Upload
others
View
0
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
The Effect of Genre-based Scaffolding on Research Paper Writing of
MA Candidates in an EFL Context
Sara Salehpour1, Mahnaz Saeidi*
2
1, 2 Department of English, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran
*Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected]
Received: 2016.1.2
Revisions received: 2016.5.1
Accepted: 2016.7.11
Abstract In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on genre-based
approaches to writing instruction. However, scant attention has been paid to the use
of genre-based scaffolding in the realm of academic writing. Hence, in an attempt
to tackle the problems prevalent in academic writing, this study set out to
investigate the effect of genre-based scaffolding through sentence starters and
writing frames on MA candidates‟ research paper writing. To this end, twenty MA
candidates majoring in ELT were randomly assigned to two homogenous groups,
one control and one experimental group, each including 10 participants. Both
groups were exposed to a five-session genre-based instruction while the
experimental group benefitted from the additional provision of sentence starters
and writing frames relevant to different sections of a research paper. The analysis
of the results, using independent sample of t-test, reveals that genre-based
instruction can be a useful tool in improving academic writing. Moreover, the
outperformance of the participants of the experimental group is indicative of the
beneficial effect of scaffolding through starters and frames.
Keywords: Genre, Genre-based Instruction, Scaffolding, Sentence Starters, Writing
Frames
92 The Journal of Applied Linguistics Vol. 7 No.15 Fall 2014
Introduction
Early efforts at teaching writing date back to the late 1960s, most of
which revolved around techniques for teaching writing (Kim, 2005). The
focal point of concern for early writing teachers was primarily the final
product of writing. Later, trends in the teaching of writing underwent
tangible changes in the mid-1970s, switching the shift of focus away from
product approach, later supplanted by what was termed the process
approach to writing instruction (Brown, 2000). However, the last decade or
so, according to Hyland (2007), has witnessed considerable attention to and
a growing body of research on the application of genre-based instruction in
language teaching and learning. The inclination towards genre-based writing
instruction, as reported by Sabouri, Zohrabi and Vafa (2014), stems from
the need for the explicit teaching of genres so as to assist students identify
textual and linguistic features required to the construction of different texts.
In other words, genres are taken as the departure point for “modeling,
deconstructing and understanding language” (Sabouri, et al. 2014, p.1).
What writers actually put down in black and white is fashioned by their
readers‟ expectations. The better the writers anticipate what their readers
might be expecting from them, the more the readers‟ chances of interpreting
the intended message. This, undoubtedly, calls for a genre-based approach
which underscores the important role writer-reader interaction plays on a
piece of writing (Reid, 1995). In other words, writers are supposed to
identify potential readers in advance so that they can “select appropriate
content, language and levels of formality” (Tuan, 2011, p.1472). However,
the extent to which writers can foresee what they are expected to produce
and how to do so is heavily dependent on their awareness of the genre they
are supposed to write in. The more familiar the writers are with a particular
genre they are engaged in, the more the likelihood of living up to the
readers‟ expectations (Hyland, 2007).
Writing in a foreign or second language has proved an insurmountable
barrier to most EFL and ESL learners (Harmer, 2007; Nunan, 1989; Tribble,
1997, Richards &Renandya, 2003, etc.). Numerous reasons have been
introduced as the impediments to writing progress, ranging from the scarcity
of instructional methods and materials to learning strategies and activities.
One situation which remains particularly tricky for learners is the kind of
The Effect of … 93
awareness learners should develop about various genres to be able to
produce texts that correspond to the requirements such genres make of them.
Sometimes, inattentiveness on the part of the learner to the format,
structures, content and levels of formality of a particular genre or
unfamiliarity with such features may result in texts that fail to meet the
acceptable standards of quality writing.
Previous research (e.g. Alvarez, 2007) highlights the need for explicit
instruction in how to write in particular genres and how to conform to the
demands each genre makes of writers. However, evidence bears out the fact
that scant attention has been paid to how to provide such instruction so as to
improve academic writing performance.
Hyland (2007) proposes genre-based writing instruction as a solution to
the challenges in academic writing instruction. First and foremost, being
needs-based, genre pedagogy enables teachers to steer their courses in line
with their students‟ needs. In other words, through genre pedagogy the
courses are grounded “in texts that students will need to write in
occupational, academic, or social contexts” (p. 149). More importantly,
genre-based framework facilitates and supports clear links to the students'
purposes for writing beyond the writing classroom(Osman, 2004). This can,
in turn, contribute to learners‟ effective participation in contexts beyond
ESL classroom. What is more, explicitness has been highlighted as the
prime feature of genre-based instruction, given the fact that it explicitly
enlightens students as to how target texts are grammatically patterned,
structured and organized and why they are framed as they are (Park, 2006).
