The effect of music The effect of music listening on spatial listening on spatial

skills:skills:

The role of processing The role of processing timetime

Doris Grillitsch, Doris Grillitsch, Department of PsychologyDepartment of Psychology Richard Parncutt, Richard Parncutt, Department of Department of

MusicologyMusicology

University of Graz, AustriaUniversity of Graz, Austria

International Conference of Music Perception and CognitionInternational Conference of Music Perception and CognitionSapporo, Japan, August 2008Sapporo, Japan, August 2008

““Mozart effect”Mozart effect”

Rauscher, Shaw & Ky (1993)Rauscher, Shaw & Ky (1993)

listening to music can improve spatial ability listening to music can improve spatial ability small effect, short period small effect, short period

3 conditions:3 conditions: Mozart Sonata in D major for 2 pianosMozart Sonata in D major for 2 pianos relaxation CD (voice only) relaxation CD (voice only) no music (sit in silence) no music (sit in silence)

Humans versus ratsHumans versus rats

Rauscher, Robinson & Jens (1998)Rauscher, Robinson & Jens (1998)

repeated pre- and postnatal music exposure repeated pre- and postnatal music exposure can improve rats’ ability to negotiate a mazecan improve rats’ ability to negotiate a maze

depends on kind of musicdepends on kind of music

But:But: Can rats hear Can rats hear anythinganything before birth? before birth? AnyAny pre- and postnatal sensory exposure can pre- and postnatal sensory exposure can

affect brain developmentaffect brain development What What aspectaspect of “musical” structure did it? of “musical” structure did it?

Die Musik Die Musik an sichan sich??

Thompson, Schellenberg & Husain Thompson, Schellenberg & Husain (2001)(2001)

““Mozart effect” is an artifact of Mozart effect” is an artifact of arousalarousal moodmood

It’s not about Mozart - not even about It’s not about Mozart - not even about music!music!

The role of preferenceThe role of preference

Hypothesis:Hypothesis: listener must listener must likelike sound stimulus or sound stimulus or identifyidentify

with itwith it

Nantais & Schellenberg (1999, Expt Nantais & Schellenberg (1999, Expt 2)2)

better spatial skills after hearing preferred better spatial skills after hearing preferred stimulusstimulus

choice between Mozart Sonata and short storychoice between Mozart Sonata and short story

Time on spatial taskTime on spatial task

Time not reported:Time not reported: Rauscher et al. (1993)Rauscher et al. (1993) Schellenberg & Hallam (2005) Schellenberg & Hallam (2005) Ivanov & Geake (2003) Ivanov & Geake (2003)

– spatial skills are better evaluated without time limit spatial skills are better evaluated without time limit (Silverman, 1999)(Silverman, 1999)

Time limit (1 minute per task):Time limit (1 minute per task): Thompson et al (2001) Thompson et al (2001) Nantais & Schellenberg (1999) Nantais & Schellenberg (1999)

What about What about motivation?motivation?Definition Definition tendency to engage with spatial task tendency to engage with spatial task

Measure Measure time spent on tasktime spent on task

RelevanceRelevance expertise approach to musical abilityexpertise approach to musical ability

QuestionQuestion Does Does flowflow matter? Adjust difficulty to ability? matter? Adjust difficulty to ability?

PlayfulnessPlayfulness

Schellenberg, Nakata, Hunter & Tamoto (2007):Schellenberg, Nakata, Hunter & Tamoto (2007):Children heard familiar songs or unfamiliar music Children heard familiar songs or unfamiliar music Familiar group spent more time drawing picturesFamiliar group spent more time drawing pictures Their Their pictures were rated more creativepictures were rated more creative

Did familiar songs make the children more Did familiar songs make the children more playful? playful? persistent?persistent?

Does time spent have more important Does time spent have more important implications for musical development than the implications for musical development than the “Mozart effect”?“Mozart effect”?

Our experimentOur experiment

Music conditionsMusic conditions

fast happy music fast happy music start of Mozart Sonata in D for 2 pianos, KV 448start of Mozart Sonata in D for 2 pianos, KV 448

personal favorite musicpersonal favorite musicmostly popmostly pop

slow sad musicslow sad musicstart of Mozart Fantasy in D minor (KV 397)start of Mozart Fantasy in D minor (KV 397)

silence (control)silence (control)

MeasuresMeasures

enjoyment of music enjoyment of music spatial skill measurespatial skill measure moodmood time spent on spatial taskstime spent on spatial tasks

Participants Participants

4 groups @ 10, random assignment

undergraduate students in various disciplines (mainly psychology)

average age: 24 years

ProcedureProcedure

1. Instructions for spatial skills task*2. Music (or silence) for 3 minutes3. Mood questionnaire4. Spatial skills tasks5. Mood questionnaire6. How much did you enjoy the music?

* Due to short duration of “Mozart effect”

Mental rotation taskMental rotation taskA3DW (Gittler, 1999), standard version S2

test cube

don`t know

none of them

Mental rotation taskMental rotation task

Adaptive procedure (A3DW) The difficulty of each task is matched

to the estimated spatial skill of the participant.

