nonsignificant at P<.05


51Table 2

Tests of Significance of Differences in Social Skills in the Experimental and Control Groups

Mean S.D. df t. Values*EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

Pretest Social Skills (Student Rating)Posttest Social Skills (Student Rating)

82.6

90.6

23.12

14.119 -1 .61

CONTROL GROUPPretest Social Skills (Student Rating)Posttest Social Skills (Student Rating)

91 .25

99.63

19.29

13.297 -2.26

POSTTEST SOCIAL SKILLS EXPERIMENTAL x CONTROLExperimentalControl

90.6099.63

14.1113.29

16 -1 .39



52

Examination of the results shows that there were no

statistically significant differences in Anger Expression and

Anger Experience (Anger State and Anger Trait) between

treatment and control groups. Table 4 presents pretest and

posttest comparisons within and between experimental and

control groups on Anger Expression, Anger State, and Anger

Trait. The statistical results show no significant

differences in state, trait and anger expression within or

between experimental and control groups using the State-Trait

Anger Expression Scale. Table 5 presents results of Trait

Anger subtests (Anger Temperament and Anger Reaction) and

Anger Expression subtests (Anger In, Anger Out, and Anger

Control). No significant differences were found in the

variables between treatment and non-treatment groups. There

were no significant effects on the anger variables between

those who participated in the Anger Control treatment program

and those who did not participate.

The third question addressed the effects of the prosocial

skills and anger program on the anger control scores of the

participating students in the treatment program. There were

no significant improvements in the measured social skills from

Table 1 and 2, and no significant improvements on anger

control (Table 5).


52Examination of the results shows that there were no

statistically significant differences in Anger Expression and Anger Experience (Anger State and Anger Trait) between treatment and control groups. Table 4 presents pretest and posttest comparisons within and between experimental and control groups on Anger Expression, Anger State, and Anger Trait. The statistical results show no significant differences in state, trait and anger expression within or between experimental and control groups using the State-Trait Anger Expression Scale. Table 5 presents results of Trait Anger subtests (Anger Temperament and Anger Reaction) and Anger Expression subtests (Anger In, Anger Out, and Anger Control). No significant differences were found in the variables between treatment and non-treatment groups. There were no significant effects on the anger variables between those who participated in the Anger Control treatment program and those who did not participate.

The third question addressed the effects of the prosocial skills and anger program on the anger control scores of the participating students in the treatment program. There were no significant improvements in the measured social skills from Table 1 and 2, and no significant improvements on anger control (Table 5).


53

Table 3

Experimental and Control Pretest and Posttest Comparisons of Social Skills Subscales of the

Social Skills Rating System Student Form (SSRSs)


EXPERIMENTAL GROUP Cooperation

(n=10)

Pretest -.80 .42

9 -1.00 Posttest -.70 .48

Assertion Pretest -.40 .52

9 -1.96 Posttest -.10 .59

Empathy Pretest -.70 .48

9 .00 Posttest -.70 .48

Self Control Prestest -.50 .53

9 .00 Postest -.30 .48

CONTROL GROUP (n=8)

Cooperation Pretest -.13 .64

7 .00 Posttest -.13 .64

Assertion Pretest .00 .00

7 .00 Posttest .00 .00

Empathy Prestest -.50 .54

7 -1.53 Posttest -.25 .46


53Table 3

Experimental and Control Pretest and Posttest Comparisons of Social Skills Subscales of the

Social Skills Rating System Student Form (SSRSs)Mean S.P. df t Values*

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP (n=10) Cooperation

Pretest

PosttestAssertion

PretestPosttest

EmpathyPretestPosttest

Self Control PrestestPostest

CONTROL GROUP (n=8)Cooperation

PretestPosttest

AssertionPretestPosttest

EmpathyPrestestPosttest

.80 .42

.70 .48

,40 .52.10 .59

,70 .48.70 .48

.50 .53

.30 .48

13 .6413 .64

0000

5025

.00

.00

.54

.46

-1 .00

-1 .96

.00

.00

.00

,00

-1 .53


54

Table 3 (continued)


Self Control -.38

.00

.74

.54 12 .52

Pretest

Postest

POSTTEST EXPERIMENTAL x POSTTEST CONTROL

Cooperation Experimental Group -.70 .48

13 2.10 Control Group -.13 .64

Assertion Experimental Group -.10 .57

9 -.56 Control Group .00 .00

Empathy Experimental Group -.70 .48

15 -2.01 Control Group -.25 .46

Self-Control Experimental Group -.30 .48

14 -1.23 Control Group .00 .54



Table 3 (continued)54

Mean S .D. df

Self ControlPretest -.38 .74Postest .00 .54

POSTTEST EXPERIMENTAL X POSTTEST CONTROL

CooperationExperimental Group -.70 .48Control Group -.13 .64

AssertionExperimental Group -.10 .57Control Group .00 .00

EmpathyExperimental Group -.70 .48Control Group -.25 .46

Self-ControlExperimental Group -.30 .48Control Group .00 .54

12

13

1 5

14


t Values*

.52

2.10

-.56

- 2.01

-1 .23


55

Table 4 Statistical Comparisons between the Experimental

and Control Group on State, Trait and Anger Expression Variables on the STAXI

Variable Mean S.D. df t Values*

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP (n=10)

Anger Expression 3.20 .91 Pretest

9 .94 Posttest 2.80 1.14

State Anger

Pretest 1.10 .32 9 —1.00

Posttest 1.40 .97

Trait Anger

Pretest 1.80 .63 9 —.32

Posttest 1.90 .88

CONTROL GROUP (n=8)

Anger Expression

Pretest 2.88 1.25 7 .80

Posttest 2.63 1.19

State Anger

Pretest 1.25 .46 7 1.53

Posttest 1.00 .00

Trait Anger

Pretest 2.25 .707 9 1.53

Posttest 2.00 .76


55

Table 4Statistical Comparisons between the Experimental

and Control Group on State, Trait and Anger Expression Variables on the STAXI


EXPERIMENTAL GROUP (n=10)Anoer Expression

Pretest 3.20 .91Posttest 2.80 1.14

State AngerPretest 1.10 .32Posttest 1.40 .97

Trait AnoerPretest 1.80 .63Posttest 1.90 .88

CONTROL GROUP (n=8)Anger Expression

Pretest 2.88 1.25Posttest 2.63 1.19

State AngerPretest 1.25 .46Posttest 1.00 .00

Trait Anoer

Pretest 2.25 .707Posttest 2.00 .76

.94

- 1 . 00

-.32

7 .80

7 1 .53

9 1 .53


56

Table 4 (continued)



Anger Expression

Experimental Group 33.00 10.44 15 .71

Control Group 29.63 9.69

State Anger

Experimental Group 14.90 10.65 7 1.12


Trait Anger

Experimental Group 23.00 9.32 16 —.70


* nonsignificant at P < .05


56Table 4 (continued)

Mean S . D. df


Anger ExpressionExperimental Group 33.00 10.44Control Group 29.63 9.69

State AngerExperimental Group 14.90 10.65Control Group 10.63 1.06

Trait AngerExperimental Group 23.00 9.32Control Group 25.75 7.38

15

16

* nonsignificant at P < .05

t Values*

.71

1.12

-.70


57

Table 5

Subtest Comparisons: Pre and Post Test Comparisons and Between Experimental and Control Group