The kind of awareness of regularity and structure provided is “not only
facilitating, but also reassuring” for many L2 learners (Hyland, 2003a, cited
in Hyland, 2007, p.152). Through categorizing and analyzing various texts
students become more sensitive and attuned to the ways messages are
conveyed in particular contexts, heightening their awareness of the readers‟
expectations of a text (Swami, 2008). Such exposure and systemic analysis,
however, can have an important consciousness-raising potential for them
(Hyland, 2007).
Another virtue to be extolled, as Hyland (2007) puts it, is the supportive
nature of such instructiongiving teachers a central role in scaffolding
94 The Journal of Applied Linguistics Vol. 7 No.15 Fall 2014
students‟ learning and creativity.Teachers deploying a genre-based approach
in their classrooms often implement a three-phase teaching-learning cycle
consisting of the modeling of a sample expert text, joint-negotiation of text
with teacher, and independent construction of text by individual students
(Cope and Kalantzis, 1993; as cited inTuan, 2011).
Tuan (2011) adds that genre-based approaches “contribute to help
students realize and master such features as purposes, audiences, context
and linguistic conventions of text which are the important features of any
text-types” (p. 1471). Alvarez (2007) maintains that writers need support
from instructors in performing a wide range of tasks associated with writing
research essays. In the same line, Kikula and Qorro (2005) report that owing
to the inadequate provision of clear instructions, most graduates end up ill-
equipped and this, in turn, leads to the stagnation of their academic writing.
Reppen (2002) proposes that a genre-based approach enhances exposure
to the required text type and in turn familiarizes students with specific
features, structures and organization of information, providing them with
ample opportunities to become aware of the kind of written communicative
purposes. Additionally, Tuan (2011) concludes that the successful
implementation of genre-based program into actual classroom settings
requires the provision of many well-written sample reading texts containing
the features of the specific genres students need to produce language in.
Genre-based approaches are, more importantly, underpinned by the
ideas of Vygotsky (1978) and Bruner (1990), both capitalizing on the role of
interaction with peers and more knowledgeable others (MKO). Hence, the
degree of teacher intervention and the decisions made by them in terms of
task selection can play a prominent role in scaffolding writing (Donato,
2000; Ohta, 2000).Scaffolding provides the teacher with the opportunity to
facilitate students‟ transition from assisted tasks to independent
performances (Bodrova& Leong, 1998; Palincsar, 1998). Mulatsih (2011, as
cited in Rezvani, Saeidi& Behnam, 2015) refers to scaffolding as “a process
by which a teacher provides students with a temporary framework for
learning; done correctly, such structures encourage students to develop their
own initiatives and motivations; once the students could develop knowledge
on their own, the framework would be dismantled”. (p. 5)
The Effect of … 95
McKenzie (1999; as cited in Rezvani, 2014) identifies efficiency and
momentum as the main characteristics of scaffolding instruction in the
context of classroom learning. The preliminary elimination of flaws and
defects as well as the structured and focused nature of the work provides the
ground for more time available to be spent on learning and discovering than
on searching, which altogether lie in the interests of learning efficiency.
Through providing clear directions and clarifying the purpose of the work,
scaffolded instruction also precludes learners from straying from the right
path or into uncertainty and confusion.
Scaffolded support for teaching writing can be in the form of sentence
starters and writing frames, which according to Wray and Lewis (1997),
consist of a skeleton outline given to students to scaffold and prompt their
writing. Scaffolded instruction in the form of sentence starters and writing
frames, as Hyland (2007) points out, provides “something of the prompting
missing between a writer and blank sheet of paper, assisting writers to
envisage what is needed to express their purposes effectively and to
anticipate the possible reactions of an intended readership” (p. 159).
The form and structure of the sentence starters and frames, however, is,
to a large extent, determined by “the type of the genre, the purpose of the
writing, and the proficiency of the students”. Moreover, the provision of
sentence starters and frames is preceded by “teacher modeling and explicit
discussion of the forms required for a particular kind of text and can be used
to scaffold planning or drafting”. The ultimate purpose of such scaffolded
instruction is to facilitate students‟ transition from assisted to unassisted
tasks, in other words, gaining them confidence in writing so that they no
longer have to rely on the frames (Hylnad, 2007, p.159).
More importantly, scaffolding in the form of writing frames and
sentence starters provide a genre template which enables students to initiate,
maintain and develop their texts appropriately while concentrating on the
message they tend to convey, simultaneously conforming to the demands
the genre makes of them as they provide a structure for writing.
The past decade or so has witnessed a large and growing body of
experimental investigations on writing instruction. Genre-based approaches
to teaching writing have drawn considerable attention since the mid-1980s
96 The Journal of Applied Linguistics Vol. 7 No.15 Fall 2014
and numerous studies have attempted to investigate the impact of genre-
based writing instruction since then.
