The Digitally Literate Citizen: How Digital Literacy Empowers Mass Participation in the United States

7/31/2019 The Digitally Literate Citizen: How Digital Literacy Empowers Mass Participation in the United States

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TLH DIFITACCY CITHPATH BITI]HE=

LJV DIFITAC CITHPABY HG^JVHPR GARR ^APTIBI^ATIJE IE TLH XEITHD RTATHR

A Garthpr Tlhrir

rx`gitthd tj tlh Oabxctyjo tlh Fpadxath Rbljjc jo Aptr aed Rbihebhr

jo Fhjpfhtje Xeivhprityie ~aptiac oxcoiccghet jo tlh phqxiphghetr ojp tlh

dhfphh joGarthp jo Aptr

ie Bjggxeibatije# Bxctxph aed Thblejcjfy%

@y

Mhphgy Pihc# @%A%

Varlieftje# D%B%

A~pic 02# 0>10


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Acc pifltr phrhpvhd

IEOJPGATIJE TJ ACC XRHPRTlh qxacity jo tlir ph~pjdxbtije ir dh~hedhet je tlh qxacity jo tlh bj~y rx`gitthd%

Ie tlh xecikhcy hvhet tlat tlh axtljp did ejt rhed a bjg~chth gaexrbpi~taed tlhph aph girrief ~afhr# tlhrh icc `h ejthd% Acrj# io gathpiac lad tj `h phgjvhd#

a ejth icc iedibath tlh dhchtije%

Acc pifltr phrhpvhd% Tlir hditije jo tlh jpk ir ~pjthbthd afaiertxeaxtljpi}hd bj~yief xedhp Titch 16# Xeithd Rtathr Bjdh%

^pjQxhrt CCB%6


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0>10 Mhphgy PihcRjgh pifltr phrhpvhd

Tlh Difitaccy Cithpath Biti}he=Lj Difitac Cithpaby Hg~jhpr Garr ^aptibi~atije ie tlh Xeithd Rtathr

`y Mhphgy Pihcir cibherhd xedhp a

Bphativh Bjggjer Attpi`xtije 2%> Xe~jpthd Cibhebh

%bphativhbjggjer%jpf*cibherhr*`y*2%>*


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TLH DIFITACCY CITHPATH BITI]HE=

LJV DIFITAC CITHPABY HG^JVHPR GARR ÂPTIBIÂTIJE IE TLH XEITHD RTATHR

Mhphgy Pihc# @%A%

Tlhrir Advirjp= Diaea G% Jhe# ^l%D%

A@RTPABT

Opjg jecieh ~jcitibac bag~aifeief tj Iethpeht rjbiac bcx`r# tlh Aghpibae garr

~aptibi~atije hevipjeghet lar `hbjgh iebphariefcy ghdiathd `y difitac thblejcjfihr jp tjjcr%

Opjg rjbiac ghg`hprli~ ie fpjx~r aed bcx`r tj ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije tj ieocxhebief fjvhpeghet

abtije# ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr lavh `hbjgh ~j~xcap ojp h|~phrrief idhar aed `xicdief rjbiac

ba~itac% Ie tlir tlhrir# I apfxh tlat difitac cithpaby# jp tlh aìcity tj xrh hchbtpjeib tjjcr tj phtpihvh#

hvacxath# aed bphath ieojpgatije# lar `hbjgh hrrhetiac ojp hefafhghet ie vapijxr garr

~aptibi~atije aed rjbiac abtivitihr ie tlh Xeithd Rtathr# iebcxdief tljrh abtivitihr itlie tlh

djgaier jo rjbiac ghg`hprli~# bivib# ~jcitibac# aed jecieh ~aptibi~atije% @hbaxrh jo tlh iebpharhd

xrh jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr ie tlh ~x`cib r~lhph# thblejcjfy aed ieojpgatije rkiccr lavh

`hbjgh phqxiphd tj hoohbtivhcy ~aptibi~ath rjbiaccy aed ~jcitibaccy% Xrief data opjg a eatijeaccy

ph~phrhetativh rxpvhy# I iccxrtpath rhvhpac oiediefr tlat iedibath tlh rtpheftl jo difitac cithpaby

rkiccr ie hg~jhpief ~x`cib ojp rjbiac ghg`hprli~ ~aptibi~atije# ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije# aed

jecieh rjbiac abtivitihr%

KHYVJPDR

Difitac cithpaby; ieojpgatije cithpaby; ghdia cithpaby; thblejcjfy rkiccr; garr ~aptibi~atije;

~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije; bivib ~aptibi~atije; difitac dividh