State-Trait Anger Expression Scale



Anger Temperament Prestest .40 .52

9 1.00 Posttest .30 .48

Anger Reaction Pretest .20 .42

9 -.56 Postest .30 .48

Anger In Pretest 1.20 .42

9 -.43 Posttest 1.30 .68

Anger Out Pretest 1.60 .52

9 1.41 Posttest 1.30 .48

Anger Control Pretest 1.30 .48

9 -.43 Posttest 1.40 .52

CONTROL GROUP (n=8)

Anger Temperament Prestest .75 .46

7 1.00 Posttest .50 .54

Anger Reaction Pretest .75 .46

7 1.00 Posttest .500 .54


57Table 5

Subtest Comparisons: Pre and Post Test Comparisons and Between Experimental and Control Group

State-Trait Anger Expression Scale

Mean S.D. df t Values* ■

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP (n=10)Anger Temperament

Prestest .40 .529 1 .00

Posttest .30 .48Anger Reaction

Pretest .20 .429 -.56

Postest .30 .48Anger In

Pretest 1.20 .429 -.43

Posttest 1.30 .68Anger Out

Pretest 1.60 .529 1 .41

Posttest 1.30 .48Anger Control

Pretest 1.30 .489 -.43

Posttest 1.40 .52CONTROL GROUP (n=8)

Anger TemperamentPrestest .75 .46

7 1 .00Posttest .50 .54

Anger ReactionPretest .75 .46

7 1 .00Posttest .500 .54


Table

Anger In

5 continued

Mean S.D. df

58

t Values*

1.25

1.38

1.37

1.25

.35

.52

.52

.46

7

7

-1.00

1.00

Pretest

Posttest

Anger Out Pretest

Posttest

Anger Control Pretest 1.25 .71

7 -.21 Posttest 1.63 .74


Anger Temperament Experimental Group 8.9 4.31

16 -.19 Control Group 9.25 3.58

Anger Reaction Experimental Group 8.70 3.50

15 -1.14 Control Group 10.63 3.58

Anger In Experimental Group 17.50 4.67

15 .73 Control Group 15.88 4.76

Anger Out Experimental Group 18.20 4.42

14 -.19 Control Group 18.63 4.90

Anger Control Experimental Group 18.70 4.11

13 -.94 Control Group 20.88 5.41

* all nonsignificant at P < .05


58Table 5 continued

Anoer In PretestPosttest

Anger Out PretestPosttest

Anoer Control PretestPosttest


Anger Temperament Experimental GroupControl Group

Anoer ReactionExperimental GroupControl Group

Control Group

Control Group

Mean

1 .25 1 .38

1 .37 1 .25

1 .25 1 .63

8.99.25

8.7010.63

Anoer InExperimental Group 17.50

15.88Anoer Out

Experimental Group 18.2018.63

Anoer ControlExperimental Group 18.70

S . D .

.35

.52

.52.46

.71

.74

Control Group 20.88

4.313.58

3.503.58

4.674.76

4.424.90

4.115.41

df t Values*

-1 .00

1 . 00

16

15

15

14

13

-.21

-.19

-1.14

.73

-.19

-.94



59

The fourth question was answered by comparing pretest to

posttest mean score differences on social skills scores, anger

experience , anger expression, and anger control for those

subjects who did not participate in the six week anger control

program. Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5 indicate that there were no

significant differences between the subjects who did not

participate in the prosocial skills treatment program.

Analysis of Data: Secondary Questions Results

Student Questionnaire

The students who participated in the treatment program

responded to a questionnaire following the treatment program

(Appendix C). Appendix D shows the content of the results.

Two out of ten treatment subjects reported that they had taken

an anger control program before, and both found this program

"much better (than other programs)." Eight of the ten

subjects rated the program as "very helpful", one subject

rated "somewhat helpful", and one "not helpful". When asked

about what the subjects learned, one didn't answer, one said

that nothing was learned, and the remaining subjects reported

concepts, techniques, and generalizations about the program or

their changed reactions to their anger. All subjects but one

reported that they have used the program's anger control at

home. As well, eight subjects reported use at school and


59The fourth question was answered by comparing pretest to

posttest mean score differences on social skills scores, anger experience , anger expression, and anger control for those subjects who did not participate in the six week anger control program. Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5 indicate that there were no significant differences between the subjects who did not participate in the prosocial skills treatment program.

Analysis of Data: Secondary Questions Results

Student QuestionnaireThe students who participated in the treatment program

responded to a questionnaire following the treatment program (Appendix C). Appendix D shows the content of the results. Two out of ten treatment subjects reported that they had taken an anger control program before, and both found this program "much better (than other programs)." Eight of the ten subjects rated the program as "very helpful", one subject rated "somewhat helpful", and one "not helpful". When asked about what the subjects learned, one didn't answer, one said that nothing was learned, and the remaining subjects reported concepts, techniques, and generalizations about the program or their changed reactions to their anger. All subjects but one reported that they have used the program's anger control at home. As well, eight subjects reported use at school and


60

outside school or home. Seven of the ten subjects were able

to explain changes in their behaviour when they get angry.

All ten students would recommend the program to their peers.

In summary, most of the participants reported that they

enjoyed and benefitted from participating in the treatment

program and were able to give examples of what they have

learned. Most saw themselves as improving in the way they

respond to their anger at home, school and outside home or

school. Participants who gave opinions on how the program

could improve stated that the program should be longer (more

sessions). All ten group experimental members would

recommended this program.

Teacher Ratings and Interviews

The results of teacher evaluations of the prosocial

skills/ anger control program are presented in two forms:

scores from pretest and posttest within and between

experimental and control group comparisons on Social Skills

(Appendix E), Problem Behaviours and Academic Competence

(Appendix F), and themes from teachers interviews (Appendix

G). There were no significant differences between the

treatment and non—treatment programs on the teacher ratings of

the Social Skills Rating System (SSRSt).

One and a half to two hour interviews with the teachers

of all four classrooms were recorded and transcribed. Themes


60

outside school or home. Seven of the ten subjects were able to explain changes in their behaviour when they get angry. All ten students would recommend the program to their peers.

In summary, most of the participants reported that they enjoyed and benefitted from participating in the treatment program and were able to give examples of what they have learned. Most saw themselves as improving in the way they respond to their anger at home, school and outside home or school. Participants who gave opinions on how the program could improve stated that the program should be longer (more sessions). All ten group experimental members would recommended this program.

Teacher Ratings and InterviewsThe results of teacher evaluations of the prosocial

skills/ anger control program are presented in two forms: scores from pretest and posttest within and between experimental and control group comparisons on Social Skills (Appendix E), Problem Behaviours and Academic Competence (Appendix F), and themes from teachers interviews (Appendix G). There were no significant differences between the treatment and non-treatment programs on the teacher ratings of the Social Skills Rating System (SSRSt).