Henry and Reseberry‟s study (1998),which was an attempt to teach
students how to write tourist brochures through a genre-based approach, was
indicative of the improvement in the writing of students with various
language abilities and also of the positive attitudes towards the method.
The findings of the study conducted by Saowadee (2006) showed that
Thai university students reaped the benefits of genre-based approach to
writing. In a similar study, Piyatida (2009), whoinvestigated the use of the
genre-based approach and its effects on the writing achievement and
attitudes of three groups of Thai engineering students (high, medium, low),
concluded that taking a genre-based approach to teaching writing content
concerning engineering, embracing request e-mails, enquiry e-mails, and
reports amplified the writing potentials of the participants in all three
groups.
Swami (2008) performed experimental investigations on the
effectiveness of the explicit use of genre-based instruction in teaching
writing. The goal of the study was to develop a rigorous understanding of
the possible advantages of sensitizing EFL learners to the rhetorical move
structures of a genre, the communicative purposes they serve, and the
linguistic features which realize those moves. The findings revealed
improvement in learners‟ writing ability in academic essays, job application
and sales promotion letters.
The findings of the study by Tuan (2011) highlighted the importance of
using a genre-based approach in gaining students control over the key
features of the recount genre in terms of social purposes, language features
and schematic structure.
In the study carried out by Babalola (2012), genre-based instruction also
proved to have a significant effect on English writing performance of
computer science students. Moreover, the findings of the study by Elashri
(2013), which aimed at developing some writing skills for second year
secondary stage students and their attitudes towards writing through using
the genre based approach, underscored the benefits of taking a genre-based
approach to writing instruction as it improved writing skills and attitudes
The Effect of … 97
towards writing. In another study Sabouri et al. (2014) highlighted the
effectiveness of using a genre-based approach to EFL writing.
Putting under investigation the reading comprehension of Iranian ESP
learners (male and female B.S. biology students), Sadeghi, Hassani and
Hemmati‟s (2013) study also highlighted the efficacy of deploying genre-
based instruction in improving the reading comprehension of the genre
group in comparison with non-genre group who received traditional
methods of teaching ESP.
To investigate the effect of a genre-based approach on teaching
academic writing, Alidoost, Toulabi, Shahivand and Qalavand (2104)
concluded that this approach not only can promote a positive attitude
towards writing, but also can familiarize students with the ways different
texts provided for different communicative purposes are organized, thereby
improving their writing performance.
In an attempt to identify the most common problems in writing research
proposals,Kikula and Qorro (2007) discovered that the most outstandingly
weak aspects in proposal writing included unsatisfactory sampling
procedure (58%), stating of hypotheses that could not be tested (53%), using
inappropriate methodology (51%) and inadequate literature review (50%).
Addressing this problem,Derntl (2014) presented a synthesis of
guidelines found in literature about structuring and writing scientific papers,
outlining the process of publishing research papers in journals and
conference proceedings, aiming to provide early stage researchers with a
handy introduction to essential issues.
The findings of the study conducted by Alvarez (2007), which was an
attempt to help college-level ESL students learn to write research papers,
indicated that ESL writers need support from instructors in performing a
wide range of tasks associated with writing research essays. The results also
revealed that ESL students appreciate explicit instruction in performing
these tasks.
Research literature regarding scaffolding also points towards its
helpfulness. Bodrova (1998) who investigated the effect of scaffolding on
writing by making a comparison between the samples of unassisted and
scaffolded writing concluded that scaffolded writing instruction results in
98 The Journal of Applied Linguistics Vol. 7 No.15 Fall 2014
more advanced levels of writing compared to the level of writing children
produced when they are unassisted. In another study,Adderly (2000)
deployed scaffolding through writing frames in an attempt to resolve the
question of whether or not it can improve students‟ standard of writing. The
main finding to emerge from the study was the effectiveness of deploying
writing frames, improving sentence construction, organization and layout of
the students‟ writing.
In attempt to evaluate the efficacy of the genre-based writing using
scaffolding techniques, Mulatsih (2011), who deployed the three-phase
cycle of modeling, joint construction and independent construction of the
texts among fourth semester English students in Nuswantroro university,
strongly recommended scaffolding concluding that genre-based instruction
accompanied by scaffolding techniques can yield far better results. The
results revealed that the participants of the experimental group who received
scaffolding techniques outperformed their counterparts in control group.
Another study carried out by Ahn (2012) aimed at teaching two genres
of Report and Essay writing by implementing the three-staged teaching and
learning cycle of Vygotskyan notion of scaffolding to develop writing
competency of primary school students. Scaffolding in the course of the
early stages of the cycle proved helpful given the fact that such scaffolding
by the teacher enhanced students‟ awareness of the ways texts are organized
to serve different communicative purposes.