The skill measure (“parameter”) is updated after each task.

The system stops after 10 items if the measure is stable.

maximum 17 items

ResultsResults

spatial spatial

skillskill

““parameter” = final estimate of spatial ability parameter” = final estimate of spatial ability no significant difference among the groups no significant difference among the groups no direct effect of music on spatial skillsno direct effect of music on spatial skills no „Mozart effect“no „Mozart effect“

ResultsResults

working working time pertime per

task task

large & highly significant effect of music on time spent per rotation task (F(F3, 323, 32 = 6.123; p = 0.002) = 6.123; p = 0.002)

significant difference (Tukey) between significant difference (Tukey) between – favourite musicfavourite music– Mozart Sonata and controlMozart Sonata and control

A second analysis A second analysis Rauscher et al. (1993): spatial skills effect Rauscher et al. (1993): spatial skills effect

limited to 10-15 minuteslimited to 10-15 minutes We repeated our analysis for data obtained in first 15 We repeated our analysis for data obtained in first 15

minutes after music stoppedminutes after music stopped

23 of our 40 participants spent less than 15 23 of our 40 participants spent less than 15 minutes on mental rotation tasksminutes on mental rotation tasks

repeat analysis was different for only 17 participantsrepeat analysis was different for only 17 participants

For these we now considered:For these we now considered:(i)(i) average time spent on each task before 15 minutesaverage time spent on each task before 15 minutes(ii)(ii) spatial skills measure at 15 minutes spatial skills measure at 15 minutes

ResultsResults

spatial spatial skill skill

at 15 min at 15 min

again: no significant effect of music again: no significant effect of music on task performanceon task performance

ResultsResults

working working time time per task per task

first 15 minfirst 15 min

again: large & highly sig. effect of music on time spent per rotation task (F(F3, 323, 32 = 6.350; p = 0.002) = 6.350; p = 0.002)

again: significant difference (Tukey) between again: significant difference (Tukey) between – favourite musicfavourite music– Mozart Sonata and controlMozart Sonata and control

Mood Mood

monitored before and after rotation tasksmonitored before and after rotation tasks standardised test: EWL 60 S (Janke & Debus, 1978)standardised test: EWL 60 S (Janke & Debus, 1978) rate own mood from a list of adjectivesrate own mood from a list of adjectives

Only one sig. effect of music on mood:Only one sig. effect of music on mood: deteriorationdeterioration for favourite music group for favourite music group

(z = -2.555; p = 0.011) (z = -2.555; p = 0.011)

Possible explanations: Possible explanations: Improved mood after preferred musicImproved mood after preferred music Longer time spent on rotation tasksLonger time spent on rotation tasks

Enjoyment of music Enjoyment of music

Just checking: We asked the three experimental Just checking: We asked the three experimental (music) groups how much they had enjoyed the (music) groups how much they had enjoyed the music.music.

significant effect of group significant effect of group (F(F2, 242, 24 = 3.714; p = 0.039) = 3.714; p = 0.039)

favourite music group enjoyed music more than favourite music group enjoyed music more than Mozart Sonata group (Tukey)Mozart Sonata group (Tukey)

Favorite music Favorite music more more time on subsequent task. time on subsequent task. Why? Why? 1.1. Favourite music improves mood Favourite music improves mood

• more relaxed, less afraid of mistakes more relaxed, less afraid of mistakes • less afraid of seeming unintelligent less afraid of seeming unintelligent • holiday behavior: avoid stress, take your timeholiday behavior: avoid stress, take your time

2. Positive emotion of the music is2. Positive emotion of the music is incompatible incompatible with subsequent taskwith subsequent task• motivation falls, speed of working fallsmotivation falls, speed of working falls

3. Favourite music induces 3. Favourite music induces playfulnessplayfulness• try out many different task solutionstry out many different task solutions• more persistent, give up less easilymore persistent, give up less easily

Play and skill Play and skill acquisition acquisition Skills are often developed in a playful Skills are often developed in a playful

manner manner e.g. language, creativity, use of tools and symbols, e.g. language, creativity, use of tools and symbols, problem solving, anxiety management, conflict problem solving, anxiety management, conflict resolution (Bruner, Jolly, & Sylva, 1976)resolution (Bruner, Jolly, & Sylva, 1976)

Specific skill levels depend primarily on total Specific skill levels depend primarily on total amount practice time (Ericsson et al., 1993)amount practice time (Ericsson et al., 1993)

playfulness playfulness repetitions repetitions skill? skill?

Is music a virtual Is music a virtual person?person? Music (and especially preferred music) expresses personal states such as anger expresses personal attributes such as femininity linked to spirituality alleviates pain and loneliness

Children play with more engagement and for longer periods when their mother is available but passive (Slade, 1987).

Do children play independently for longer when familiar music is playing in the background?

In this study: Did familiar music make participants feel more emotionally secure and able to focus attention on the task?