One and a half to two hour interviews with the teachers of all four classrooms were recorded and transcribed. Themes


61

emerged from the teachers' perceptions and knowledge about the

students, the students' anger management, and the teachers

themselves and their teaching. The two teachers from the

experimental group were asked to comment on the treatment

program. Appendix G includes a summary of the interviews.

Content from these interviews are described in terms of

themes.

Six Month Follow-Up on Two Students

Two students were approached individually by the author

six months after the program to comment on the program. Both

students indicated that by their physical reactions they were

able to recognize when they get angry. They both agreed that

they have more self-control when confronted with an anger

provoking situation. Both indicated at least one anger

control technique. Both still recommended the program to

their peers.

Summary of Results

In summary, the statistical results of this study showed

that there were no statistically significant differences

between the pretest and the posttest Social Skills Rating

System (teacher or student rating forms), and the State-Trait

Anger Expression Inventory scores for the experimental group

subjects who participated in the prosocial skills/anger


61

emerged from the teachers' perceptions and knowledge about the students, the students' anger management, and the teachers themselves and their teaching. The two teachers from the experimental group were asked to comment on the treatment program. Appendix G includes a summary of the interviews. Content from these interviews are described in terms of themes.

Six Month Follow-Up on Two StudentsTwo students were approached individually by the author

six months after the program to comment on the program. Both students indicated that by their physical reactions they were able to recognize when they get angry. They both agreed that they have more self-control when confronted with an anger provoking situation. Both indicated at least one anger control technique. Both still recommended the program to their peers.

Summary of ResultsIn summary, the statistical results of this study showed

that there were no statistically significant differences between the pretest and the posttest Social Skills Rating System (teacher or student rating forms), and the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory scores for the experimental group subjects who participated in the prosocial skills/anger


62

management program. The results also showed no significant

difference for the control group subjects who did not receive

the prosocial skills/anger management program between their

pretest and posttest scores as measured on the Social Skills

Rating System (teacher or student rating forms), and the

State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory.

Treatment participants who had completed questionnaires

predominantly indicated they had benefitted from the program

in terms of improved anger control (Appendix D). Teachers

(interviews) agreed that anger control is needed and that

social skills and anger management programs are important for

their students to learn (Appendix G).


62management program. The results also showed no significant difference for the control group subjects who did not receive the prosocial skills/anger management program between their pretest and posttest scores as measured on the Social Skills Rating System (teacher or student rating forms), and the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory.

Treatment participants who had completed questionnaires predominantly indicated they had benefitted from the program in terms of improved anger control (Appendix D) . Teachers (interviews) agreed that anger control is needed and that social skills and anger management programs are important for their students to learn (Appendix G).


CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Discussion and Conclusions

The small samp_e size (treatment group = 10; control

group = 8) lim..ced the power of the statistical analysis and

the ability to detect subtle treatment effects. Complete data

were collect on ten experimental group members and eight

control group members. Partial data were collected on 14

other potential participants. Reasons for incomplete data

collection incLudiA student suspensions, student dropped out,

student runaways, difficulty in locating parents or guardians

to obtain permission, the unwillingness of some students to

participate in testing activities along with mood swings of

participants.

Almost all students, all teachers, and the treatment

group leader agreed that the program should be extended. The

concepts and methods of the program appeared to be

satisfactory; however, the skills taught needed to be

practised more by the students so that the skills may be

further internalized. Program brevity may have restricted

treatment outcomes. Length of treatment was determined by the

school term, student/classroom and researcher convenience, as

well as, anticipated subject commitment to a program. A

treatment program consisting of ten one hour sessions may be


CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION. CONCLUSIONS. AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Discussion and ConclusionsThe small sample size (treatment group = 10; control

group = 8) lirrr.ced the power of the statistical analysis and the ability to detect subtle treatment effects. Complete data were collected on ten experimental group members and eight control group members. Partial data were collected on 14 other potential participants. Reasons for incomplete data collection included student suspensions, student dropped out, student runaways, difficulty in locating parents or guardians to obtain permission, the unwillingness of some students to participate in testing activities along with mood swings of participants.

Almost all students, all teachers, and the treatment group leader agreed that the program should be extended. The concepts and methods of the program appeared to be satisfactory; however, the skills taught needed to be practised more by the students so that the skills may be further internalized. Program brevity may have restricted treatment outcomes. Length of treatment was determined by the school term, student/classroom and researcher convenience, as well as, anticipated subject commitment to a program. A treatment program consisting of ten one hour sessions may be


64

insufficient to establish measurable change (Goldstein &

Glick, 1987).

Reinforcement for goal attainment may be used to augment

the training and to ensure maintenance of change when

interventions take place in residential and institutional

settings. Features outside the classroom may not be

controlled to the same extent to allow for reinforcement.

Some flexibility in the implementation of the program may

be required. Cognitive relaxation techniques may be used prior

to the beginning of each lesson to help students focus their

attention and bring the students into the present. More time

may be needed beyond the 40 to 60 minutes for lesson practice.

No specific behaviour improvements were identified

immediately following the treatment. However, teachers

observed that information and skill use may appear to be

beneficial, perhaps as long as six months from the time the

posttesting occurred.

Treatment participants completing questionnaires

indicated they had benefited from the treatment program in

terms of improving their anger control and decreasing their

negative anger reactions. This may be attributed to an

expectation of improvement effect, that is, the students may

have expected to improve, they may have wanted to please the

researcher, they may have been looking for approval, they may

be more conscious of their thinking about their own anger


64insufficient to establish measurable change (Goldstein & Glick, 1987).

Reinforcement for goal attainment may be used to augment the training and to ensure maintenance of change when interventions take place in residential and institutional settings. Features outside the classroom may not be controlled to the same extent to allow for reinforcement.

Some flexibility in the implementation of the program may be required. Cognitive relaxation techniques may be used prior to the beginning of each lesson to help students focus their attention and bring the students into the present. More time may be needed beyond the 40 to 60 minutes for lesson practice.

No specific behaviour improvements were identified immediately following the treatment. However, teachers observed that information and skill use may appear to be beneficial, perhaps as long as six months from the time the posttesting occurred.

Treatment participants completing questionnaires indicated they had benefited from the treatment program in terms of improving their anger control and decreasing their negative anger reactions. This may be attributed to an expectation of improvement effect, that is, the students may have expected to improve, they may have wanted to please the researcher, they may have been looking for approval, they may be more conscious of their thinking about their own anger


65

management. Students' attitudes appeared to change when their

angry feelings were recognized and validated.

Instrument Suitability

Another reason for no statistically significant

differences may be that the instruments selected were not

sufficiently suitable to measure the changes that may have

occurred (Bloomquist & Kiess, 1987). The test instruments

used were the most up to date and available and were

recommended (Bisken, 1990; Laff, 1990) from the scarce pool of

applicable measurement devices appropriate to the reading

level and interests of the adolescent subjects. Two subjects

required assistance with the reading of the tests. There may

have been other subjects who filled in the Likert style self—

rating tests marking questions which they did not understand

fully. Additionally, according to Chelsom (1990), "paper and

pencil instruments inhibit assessment of anger arousal

(Chesney, 1985) and are susceptible to subject honesty,

literacy level, and attitude toward written work" (p. 114).