Furthermore, the study carried out by Rezvani et al. (2015) investigated
the effect of scaffolding genre-based instruction of narrative texts on Iranian
EFL learners‟ writing performance and pointed towards the efficacy of such
approach to teaching writing in that setting.
Adding to a growing body of literature on scaffolding, the findings of
the study by Panahzadeh and Gholami (2014), who provided upper-
intermediate female learners with planned preemptive focus on form
through linguistic scaffolding, proved to be advantageous to and beneficial
in enriching learners‟ lexical repertoire which in turn led to improvements in
their oral production. The positive influence of scaffolding has also been
highlighted by the findings of the study by Amirghassemi, Azabdaftari and
Saeidi (2013) who investigated the effect of scaffolded versus non-
scaffolded written corrective feedback on EFL learners‟ written accuracy on
The Effect of … 99
English articles and past tense. Although the results revealed no significant
differences among the four groups in the study in terms of their accuracy in
the use of articles in their compositions, the group who benefitted from
scaffolded corrective feedback outperformed the other groupsin the correct
production of past tense.
As far as difficulties in EFL and ESL writing are concerned, research
paper writing in Iran is by no means an exception. The challenge attributed
to research paper writing is not a new phenomenon, but a persistent problem
lingering on thus far, despite numerous attempts made to alleviate the
situation. Prevalent as this problem may seem in the realm of academic
writing, appropriate measures are to be taken so as to pinpoint the root of all
impediments to the progress in this field and aid writers in avoiding those
pitfalls.
Hence in an attempt to enhance students‟ exposure to academic genre,
thereby familiarizing them with specific features, structures and the routine
organization of information of that genre, this study is underpinned by
genre-based approaches to writing instruction, central to which is
Vygotosky‟s notion of scaffolding which, in the case of this study is
provided in the form of sentence starters and writing frames.
To the best of the authors' knowledge, genre-based approach to research
paper writing through scaffolding using sentence starters and writing frames
has not been given great attention by the researchers in the past and this
motivated the present study. Hence, this study was an attempt to investigate
the effect of genre-based scaffolding on Iranian MA candidates‟ research
paper writing.The following research question wasformulated to serve the
purpose of this study:
1. Does genre-based scaffolded instruction affect MA candidates‟
research paper writing?
100 The Journal of Applied Linguistics Vol. 7 No.15 Fall 2014
Method
Participants
The participants in the present study included 20 male and female
advanced English learners,comprising two intact classes, which were
randomly assigned as experimental and control groups. Their homogeneity
was checked by PBT TOEFL and their age range was27-32. The
participants were M.A. candidates of ELT, studying at Islamic Azad
University, Tabriz Branch.
Instruments
The first instrument utilized in this study was a proficiency test, used to
ensure the homogeneity of the participants for the study. Selected from
Longman Preparation Tests for TOEFL, the test encompassed 4 sections of
the PBT TOEFL test: Listening (50 items), Structure (15 multiple-choice
and 25 error-recognition items), Reading (50 items). The scoring method for
the test was dichotomous, that is, each correct answer was given 1, and each
incorrect answer received 0. Thus, the maximum possible score for this test
was 140 for 140 items on the test.
Having been chosen for the study, the participants in both experimental
and control groupswere assigned a writing task employed as the pre-test,
namely, the second instrument of the study. The test was targeted at
participants‟ research paper writing skill, including particular hypothetical
information (e.g., findings of the study, similar and contradictory findings,
suggestions for further research, etc. all provided as short phrases). By
drawing upon the information given to them,the participants were required
to complete the incomplete phrases given to themand write a full description
of whatever section they were assigned.
The next instrument solely provided for the participants of the
experimental group was a string of sentence starters and phrases commonly
used in research paper writing, all selected from„Academic Phrasebank‟
which is a general resource for academic writers, aiming to provide the
phraseological „nuts and bolts‟ of writing organized according to the main
sections of a research paper or dissertation. Furthermore, what the
participants of experimental group additionally benefitted from were a
The Effect of … 101
number of writing frames constructed by putting together the phrases
typically forming different sections of a research paper.
The final instrument was a writing post-test, that is, another writing task
similar to the one employed as the pre-test of the study. This test, similarly,
embraced different sections, each providing the kind of preliminary
information the participants needed to expand upon and produce a coherent
and cohesive account of what is thought of as acceptable academic style of
writing, befitting the research-paper writing genre. Both pre-test and post-
test embraced 5 sections chosen out of the gap of the study, purpose of the
study, importance of the topic, participants, instruments,similar findings,
contradictory findings, results, discussion and suggestions for further
research. The maximum score for both tests was 36.The scores of both pre-
and post-test were given using the rating scale based on Jacob et al. (1981).