CaveatsCaveats

Our spatial skills test was too Our spatial skills test was too complexcomplex

Results may depend on age Results may depend on age – as does “open-earedness”as does “open-earedness”

Future work Future work

simpler spatial skill tasksimpler spatial skill task

additional measuresadditional measures– behavioral and physiological measures of arousalbehavioral and physiological measures of arousal– behavioral measure of moodbehavioral measure of mood

SummarySummary

Listening to favorite music Listening to favorite music increases time spent on increases time spent on subsequent spatial tasksubsequent spatial task

Music may promote learning by Music may promote learning by promoting playfulnesspromoting playfulness

literature literature

Bruner, J. S., Jolly, A., & Sylva K. (Eds., 1976). Play—Its role in development and evolution. New York: Basic.

Ericsson, K. A. Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100. 363-406.

Gittler, G. (1999). Gittler, G. (1999). Adaptiver 3-dimensionaler Würfeltest A3DWAdaptiver 3-dimensionaler Würfeltest A3DW (Version (Version 23.00) [Computer Software]. Mödling, Austria: Schuhfried.23.00) [Computer Software]. Mödling, Austria: Schuhfried.

Gittler, G. (1990). Dreidimensionaler Würfeltest (3DW). Ein Rasch-skalierter Test zur Messung des räumlichen Vorstellungsvermögens (Theoretische Grundlagen und Manual). Weinheim: Beltz Test GmbH.

Ivanov, V. K. & Geake, J. G. (2003). The Mozart Effect and primary school Ivanov, V. K. & Geake, J. G. (2003). The Mozart Effect and primary school children. children. Psychology of Music, 31Psychology of Music, 31(4), 405-413.(4), 405-413.

Janke, W. & Debus, G. (1978). Janke, W. & Debus, G. (1978). Die Eigenschaftswörterliste Die Eigenschaftswörterliste Selbstbeurteilungs-Skala (S) (EWL 60 S).Selbstbeurteilungs-Skala (S) (EWL 60 S). Göttingen: Hogrefe.Göttingen: Hogrefe.

Nantais, K. M., & Schellenberg, E. G. (1999). The Mozart effect: An artifact of Nantais, K. M., & Schellenberg, E. G. (1999). The Mozart effect: An artifact of preference. preference. Psychological Science, 10 Psychological Science, 10 (4), 370-373.(4), 370-373.

Parncutt, R., & Kessler, A. (2006). Musik als virtuelle Person. In R. Flotzinger Parncutt, R., & Kessler, A. (2006). Musik als virtuelle Person. In R. Flotzinger (Ed.), (Ed.), Musik als... Ausgewählte Betrachtungsweisen Musik als... Ausgewählte Betrachtungsweisen (pp. 9-52)(pp. 9-52). . Wien: Wien: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.

literature literature

Rauscher, F. H., Robinson, K. D., & Jens, J. J. (1998). Improved maze Rauscher, F. H., Robinson, K. D., & Jens, J. J. (1998). Improved maze learning through early music exposure in rats. learning through early music exposure in rats. Neurological Research, Neurological Research, 2020, 427-432., 427-432.

Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., & Ky, K. N. (1993). Music and spatial task Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., & Ky, K. N. (1993). Music and spatial task performance. performance. Nature, 365Nature, 365,, 611.611.

Schellenberg, E. G. (2005). Music and cognitive abilities. Schellenberg, E. G. (2005). Music and cognitive abilities. Current Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14 Directions in Psychological Science, 14 (6), 317-320.(6), 317-320.

Schellenberg, E. G. & Hallam, S. (2005). Schellenberg, E. G. & Hallam, S. (2005). Music listening and ccgnitive Music listening and ccgnitive abilities in 10- and 11-year-olds: The Blur effect. abilities in 10- and 11-year-olds: The Blur effect. Annals of the New Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1060York Academy of Sciences, 1060..

Schellenberg, E. G., Nakata, T., Hunter, P. G., & Tamoto, S. (2007). Schellenberg, E. G., Nakata, T., Hunter, P. G., & Tamoto, S. (2007). Exposure to music and cognitive performance: Tests of children and Exposure to music and cognitive performance: Tests of children and adults. adults. Psychology of Music, 35,Psychology of Music, 35, 5-19. 5-19.

Slade, A. (1987). A longitudinal study of maternal involvement and Slade, A. (1987). A longitudinal study of maternal involvement and symbolic play during the toddler period. symbolic play during the toddler period. Child DevelopmentChild Development, 58, 367-, 58, 367-375. 375.

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Many thanks for your Many thanks for your attentionattention

Ideas from the Ideas from the discussiondiscussion Which was more important for spatial skills, Which was more important for spatial skills,

arousal or liking?arousal or liking? Did the students like the Fantasie more than the Did the students like the Fantasie more than the

Sonata?Sonata? Did ability increase during the spatial skills task?Did ability increase during the spatial skills task? Is it possible to approach this kind of spatial task Is it possible to approach this kind of spatial task

playfully? Or Rauscher’s paper folding task?playfully? Or Rauscher’s paper folding task? What kind of music did the students in the favorite What kind of music did the students in the favorite

music group bring? Arousal? Valence?music group bring? Arousal? Valence? Do these results imply that the people in the Do these results imply that the people in the

favorite music group were less good at the spatial favorite music group were less good at the spatial task? They took twice as long but were not better.task? They took twice as long but were not better.