Anger arousal itself would be difficult to measure with

written tests. Since the completion of this treatment program

Dr. John Lochman, Duke University Medical Centre, (personal

conversation Jan. 27, 1995) stated that self—reporting written

tests with youth with anger difficulties have very little

value.


65

management. Students' attitudes appeared to change when their angry feelings were recognized and validated.

Instrument SuitabilityAnother reason for no statistically significant

differences may be that the instruments selected were not sufficiently suitable to measure the changes that may have occurred {Bloomguist & Kiess, 1987). The test instruments used were the most up to date and available and were recommended (Bisken, 1990; Laff, 1990) from the scarce pool of applicable measurement devices appropriate to the reading level and interests of the adolescent subjects. Two subjects required assistance with the reading of the tests. There may have been other subjects who filled in the Likert style self- rating tests marking questions which they did not understand fully. Additionally, according to Chelsom (1990), "paper and pencil instruments inhibit assessment of anger arousal (Chesney, 1985) and are susceptible to subject honesty, literacy level, and attitude toward written work" (p. 114). Anger arousal itself would be difficult to measure with written tests. Since the completion of this treatment program Dr. John Lochman, Duke University Medical Centre, (personal conversation Jan. 27, 1995) stated that self-reporting written tests with youth with anger difficulties have very little value.


66

Uncontrolled Variables

There were a number of uncontrolled variables which may

have had an influence on outcomes. Variables such as social

maturity level and cognitive ability both of which vary

greatly may have had major effects. If a student was not able

to think abstractly or was more adult dependent, then the

transfer of learned skills may be more difficult. Whether or

not subjects are receiving on-going counselling support may

also influence outcomes. The extent to which the control

group programs include anger management and social skills

content in their academic programs may also have been a

factor. Cultural and value system differences which vary

according to previous learning and models are examples of

uncontrolled variables in this study. Treatment group

interpersonal dynamics vary from person to person and group to

group, and subjects' state of mind when completing instruments

vary and may have had an influence. Sex differences which may

vary according to cultural and learned behaviour are also

examples of uncontrolled variables which may have had an

influence. The scope and topic of this study precluded the

control of many variables.

Another outcome influence was treatment individual

session absenteeism (Appendix H). As there were a number of

reasons why students dropped out of the study, similarly,

there were a number of reasons why individual sessions were


66Uncontrolled Variables

There were a number of uncontrolled variables which may have had an influence on outcomes. Variables such as social maturity level and cognitive ability both of which vary greatly may have had major effects. If a student was not able to think abstractly or was more adult dependent, then the transfer of learned skills may be more difficult. Whether or not subjects are receiving on-going counselling support may also influence outcomes. The extent to which the control group programs include anger management and social skills content in their academic programs may also have been a factor. Cultural and value system differences which vary according to previous learning and models are examples of uncontrolled variables in this study. Treatment group interpersonal dynamics vary from person to person and group to group, and subjects' state of mind when completing instruments vary and may have had an influence. Sex differences which may vary according to cultural and learned behaviour are also examples of uncontrolled variables which may have had an influence. The scope and topic of this study precluded the control of many variables.

Another outcome influence was treatment individual session absenteeism (Appendix H). As there were a number of reasons why students dropped out of the study, similarly, there were a number of reasons why individual sessions were


67

missed. These reasons included truancy, missing (police

searching), school suspension or expulsion, and medical or

counselling appointments. Most of the studies on anger

control programs have taken place in clinical settings

(Feindler & Guttman, 1994) where these factors are not as

influential. The researcher had difficulty in locating many

of the experimental and control group subjects (especially

from the high school setting) for posttesting for reasons

mentioned above. The best attendance came from students who

were escorted to and from school from a detention facility.

According to Feindler and Guttman (1994), adolescents who

are experiencing extreme depression and/or suicidal thoughts,

who are currently abusing substances or who have thought

disorders or delusions are able to gain much from a cognitive

behavioral group program like the one studied here.

Adolescents who experience these conditions in the school

classroom environment were not as easily identified as they

can be in a clinical residential facility. Screening for

these extreme difficulties was not undertaken in this

study.

During the treatment program, some students (reported by

students or teachers) were extremely depressed or suicidal,

some were suspected of substance abuse, and one student

suffered from delusions (teacher reported).

Program adjustments were made to provide students with as


67

missed. These reasons included truancy, missing (police searching), school suspension or expulsion, and medical or counselling appointments. Most of the studies on anger control programs have taken place in clinical settings (Feindler & Guttman, 1994) where these factors are not as influential. The researcher had difficulty in locating many of the experimental and control group subjects (especially from the high school setting) for posttesting for reasons mentioned above. The best attendance came from students who were escorted to and from school from a detention facility.

According to Feindler and Guttman (1994), adolescents who are experiencing extreme depression and/or suicidal thoughts, who are currently abusing substances or who have thought disorders or delusions are able to gain much from a cognitive behavioral group program like the one studied here. Adolescents who experience these conditions in the school classroom environment were not as easily identified as they can be in a clinical residential facility. Screening for these extreme difficulties was not undertaken in this study.

During the treatment program, some students (reported by students or teachers) were extremely depressed or suicidal, some were suspected of substance abuse, and one student suffered from delusions (teacher reported).

Program adjustments were made to provide students with as


68

many choices and opportunities to feel comfortable in giving

their best effort and attention. For example, the researcher

had planned to record each session; however, one student was

bothered by the taping; therefore, there were no recordings

made for this student. Many students had major crises

occurring in their lives during the study period. Some

students appeared moody and or restless. The group leader

added relaxation exercises, guided fantasy and deep breathing

prior to the beginning of each lesson to bring the students

into the present and focus their attention. All students

enjoyed this and participated quite willingly. Otherwise, the

program was implemented as planned. Some sessions ran 30

minutes over the usual class time in order to cover the lesson

and extended practice of the skills.

It is very difficult to conduct research with such a

heterogeneous population when there are many individuals with

serious mental health and social problems and when it is

difficult to find and locate parents or guardians to obtain

consent for their son or daughter to participate in the study.

Also students' behaviour problems can seriously affect on test

scores.

The conclusions presented here are based on the findings

derived from the analysis of the data collected. The

conclusions are limited to the group of adolescents with

behaviour problems used as the sample in this study.


68many choices and opportunities to feel comfortable in giving their best effort and attention. For example, the researcher had planned to record each session; however, one student was bothered by the taping; therefore, there were no recordings made for this student. Many students had major crises occurring in their lives during the study period. Some students appeared moody and or restless. The group leader added relaxation exercises, guided fantasy and deep breathing prior to the beginning of each lesson to bring the students into the present and focus their attention. All students enjoyed this and participated quite willingly. Otherwise, the program was implemented as planned. Some sessions ran 30 minutes over the usual class time in order to cover the lesson and extended practice of the skills.

It is very difficult to conduct research with such a heterogeneous population when there are many individuals with serious mental health and social problems and when it is difficult to find and locate parents or guardians to obtain consent for their son or daughter to participate in the study. Also students' behaviour problems can seriously affect on test scores.