Procedure
To begin with, 20 participants whose homogeneity had already been
ensured using a PBT TOEFL test were randomly assigned in two control
and experimental groups, each including 10 participants. The participants in
both groups, prior to any treatment, were assigned a writing task, the results
of which served as the data for the pre-test. Both groups were engaged in a
5-session practice on how to write different sections of a research paper,
notwithstanding, undergoing different methods of instruction. The kind of
work carried out in the control group included exposing the participants to
sample research papers, familiarizing them with different sections and the
commonalities and regularities of them.
Nevertheless, the participants of the experimental group were not only
provided with the opportunity to be immersed in a detailed exploration of
sample research papers but also a group of sentence starters that commonly
appear in different sections of a research paper as well as a number of
writing frames which provided a rough outline equipped with starters,
connectives and sentence modifiers. Such frames, providing a structure for
the participants to incorporate their ideas into, obviated the painful dilemma
of teetering in indecision and wavering between this and that. Rather, the
participants had at their disposal a skeleton overview of the task and all they
102 The Journal of Applied Linguistics Vol. 7 No.15 Fall 2014
had to allocate their time and attention to was the insertion of the required
information into those frames. Some samples of the sentence starters and
frames have been provided in the Appendix A.
Finally, after the 5-session treatment, the participants in both groups,
were assigned another writing task, similar to the one employed as the pre-
test of the study. The results of this test served as the data for the post-test of
the study.
Design
The present study had a quasi-experimental pre-test post-test design with
a control group intended to estimate the effect of the independent
variable(i.e., genre-based scaffolded instruction)on the dependent variable
of the research which is research paper writing performance.
Results
The data obtained from the PBT TOEFL test, writing pre-test and post-
test were analyzed by means of the statistical package for social sciences
version 16 (SPSS, 16). Initially, an independent samples t-test was
conducted to compare the scores of the experimental and control groups on
the PBT TOEFL test which was taken to ensure the homogeneity of the
participants in both groups. Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics on the
results of the PBT TOEFL test in the control and experimental groups.
Table 1
Descriptive statistics for the results of the PBT TOEFL test
groups of
students N Mean
Std.
Deviation Std. Error Mean
students' scores experimental 10 83.00 3.496 1.106
Control 10 82.70 4.347 1.375
Table 2 displays the results of the independent samples t-test on the
results of PBT TOEFL test in the control and experimental groups.
The Effect of … 103
Table 2
Independent samples t-test for the PBT TOEFL test
Levene's
Test for
Equalityof
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. T Df Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
stu
den
ts' s
core
s Equal
variances
assumed
.333 .571 .170 18 .867 .300 1.764 -3.406 4.006
Equal
variances not
assumed
.170 17.208 .867 .300 1.764 -3.419 4.019
As indicated in Tables 1 and 2, there is no significant difference between
the mean scores of the experimental group (M = 83.00, SD= 3.50) and
control group (M = 82.70, SD=4.35), which signifies the initial homogeneity
of the participants in both groups, t(18)= .170,p=.867>.05.
Another independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the
scores of control and experimental groups on the pre-test. Table 3 presents
the descriptive statistics on the results of the pre-test in the control and
experimental groups.
Table 3
Descriptive statistics for the results of the pre-test
groups of
students N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
students' scores experimental 10 13.20 1.751 .554
Control 10 12.50 1.581 .500
Table 4 indicates the results of the independent samples t-test on the
results of pre-test scores in the control and experimental groups.
104 The Journal of Applied Linguistics Vol. 7 No.15 Fall 2014
Table 4
Independent samples t-test for the results of the pre-test
Levene's Test
for Equality
of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. T Df Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
stu
den
ts' s
core
s
Equal
variances
assumed
.066 .800 .938 18 .361 .700 .764 -.867 2.267
Equal
variances not
assumed
.938 17.815 .361 .700 .764 -.867 2.269
As indicated in Tables3 and Table 4, there is no significant difference
between the mean scores of the experimental group (M = 13.2, SD= 1.75)
and control group (M = 12.50, SD=1.58), which indicates there is no
significant difference in both groups, t (18)=.93, p=.36>.05.
Similarly, another independent samples t-test was run to compare the
mean scores of the participants of both groups on the post-test.The results of
the descriptive statistics are shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Descriptive group statistics for the results of the post-test
groups of
students N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
students' scores experimental 10 28.70 2.058 .651
Control 10 22.90 5.587 1.767
Table 6 indicates the results of the independent samples t-test on the
results of post-test scores in the control and experimental groups.