The conclusions presented here are based on the findings derived from the analysis of the data collected. The conclusions are limited to the group of adolescents with behaviour problems used as the sample in this study.


69

Generalizations beyond this sample should be made with due

caution.

Recommendations for Further Research

The following are presented as recommendations for

further research.

1. There is a need for further studies of anger control

programs using larger and more homogeneous samples.

2. Further studies of anger control programs using longer

treatment periods should be conducted to determine their

effectiveness.

3. Further variables such as intellectual ability and gender

should be investigated to determine their effects on program

outcome. Gender and intellectual functioning may have had an

impact on learning styles, testing procedures and outcome.

4. Qualitative studies using techniques other than the test

instruments, questionnaires, and interviews used in this study

should be conducted in order to determine changes in the

adolescents' behaviour after a treatment program. These would

give further insight into specific outcomes and program

effects.

5. Clinical case studies need to be conducted in order to

better identify the types of adolescents with behaviour

disorders and emotional disturbances who could benefit most

from anger control training.


69

Generalizations beyond this sample should be made with due caution.

Recommendations for Further ResearchThe following are presented as recommendations for

further research.1 . There is a need for further studies of anger control programs using larger and more homogeneous samples.2. Further studies of anger control programs using longer treatment periods should be conducted to determine their effectiveness.3. Further variables such as intellectual ability and gender should be investigated to determine their effects on program outcome. Gender and intellectual functioning may have had an impact on learning styles, testing procedures and outcome.4. Qualitative studies using techniques other than the test instruments, questionnaires, and interviews used in this study should be conducted in order to determine changes in the adolescents' behaviour after a treatment program. These would give further insight into specific outcomes and program effects.5. Clinical case studies need to be conducted in order to better identify the types of adolescents with behaviour disorders and emotional disturbances who could benefit most from anger control training.


70

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Schlichter, K.J. & Horan, J.J. (1981). Effects of stressinoculation on the anger and aggression management skills of institutionalized juvenile delinquents. Cognitive Therapy and Research. 5., 359-365.

Shure, M.B. & Spiuack, G. (1972). Means-ends thinking,adjustment, and social class among elementary school-aged children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 38, 348-353.

Sisco, B. (1991). Anger: How to handle it during recovery. US: Johnson Institute.

Spielberger, C.D. (1991). State-trait anger expressioninventory revised research edition. Tampa Fl: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.


78

Stehouwer R.S., Bultsma C.A., & Blackford, I.T. (1985). Developmental differences in depression: Cognitive-perceptual distortion in adolescent versus adult female depressives. Adolescence, 20, 291-299.

Tavris, C. (1989). Anger: The misunderstood emotion (2nd ed.). Toronto: Simon & Schuster Inc.

Weathers, L., & Liberman, R. (1975). Contingency contracting with families of delinquent adolescents. Behaviour Therapy, 6, 356-366.

Weber, D. (1991). Angry? do you mind if i scream. Beach: Health Communications, Inc.

Williams, R. & Williams, V. (1993). Anger kills. Harper Collins Publishers, Inc.

Deerfield

New York:

Winzer, M., Rogow, S., and David, C. (1987). Exceptional children in Canada. Scarborough: Prentice-Hall Canada Inc.

Wodarski, J.S. (1989). Comprehensive employment preparation for adolescents with developmental disabilities: An empirical paradigm. Adolescence, 24, 821-836.


78Stehouwer R.S., Bultsma C.A., & Blackford, I.T. (1985).

Developmental differences in depression: Cognitive- perceptual distortion in adolescent versus adult female depressives. Adolescence. 20. 291-299.

Tavris, C. (1989). Anger: The misunderstood emotion (2nd ed.). Toronto: Simon & Schuster Inc.

Weathers, L., & Liberman, R. (1975). Contingency contracting with families of delinquent adolescents. Behaviour Therapy. 6, 356-366.

Weber, D. (1991). Anarv? do you mind if i scream. Deerfield Beach: Health Communications, Inc.

Williams, R. & Williams, V. (1993). Anger kills. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, Inc.

Winzer, M., Rogow, S., and David, C. (1987). Exceptionalchildren in Canada. Scarborough: Prentice-Hall Canada Inc.

Wodarski, J.S. (1989). Comprehensive employment preparation for adolescents with developmental disabilities: An empirical paradigm. Adolescence. 24, 821-836.


79

APPENDIX A

Homework Report Example


79

APPENDIX A Homework Report Example


80

Appendix A

Example of a "Homework Report" for the first five sessions.

Name Date

(Fill in during this class)

1. Skill:

2. Steps to be followed:

3. Who will I try this with?

4. When?

5. Where?

(Fill in before next class)

3. Describe what happened when you did the homework assignment:

4. Steps you actually followed:

5. Rate yourself on how well you used the skill (check one):

Excellent Good Fair

6. Why did you rate yourself this?

Poor

—adapted from McGinnis & Goldstein (1984,p.88) and Goldstein (1988,p.87)


80Appendix A

Example of a "Homework Report" for the first five sessions.Name _________________ Date__________(Fill in during this class)1. Skill:_____________________________________2. Steps to be followed:

3. Who will I try this with? _____________________________4. When?______________________________________5. Where?___________________________________

(Fill in before next class)3. Describe what happened when you did the homework assignment:

4. Steps you actually followed:

5. Rate yourself on how well you used the skill (check one): Excellent Good Fair Poor____6. Why did you rate yourself this?

-adapted from McGinnis & Goldstein (1984,p.88) and Goldstein (1988,p .87)


81

APPENDIX B

Homework Form for Anger Control


81

APPENDIX B Homework Form for Anger Control


82

Appendix B

Homework Form for Anger Control

Hassle Log Name Date Morning Afternoon Evening Where were you? What happened? (check)

Someone teased me. Someone took something of mine. Someone was doing something I did not like. Someone told me to do something. I did something wrong. Somebody started fighting with me. Other:

Who was that somebody?

What did you do? Hit back Ran away

Yelled Cried Broke something Was restrained Told someone in authority Walked away calmly Talked it out

Told peer Ignored it

Used Anger Control Used other learning skill Other

How did you handle yourself?

1 2 3 4 5 Poorly Not so well Okay Good

How angry were you?

Great

1 2 3 4 5 Burning Really Moderately Mildly Not at

all Angry Angry Angry Angry


82Appendix B

Homework Form for Anger ControlHassle Log

Name_______________ Date______________Morning Afternoon _____ Evening______Where were you? ____________________________What happened? (check) Someone teased me. Someone took something of mine. Someone was doing something I did not like. Someone told me to do something. I did something wrong. Somebody started fighting with me.

Other:Who was that somebody? _______What did you do? Hit back Ran away Yelled Cried Broke something Was restrained Told someone in authority Walked away calmly Talked it out Told peer Ignored it Used Anger Control Used other learning skill

OtherHow did you handle yourself?

1 2 3 4 5Poorly Not so well Okay Good

How angry were you?

all1 2 3 4

Burning Really Moderately MildlyAngry Angry Angry

Great

5Not at Angry


83

APPENDIX C

Student Program Evaluation


83

APPENDIX C Student Program Evaluation


84

Appendix C

Evaluation

Have you participated in other anger control programs before?