The Effect of … 105
Table 6
Independent samples t-test for the results of the post-test
Levene's Test
for Equality
of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. T Df Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
stu
den
ts' s
core
s Equal
variances
assumed
11.245 .004 3.081 18 .006 5.800 1.883 1.845 9.755
Equal variances
not assumed 3.081 11.397 .010 5.800 1.883 1.674 9.926
The results of the comparison of post-test scores in both groups,
presented in Tables 3 and 4, reveal a significant difference between the
mean scores of the experimental group (M = 28.10, SD= 2.05) and control
group (M = 22.90, SD=5.58, t (18)= 3.08, p=.00 <.05).Such significant
difference is an indicator of the outperformance of the participants in
experimental group, which confirms the effectiveness of genre-based
scaffolded instruction through sentence starters and writing frames.
Discussion
The results of the independent samples t-test for the post-test showed a
significant difference between the writing performance of participants in
experimental and control groups, which confirms the findings of the study
by Alvarez (2007) which pointed out the need for explicit instruction and
support from instructors to improve research paper writing. The
outperformance of the participants in experimental group was indicative of
the effectiveness of the genre-based approach to writing instruction. This is
consistent with the findings of the study by Henry and Roseberry (1998),
Saowadee (2006), Swami (2008), Piyatida (2009), Tuan (2011), Elashri
(2013), Alidoost et al. (2014) and Sabouri et al. (2014), all pointing towards
the efficacy of taking a genre-based approach to teaching EFL writing.
106 The Journal of Applied Linguistics Vol. 7 No.15 Fall 2014
The outperformance of the participants in experimental group was also
indicative of the effectiveness of scaffolded instruction through sentence
starters and writing frames. The helpfulness of scaffolded writing
instruction is also corroborated by the findings of Bodrova (1998), who
compared the samples of unassisted and scaffolded writing and found that
scaffolded writing did produce more advanced writing compared to the level
of writing children produced when unassisted. Backing up the effectiveness
of scaffolding, the study by Amirghassemi et al. (2013) capitalized on the
use of scaffolding to improve the production of past tense in writing.
The present study aimed at using a genre-based approach to
researchpaper writing which was accompanied by scaffolded instruction
through sentence starters and writing frames. The helpfulness of genre-
based approach accompanied by scaffolding has already been corroborated
by the findings of the study by Mulatsih (2011) and Ahn (2012), both
attempting to reap the benefits of deploying the three-phase cycle of
modeling, joint construction and independent construction of the texts,
namely thethree-staged teaching and learning cycle of Vygotskyannotion of
scaffolding to improve writing performance.
The effectiveness of deploying writing frames has also been underscored
by Adderly (2000) who found that writing frames can be advantageous,
improving sentence construction, organization and layout of the students‟
writing. The provision of sentence starters and writing frames disentangled
the learners from the predicament of how to commence, maintain and
terminate, in other words, priming them with scaffolds adhering to the
principles of research paper writing.The helpfulness of scaffolded support is
also highlighted by the findings of the study by Panahzadeh and Gholami
(2014)providing upper-intermediate female learners with planned
preemptive focus on form through linguistic scaffolding, which proved to be
beneficial in enhancing learners‟ lexical resource, thereby improving their
oral production.
To conclude, this study set out to investigate the effect of genre-based
scaffoldedinstruction on research paper writing of MA candidates of ELT.
Taking a genre-based approach provided a fertile ground for enhancing MA
candidates‟ awareness of research paper genre and its particular features and
standards. Moreover, scaffolded support provided in the form of writing
The Effect of … 107
frames and sentence starters proved advantageous to MA candidates, since
such preliminary scaffolds allayed their concerns over not only how to
convey their message but also how to conform to the standards of research
paper writing by putting at their disposal the nub and crux of the genre.
The findings of this study have got implications for writing instructors.
Firstly, they underline the benefits of enlightening learners to specific
features of a particular genre. Once familiarized with the nuts and bolts of
the genre, the learners are equipped with the knowledge of what to write and
what not to write. More importantly, the explicit instruction of a particular
genre provides more room for teachers to scaffold their students‟ learning,
smoothing students‟ transition from assisted and dependent to unassisted
independent performances. In other words, through frequent exposure to
phrases, sentence starters and frames typical of a particular genre, the
learners become more and more attuned to the commonalities of that genre
and their dependence on them gradually fades away.
References
Adderly, S. (2000).Investigating the teaching of writing frames: Raising standards
in boy’s writing.A research project funded by the Teacher Training Agency
as part of the Teacher Research Grant Scheme. London: TTA publications.
Alidoost, Y., Toulabi, A. R., Shahivand, Z.,&Qalavand, M. (2014). A genre-based
teaching approach to academic writing: Describing visually presented
information in graphs and charts. International Journal of Language
Learning and Applied Linguistics World, 5(2), 97-104.