If yes, how does this program compare to these other groups?

much worse worse same better much betteT

Was the program helpful?

not helpful somewhat helpful very helpful

What did you learn about anger control?

Have you used this anger control: at home? at school? outside school or home?

Have you changed any of your behaviours when you get angry?

Would you recommend this program tc another class? Why?

What changes would you make?

How would you rate your instructor? very poor poor average very good excellent

Comments:


84Appendix C

EvaluationHave you participated in other anger control programs before?

If yes, how does this program compare to these other groups? much worse ___ worse same better muchbetteir

Was the program helpful? not helpful somewhat helpful ___ very helpful


Have you used this anger control:at home? ________at school? ______outside school or home? _____


Would you recommend this program tc another class? Why?


How would you rate your instructor?very poor poor average very good excellent Comments:


85

Appendix D

Summary of Responses to the

Student Evaluation Treatment Program Questionnaire


85

Appendix DSummary of Responses

to theStudent Evaluation Treatment Program Questionnaire


86

Appendix D

Summary of Responses to the

Student Evaluation Treatment Program Questionnaire

Have you participated in other anger control programs bL.fore? no = 8 yes = 2

If yes, how does this program compare to these other groups? N=2

0 much worse 0 worse 0 same 0 better 2 much better

Was the program helpful?

1 not helpful 1 somewhat helpful 8 very helpful


sl blank

s2 nothing

s3 I learned the A B C's and the anger reducers.

s4 The different things that lead up to being angry. Also the relaxation.

s5 How to control my anger, because I used to fight my problems out.

s6 To keep calm and learn how to deal with my anger. How to deal with it, and also loved the anger cycle

s7 I learned the anger cycle and the steps to calm myself down in a situation where I will be angry. It helps to stay calm and out of fights and keep it together at home and outside my home.

s8 Things about anger.


86

Appendix DSummary of Responses

to theStudent Evaluation Treatment Program Questionnaire

Have you participated in other anger control programs before? no = 8 yes = 2

If yes, how does this program compare to these other groups? N=2

0 _ much worse C) worse ()__ same 0,__ better 2 muchbetter

Was the program helpful? j_ not helpful 1 somewhat helpful 8 very helpful

What did you learn about anger control?s1 blanks2 nothings3 I learned the A B c's and the anger reducers.s4 The different things that lead up to being angry. Also

the relaxation.s5 How to control my anger, because I used to fight my

problems out.s6 To keep calm and learn how to deal with my anger. How

to deal with it, and also loved the anger cycles7 I learned the anger cycle and the steps to calm myself

down in a situation where I will be angry. It helps to stay calm and out of fights and keep it together at home and outside my home.

s8 Things about anger.


87

s9 The three anger controls. There are Deep breath, count backwards and happy images.

slO I learned about anger behaviour cycle. I also learned about role plays.

Have you used this anger control:

at home?

at school

outside school or home?

sl home, school, outside school or home

s2 nowhere

s3 home, school, outside school or home


s5 home, school, 50/50 outside school or home

s6 outside school or home

s7 home, outside school or home



slO home


sl Yes, I've learned to control myself a little more.

s2 No.

s3 Not really I don't get mad that often.

s4 I don't get angry so much any more.

s5 Not really.

s6 Yes, I count backwards to calm down.


87s9 The three anger controls. There are Deep breath, count

backwards and happy images.slO I learned about anger behaviour cycle. I also learned

about role plays.Have you used this anger control:

at home? ____________at school ___________outside school or home?________

s1 home, school, outside school or home s2 nowheres3 home, school, outside school or homes4 home, school, outside school or homes5 home, school, 50/50 outside school or home s6 outside school or home s7 home, outside school or homes8 home, school, outside school or homes9 home, school, outside school or homes10 home


s1 Yes, I've learned to control myself a little more. s2 Ho.s3 Not really I don't get mad that often. s4 I don't get angry so much any more. s5 Not really.s6 Yes, I count backwards to calm down.


88

s7 Yes, sometimes when I am angry, I think about the steps and I can calm down and talk to the person that I am mad at.

s8 Yes, I try to control myself. I take deep breaths.

s9 I don't hit or swear no more. I just walk away now.

slO Yes, I don't get into as many fights with my mom any more.

Would you recommend this program to another class? Why?

sl Yes, I think it is a very useful program.

s2 Yes, I think it enlightening even though I knew all the material.

s3 Yes.

s4 Yes, for disturbed youths.

s5 Yes (why?) because it's helpful and it helps to use anger control.

s6 Yes. This class is very helpful to me and I also learnt that not all people are mean teaching anger control and I wish Shelly could teach us more.

s7 Yes because I think it is a good class and can help other people.

s8 Yes.

s9 Yes because it help you understand what your mad at.

slO Yes I would because I think it was very good for me to take it and helped me a lot.


sl I would like the course to be a little longer.

s2 none

s3 shorter but more sessions

s4 none


88

s7 Yes, sometimes when I am angry, X think about the steps and I can calm down and talk to the person that I am mad at.

s8 Yes, I try to control myself. I take deep breaths.s9 I don't hit or swear no more. I just walk away now.si 0 Yes, I don't get into as many fights with my mom any

more.Would you recommend this program to another class? Why?

si Yes, I think it is a very useful program.s2 Yes, I think it enlightening even though I knew all

the material.s3 Yes.s4 Yes, for disturbed youths.s5 Yes (why?) because it's helpful and it helps to use

anger control.s6 Yes. This class is very helpful to me and I also

learnt that not all people are mean teaching anger control and I wish Shelly could teach us more.

s7 Yes because I think it is a good class and can help other people.

s8 Yes.s9 Yes because it help you understand what your mad at.slO Yes I would because I think it was very good for me

to take it and helped me a lot.What changes would you make?

s1 I would like the course to be a little longer.s2 nones3 shorter but more sessionss4 none


89

s5 use anger reducers

s6 nothing, I liked it all and I enjoyed Shelly working with us.

s7 I like the program how it is and there would not be changes.

s8 I don't know

s9 not a thing

slO The only thing I would change is longer classes all year round.

How would you rate your instructor? 0 0 0 2 8

very poor poor average very good excellent

Other Comments:

sl Blank

s2 Blank

s3 Blank

s4 This class was well put together and well taught. I was happy to be a part of it.

s5 Shelley your a good instructor I will write things about you. write Letters of say how I did when I was angry.

s6 Shelly thank-you for helping me see my anger and can speak on behalf of all of us that we enjoyed everything we did. Thank you again.

s7 I think there should be more classes say three time a week.

s8 Blank

s9 good teacher, good interaction, about relaxing, showing where the targets are.

slO blank s = subject


89s5 use anger reducerss6 nothing, I liked it all and I enjoyed Shelly working

with us.s7 I like the program how it is and there would not be

changes.s8 I don11 knows9 not a thingslO The only thing I would change is longer classes all

year round.