Alvarez, D. (2007). ESL college students‟ difficulties with research writing. A
Master‟s Thesis submitted to the University of North Carolina, Charlotte.
Amirghassemi, A., Azabdaftari, B., &Saeidi, M. (2013). The effect of scaffolded
vs. non-scaffolded written corrective feedback on EFL learners' written
accuracy.World Applied Sciences Journal, 22 (2), 256-263.
Babalola, H. (2012).Effects of process-genre based approach on the written English
performance of computer science students in a Nigerian Polytechnic.
Journal of Education and Practice, 3(6),
Bodrova, E. (1998). Scaffolding emergent writing in the zone of proximal
development.Literacy Teaching and Learning, 3 (2), 1-18.
Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. (1998).Scaffolding emergent writing in the zone of
proximal development. Literacy Teaching and Learning, 3(2), 1-18.
108 The Journal of Applied Linguistics Vol. 7 No.15 Fall 2014
Brown, H. D. (2000). Teaching by principles(4th Ed.).London:
Longman.California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Bruner, J. S. (1990).Acts of meaning.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Derntl, M. (2014). Basics of research paper writing and publishing. International
Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 6(2), 105-123.
Donato, R. (2000). Sociocultural contributions to understanding the second and
foreign language classroom. In J. Lantolf(Ed.), Sociocultural theory and
second language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Elashri, I. I. E. A. (2013).The effect of the genre-based approach to teaching
writing on the EFL Al-Azhr secondary students' writing skills and their
attitudes towards writing.Unpublished Dissertation at Mansoura
University, Egypt.
Harmer, J. (2007).The practice of English language teaching.Harlow: Pearson
Education Limited.
Henry, A. & Roseberry, R. (1998). An evaluation of a genre-based approach to the
teaching of EAP/ESP writing.TESOL Quarterly, 32, 147-156.
Hyland, K. (2007). Genre pedagogy: Language, literacy and L2 writing instruction.
Journal of Second Language Writing, 16 (2007), 148-164.
Kikula, I. S. &Qorro. M. A. S. (2007). Common mistakes and problems in research
proposal writing: an assessment of proposals forresearch grants submitted
to Research on Poverty Alleviation REPOA in Tanzania. Special Paper
07.24, Dar es Salaam,REPOA.
Kim, M. (2006).Genre-based approach to teaching writing.HPU TESL Working
Paper Series,4(2), 33-39.
Mulatsih, S. (2011). The use of scaffolding technique to improve the
studentscompetence in writing genre-based texts.Parole 2 (1),101-109.
Nunan, D.(1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom.Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Ohta, A. (2000). Rethinking interaction in SLA: Developmentally appropriate
assistance in the zone of proximal development and the acquistion of L2
grammar. In J. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language
learning (pp. 199-221). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Osman, H.(2004). Genre-based instruction for ESP. Retrieved September 11, 2014
from:http://www.melta.org.my/ET/2004/2004-13.pdf
Palincsar, A. S. (1998). Keeping the metaphor of scaffolding fresh: A response to
C. Addison Stone‟s „The metaphor of scaffolding.Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 31(4), 370-373.
The Effect of … 109
Panahzadeh, V., &Gholami, J. (2014).The Relative Impacts of Planned Preemptive
vs. Delayed Reactive Focus on Form on Language Learners‟ Lexical
Resource.Journal of Language Teaching and Learning, 4(1), 69-83.
Park, G. S. (2006). ESP/EAP: Genre-based teaching in reading and
writing.Retrieved August28, 2014 from http://web.utk.edu/~gpark
/genreteaching.docRodgers,T.(2001).
PiyatidaCh . (2009).The effects of the genre-based approach on engineering
students'writing ability . Retrieved September 2014, from
ejournal.litu.tu.ac.th/pdf/LITU_journal_volume_5.pdf
Reid, J. (1995). Teaching ESL Writing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Heinle and Heinle.
Reppen, A. (2002). The effects of genre-based approach on writing.In J. Richards
& W. Renandya (Eds), Methodology in language teaching: An anthology
of current practice. Cambridge: CUP.
Rezvani, P. (2014).The effect of scaffolding genre-based instruction of humorous
narrative texts on Iranian EFL learners‟ writing performance, motivation
for writing, and humorous writing.An unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Islamic Azad University of Tabriz, Iran.
Rezvani, P., Saeidi, M., & Behnam, B. (2015).The effect of scaffolding genre-
based instruction of narrative texts on Iranian EFL learners‟ writing
performance.DU Journal, Humanities and Social Sciences, 8 (5(1)), 693-
709.
Richards, J. C., &Renandya, W. A.(2003).Methodology in language teaching: An
anthology of current practice (3rd ed.). Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity
Press.