How would you rate your instructor?0 0 0 2 8

very poor poor average very good excellent

Other Comments:si Blanks2 Blanks3 Blanks4 This class was well put together and well taught. I

was happy to be a part of it.s5 Shelley your a good instructor I will write things

about you. write Letters of say how I did when I was angry.

s6 Shelly thank-you for helping me see my anger and Ican speak on behalf of all of us that we enjoyedeverything we did. Thank you again.

s7 I think there should be more classes say three time a week.

s8 Blanks9 good teacher, good interaction, about relaxing,

showing where the targets are.s10 blank

s = subject


90

Appendix E

Experimental and Control Pretest and Posttest Differences for Social Skills from the Social Skills Rating System

Teacher Rating Forms (SSRSt).


90

Appendix E




91

Appendix E


Teacher Rating

Variable

Forms

Mean

(SSRSt).

S.D. df t Values*


Pretest Social Skills (SSRSt) 93.00 9.19

9 .85 Posttest Social Skills (SSRSt) 90.90 11.17

Pretest Cooperation (SSRSt) -.50 .53

9 .56 Posttest Cooperation (SSRSt) -.40 .70

Pretest Assertion (SSRSt) -.10 .32

9 .00 Posttest Assertion (SSRSt) -.10 .32

Pretest Self Control (SSRSt) -.30 .48

9 .00 Posttest Self Control (SSRSt) -.30 .48

CONTROL GROUP (n=8)

Pretest Social Skills (SSRSt) 82.13 8.18

7 -1.19 Posttest Social Skills (SSRSt) 83.75 8.75


91Appendix E

Experimental and Control Pretest and Fosttest Differences for Social Skills from the Social Skills Rating System


Variable Mean S.D. df t Values*EXPERIMENTAL GROUP (n=10)

Pretest Social Skills(SSRSt) 93.00 9.19Posttest Social Skills(SSRSt) 90.90 11.17Pretest Cooperation(SSRSt) -.50 .53

Posttest Cooperation(SSRSt) -.40 .70Pretest Assertion(SSRSt) -.10 .32

Posttest Assertion(SSRSt) -.10 .32Pretest Self Control(SSRSt) -.30 .48

Posttest Self Control(SSRSt) -.30 .48

CONTROL GROUP <n=8)Pretest Social Skills(SSRSt) 82.13 8.18Posttest Social Skills(SSRSt) 83.75 8.75

.85

.56

,00

00

-1.19


92

Pretest Cooperation (SSRSt) -.63 .52

7 -1.53 Posttest Cooperation (SSRSt) -.38 .52

Pretest Assertion (SSRSt) -.13 .35

7 .00 Posttest Assertion (SSRSt) -.13 .35

Pretest Self Control (SSRSt) -.75 .46

7 .00 Posttest Self Control (SSRSt) -.75 .46


Social Skills



Cooperation

Experimental Group -.40 .70 16 -.09

Control Group -.38 .52

Assertion

Experimental Group -.10 .32 14 .16


Self Control

Experimental Group -.30 .48 15 2.01


* all non significant at P < .05


92Pretest Cooperation(SSRSt) -.63 .52Posttest Cooperation(SSRSt) -.38 .52Pretest Assertion(SSRSt) -.13 .35Posttest Assertion(SSRSt) -.13 .35Pretest Self Control(SSRSt) -.75 .46Posttest Self Control(SSRSt) -.75 .46


Social SkillsExperimental Group 90.90 11.17Control Group 83.75 8.75

CooperationExperimental Group -.40 .70

Control Group -.38 .52Assertion

Experimental Group -.10 .32Control Group -.13 .35

Self ControlExperimental Group -.30 .48


7 -1.53

7 .00

7 .00

16 1.52

16 -.09

14 .16

15 2.01

* all non significant at P < .05


93

Appendix F Teacher Rating Comparisons of Pretest and Posttest Scores for Problem Behaviours and

Academic Competence and Experimental and Control Group Comparisons


93

Appendix FTeacher Rating Comparisons of Pretest and Posttest Scores for Problem Behaviours and

Academic Competence and Experimental and Control Group Comparisons


94

Appendix F Teacher Rating Comparisons of Pretest and

Posttest Scores for Problem Behaviours and Academic Competence and Experimental and Control Group Comparisons



Pretest Problem Behaviours (SSRSt) 112.10 11.52

9 .33 Posttest Problem Behaviours (SSRSt) 111.40 12.42

Pretest Academic Competence 102.00 13.82

9 1.74 Posttest Academic Competence 97.60 14.72

CONTROL GROUP (n=8)

Pretest Problem Behaviours (SSRSt) 118.13 9.64

7 .67 Posttest Problem Behaviours (SSRSt) 117.25 8.71

Pretest Academic Competence 90.75 14.45

7 .73 Posttest Academic Competence (SSRSt) 88.750 13.435


Problem Behaviours Experimental Group 111.4 12.42

15.79 —1.17 Control Group 117.25 8.71


94Appendix F

Teacher Rating Comparisons of Pretest and Posttest Scores for Problem Behaviours and Academic Competence

and Experimental and Control Group Comparisons


EXPERIMENTAL GROUP (n=10)PretestProblem Behaviours(SSRSt) 112.10 11.52PosttestProblem Behaviours(SSRSt) 111.40 12.42PretestAcademic Competence 102.00 13.82PosttestAcademic Competence 97.60 14.72

CONTROL GROUP (n=8)PretestProblem Behaviours(SSRSt) 118.13 9.64PosttestProblem Behaviours(SSRSt) 117.25 8.71PretestAcademic Competence 90.75 14.45PosttestAcademic Competence(SSRSt) 88.750 13.435


Problem BehavioursExperimental Group 111.4 12.42Control Group 117.25 8.71

.33

1 .74

.67

73

15.79 -1.17


95

Appendix F (continued)


Academic Competence





95

Appendix F (continued) Variable Mean S.D. df

Academic CompetenceExperimental Group 97.60 14.72

1Control Group 88.750 13.44


t Values*

15.66

t.


96

Appendix G

Interviews with Behaviour Classroom Teachers Experimental and Control Groups


Appendix GInterviews with Behaviour Classroom Teachers

Experimental and Control Groups


97

Appendix G

INTERVIEWS WITH BEHAVIOUR CLASSROOM TEACHERS

EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS

Themes Recardinq Students

1. Students are identified by a team of classroom teachers,

social workers, psychologists, and school personnel as having

extreme behavioral, emotional, and/or social difficulties and

are not able to function in a regular classroom setting.

2. Students come from predominantly dysfunctional families

where parents have very little control and or have poor

parenting skills.

3. Students have experienced many failures both in and out of

school and suffer from low self-esteem and are angry and hurt

individuals.

4. Students' needs are diverse and individual. Most lack

social skills.

5. Students' may appear to be withdrawn and ready to explode

or angry, hostile and aggressive. The majority fall in the

latter.

6. Most students have difficulty in taking responsibility for

their actions.