Sabouri, H., Zohrabi, M., Vafa, A. (2014).Genre-based approach to teaching
writing in EFL context.International Journal of Applied Linguistic Studies,
3(1), 1-7.
Sadeghi, B.,Hassani, M. T.,&Hemmati, M. R. (2013).The effects of genre-based
instruction on ESP learners reading comprehension.Theory and practice in
language studies journal, 3(6), 865-876.
Saowadee K. (2006).Using a genre-based approach to teach writing to Thai
students: A case study.Prospect Journal,21(2),3-33.
Swami, J. A.(2008).Sensitizing ESL learners to genre:TESL-EJ, Retrieved May 25,
2014fromhttp://tesl-ej.org/ej47/a9.html
Tribble, C.(1997). Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Tuan, L. T. (2011). Teaching writing through genre-based approach.Theory and
Practice in Language studies, 1(11), 1471-1478.
110 The Journal of Applied Linguistics Vol. 7 No.15 Fall 2014
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society: The development of Higher Psychological
Processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Wray, D., & Lewis, M. (1997).Extending literacy: Children reading and writing
non-fiction. London: Routledge.
Appendix
Sample frames for research paper writing
Frame for Empirical background to the study
The relationship between X and Y /The effect of X on Y has been widely
investigated by several researchers to date. The past decade or so has witnessed a
large and growing body of experimental investigations on…………………………
. ………………..approaches to………………….have drawn considerable attention
since (date) and numerous studies have attempted to investigate the impact of
………………………since then, each delving into the issue from different
perspectives.
The literature on ………abounds with ample support for
……………………………. The investigation into ……………………..was
pioneered by Author (….) who demonstrated that ............. (number) years later,
in an attempt to explore ………………….Author(….) reported that ....
.……………. .Author ( ….) extended this work to …………………….. and
performed experimental investigations on ………………. . The findings of his/her
study revealed that……………………… .In another study, Author (….) examined
……………......and concluded that…………………… . With the same objective,
Author (….) conducted numerical experiments on ………………..and discovered
that ………………………….. . Moreover, the findings of the study by Author(….)
who aimed at evaluating the……………… lent support to ……………..indicating
that ............................................. Similarly, Author‟s (….) study which was an
attempt to investigate …………………………..pointed
towards……………………. . The findings of the study by Author (….) also
provide confirmatory evidence that……………………………………. .Adding to
a growing body of literature on ………………. , the findings of the study by
Author (….), who……………………………, proved to be advantageous to and
beneficial in ……………………………….. .
Gap and purpose
So far numerous studies have been carried out attempting to
explore/investigate/establish ……………………………………………….
Moreover, X has been previously investigated by some researchers, most of whom
The Effect of … 111
have primarily concentrated on ………………………………………………To the
best of author‟s knowledge little attention, if any, has been paid to
……………………andliterature reviews indicatethat no research has been found to
have focused on (specific part of the research). What is more, a careful study of the
aforementioned investigations reveals that no previous research has simultaneously
examined the…………………………………….. Hence, as an attempt to fill this
gap (and present a pretty novel approach to……………………………….), the
present study was undertaken so as to determine the extent to which
…………………………….can contribute to the improvement in
………………………………… .
Frame for Suggestions for further research
Unveiling just the tip of iceberg of…………….., this research has thrown up
many questions in need of further investigation. Firstly, it is recommended that
further research be undertaken to establish whether ………………. .More broadly,
further research is also needed to determine the extent to which /the degree to
which/ the effectiveness of X in………………………… . What is more,
illuminating insights can be derived from a further study with a tighter focus
on……………………………… as more information on it would help us to
establish a greater degree of accuracy on this matter. In other words, more research
into ….. ……………………is still necessary before obtaining a definitive answer
to ……………………
Last but not least, further research in this field/regarding the role of X would be
of great help in enhancing our understanding of the relationship between X and Y/
the effect of X on Y.
112 The Journal of Applied Linguistics Vol. 7 No.15 Fall 2014
Biodata
Mahnaz Saeidi is an associate professor of Applied Linguistics at Islamic Azad
University, Tabriz Branch. She is the member of University Publication Committee
and the editor-in-chief of the Journal of Applied Linguistics. She was awarded for
being the best researcher from 2007 to 2011 and won the best translator prize in the
fourth round of Scientific, Research, and Technology ceremony of Islamic Azad
University (Chaharomin Jashnvare Farhikhteghan), 2016. She has published books
and articles and presented papers in national and international conferences.Her
research interests are multiple intelligences, feedback, academic writing and genre
analysis.
Sara Salehpour is a Ph.D candidate in ELT at Islamic Azad University, Tabriz
Branch. She has several years of experience in teaching English in Language
Institutes in Tabriz. Her research interests include discourse analysis, systemic
functional linguistics, ELT and writing.