7. Most students are young offenders and have experienced

incidents with the law such as assault charges, drugs and

alcohol charges, runaways, breaking and entry, fire setting,

vandalizing, public mischief, sexual assault, and child abuse


97Appendix G

INTERVIEWS WITH BEHAVIOUR CLASSROOM TEACHERS EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS

Themes Regarding Students1. Students are identified by a team of classroom teachers, social workers, psychologists, and school personnel as having extreme behavioral, emotional, and/or social difficulties and are not able to function in a regular classroom setting.2. Students come from predominantly dysfunctional families where parents have very little control and or have poor parenting skills.3. Students have experienced many failures both in and out of school and suffer from low self-esteem and are angry and hurt individuals.4. Students' needs are diverse and individual. Most lack social skills.5. Students' may appear to be withdrawn and ready to explode or angry, hostile and aggressive. The majority fall in the

latter.6. Most students have difficulty in taking responsibility for

their actions.7. Most students are young offenders and have experienced incidents with the law such as assault charges, drugs and alcohol charges, runaways, breaking and entry, fire setting, vandalizing, public mischief, sexual assault, and child abuse


98

charges.

8. Some students have suicidal tendencies and have few coping

skills.

9. Most students resided at Dales House, foster placements,

single parent homes.

10. Most students have difficulty identifying their feelings.

11. Most students distrust adults.

12. All students have fallen behind academically in some or

all subjects because of their behaviour and/or disposition .

13. Some students have psychiatric problems.

14. Students need structure and stability.

15. Some students have had some formal and informal anger

management training from school and/or through Child and Youth

Services.

16. Teachers see students as having potential to overcome

their difficulties to varying degrees.

17. All teachers agree that the students need anger

management skills and social skills. Communication skills and

personal intensive counselling have also been identified as

student needs.

18. All students in the experimental group except for one

student agreed that they could benefit from learning to

control their anger.


98charges.8. Some students have suicidal tendencies and have few coping skills.9. Most students resided at Dales House, foster placements, single parent homes.10. Most students have difficulty identifying their feelings.11. Most students distrust adults.12. All students have fallen behind academically in some or all subjects because of their behaviour and/or disposition .13. Some students have psychiatric problems.14. Students need structure and stability.15. Some students have had some formal and informal anger management training from school and/or through Child and Youth Services.16. Teachers see students as having potential to overcome their difficulties to varying degrees.17. All teachers agree that the students need anger management skills and social skills. Communication skills and personal intensive counselling have also been identified as student needs.18. All students in the experimental group except for one student agreed that they could benefit from learning to control their anger.


99

Themes Regarding Teachers

1. Biggest challenges as teachers are:

a) dealing daily with students' diverse needs.

b) building a trusting relationship with students

c) dealing with students' moment to moment behaviour.

d) not to take the students' verbal and physical abuse

personally.

e) keeping the classroom a safe environment.

2. Teachers place importance on controlling behaviour and

teaching appropriate social behaviour through various methods

throughout the school year. Academics are secondary.

3. All teachers are empathetic and feel their job is

important, however, their particular job is a difficult role

that is not easily understood by others.

4. Often there is very little support coming from home

families.

VIEWS ON TEACHING ANGER MANAGEMENT AND SOCIAL SKILLS

1. All teachers agreed that their students needed anger

management and social skills training.

2. All teachers (to varying degrees) informally use teachable

moments to teach anger management and social skills.


99Themes Regarding Teachers

1. Biggest challenges as teachers are:a) dealing daily with students' diverse needs.b) building a trusting relationship with studentsc) dealing with students' moment to moment behaviour.d) not to take the students' verbal and physical abuse

personally.e) keeping the classroom a safe environment.

2. Teachers place importance on controlling behaviour and teaching appropriate social behaviour through various methods throughout the school year. Academics are secondary.3. All teachers are empathetic and feel their job is important, however, their particular job is a difficult role that is not easily understood by others.4. Often there is very little support coming from home families.

VIEWS ON TEACHING ANGER MANAGEMENT AND SOCIAL SKILLS

1. All teachers agreed that their students needed anger management and social skills training.2. All teachers (to varying degrees) informally use teachable moments to teach anger management and social skills.


100

TEACHERS' VIEWS ON THE PROGRAM AS IMPLEMENTED

1. The program should be longer and more often.

2. Teachers believe that some students with benefit in the

future although no specific behaviour changes in school were

identified by the teachers of the experimental group during

the duration of the program.

3. Teachers felt that the concepts were understood but more

time was needed to practice.

4. One teacher felt the program would be too difficult for the

teacher to implement (due to this teacher role) and that an

outside social worker or psychologist would have to implement

it. Another teacher felt it should be compulsory to teach a

program like this and that teachers should receive training

for this or similar programs.

5. Both Teacher Assistants involved with the anger management

programs felt that its implementation was worthwhile and

appropriate for the students.

6. All students would recommend this program to their peers.


100

TEACHERS1 VIEWS ON THE PROGRAM AS IMPLEMENTED1. The program should be longer and more often.2. Teachers believe that some students with benefit in the future although no specific behaviour changes in school were identified by the teachers of the experimental group during the duration of the program.3. Teachers felt that the concepts were understood but more time was needed to practice.4. One teacher felt the program would be too difficult for the teacher to implement (due to this teacher role) and that an outside social worker or psychologist would have to implement it. Another teacher felt it should be compulsory to teach a program like this and that teachers should receive training for this or similar programs.5. Both Teacher Assistants involved with the anger management programs felt that its implementation was worthwhile and appropriate for the students.6. All students would recommend this program to their peers.


101

Appendix H

Treatment Groups Missed Sessions


101

Appendix H Treatment Groups Missed Sessions


1 02

Appendix H


Number of students Missed Days Total Sessions Missed

Experimental Group One 4 1

8 Experimental Group Two

2 2


Appendix H102


Number of students Missed Days Total Sessions Missed

ExperimentalGroup One 4 1

8Experimental Group Two

2 2


1 03

Appendix I

University of Regina

Ethics Approval


103

Appendix I University of Regina

Ethics Approval


1 v)- 33

SI University of Regum

\\\

011ice al Associate Vice-President and bean faculty of Graduau, Studies and neAcarch

to: TaAANALI , watA, MOM: Or. G.W. Masiony, Ch

Research Ethics Review Committee

qcf2,3-___A-ifLefavA !lease be advizezi that the committee has considered this proposal and has agreed that

Regina. tia,.1.ificlicsvan S4S (1A2

1c1; t.10(.) 5X5-1 111(n CNC-5'5C

1Nil UM 1 ittys:itt,,,maa mkTitia as

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1. Acceptable as submitted.

104

Acceptable subject to the following changes and precautions: (Note: 'these changes must be completed prior to the

Initiation or the research.)

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(Ifjgj University of ReginaO f! i f f a f si ssiieune Vice-President I)con licpi><i. .s.isk(tu']icujnl l l l l t t I l f S I S S I H H I U H i t / '* ' ■ • S4SIIA2 I n v l W . l t t V WI acuity o f Graduate Studies mid He.semrh tcl tw.) .w-jim imiiivi i ..

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Research Ethics Review Commlllee

104

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-jKfhJkicfoA' AA.ocCjJ(Tti Phfijn,Mease be advised Ihaf I he commlllee has considered 1hls proposal and has agreed lhaf Ir li:

1. Accepl able as submit I ed.

\ Acceptable subject 1o the following changes and precautions:(Note: Ihese changes must be completed prior to the

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The Effectiveness of a A THESIS