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TA@CH JO BJETHETR

BLA^THP1=IETPJDXBTIJE%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%1

1%1OPAGHVJPK AED ÂRT PHRHAPBL %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%2

1%0LY^JTLHRHR AED GHTLJDR%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%6

1%2OIEDIEFR%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%10THBLEJCJFY XRH RXP_HY%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%402%2AEACYRIR GHTLJDR%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%42

2%2%1ADMXRTHD RXGGAPY RBACHR OJPDHRBPI^TI_H GHAER BJGÂPIRJE %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%422%2%0DHRBPI^TI_H AEACYRIR AED DHGJFPA^LIB BJGÂPIRJER%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%48

2%2%2LY^JTLHRIR THRTIEF AED AEACYRIR %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%48

BLA^THP4=DHRBPI^TI_H DIOOHPHEBHR IE DIFITAC CITHPABY AED GARR ÂPTIBIÂTIJE%%46

4%1DIFITAC CITHPABY IE TLH XEITHD RTATHR %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%4>?a; Iethpeatijeac Thblejcjfy Hdxbatije

Arrjbiatije# 0>>0; Tpiccief / Oadhc# 0>>9)%Ieojpgatije rkiccr addphrr tlh tlhjphtibac arrxg~tije

tlat xrhpr jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr rljxcd acrj `h a`ch tj bpitibaccy abqxiph# aeacy}h# aed xrh

ieojpgatije hooibihetcy% Rbljcapr apfxh tlat itljxt ieojpgatije rkiccr# xrhpr jo ieojpgatije


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thblejcjfihr icc `h xea`ch tj gakh rherh jo tlh dhcxfh jo ieojpgatije tlat ir avaica`ch tj xrhpr

,Ficrthp# 1996; Pxrlkjoo# 0>1>; @adhe# 0>>1; Reavhcy / Bjj~hp# 1996)%

Tlh djgaier jobjggxeibatije rkiccr ,tlh aìcity tj rhed aed phbhivh ieojpgatije) aed

~x`cibatije rkiccr ,tlh aìcity tj bphath ieojpgatije) addphrr tlh dhcivhpy aed rlapief oxebtijer

tlat ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr ~pjvidh% Rbljcapr ljcd tlat tlh aìcity tj ~pj~hpcy iethp~pht

ghrrafhr itlie vapijxr ghdia# bljjrh tlh ~pj~hp ghdixg ojp bjggxeibatije jp h|~phrrije#

aed tj bjgìeh ghdia ojp vapijxr hoohbtr aph hrrhetiac ojp a difitaccy cithpath ~hprje ,Mhekier#

0>>?`; Tyehp# 1992; Vicdh / Vicdh# 1991)%Ieejvativh

tliekief rkiccr# libl iebcxdh bpitibac tliekief# ae h|~hpighetac attitxdh# aed a lirtjpy jo

bphativity aed bxrtjgi}atije itl thblejcjfy aph acrj phfapdhd ar ehbhrrapy ojp tlh difitaccy

cithpath ~hprje% Ieejvativh tliekief rkiccr hea`ch och|iìcity lhe chapeief eh thblejcjfihr aed

~pjvidh ghetac gjdhcr ojp bphatief bxrtjg xrhr jo thblejcjfy tj ghht jehr ehhdr ,Mhekier#

0>>?a; Aghpibae Arrjbiatije ojp tlh Advaebhghet jo Rbihebh# 199>)% Oieaccy# difitac cithpaby

rbljcapr oied tlat bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac kejchdfh je thblejcjfy irrxhr aid a ~hprje ie

aetibi~atief tlh bjerhqxhebhr jo lir jp lhp thblejcjfy xrh aed lhc~ ieojpg lir jp lhp bljibh jo

ghdia ,^haprje / Yjxef# 0>>0; Mhekier# 0>>?a; Tpiccief / Oadhc# 0>>9; Pxrlkjoo# 0>1>)% Tlhrh

kejchdfh aphar iebcxdh chfac irrxhr itl thblejcjfy# iethcchbtxac ~pj~hpty# jecieh ~pivaby# tlh

pirkr aed `hehoitr jo thblejcjfy# aed bxpphet thblejcjfy tphedr%

Tlh ri| djgaier jo difitac cithpaby tlat I idhetioy ie tlir tlhrir acc `hehoit a ~hprjer

aìcity ojp rhco'h|~phrrije aed bjevhyaebh jo idhar jp rjbiac ehhdr% Bjg~cighetief tlh

tpaditijeac ejtije jo cithpaby ar tlh aìcity tj phad aed pith# tlir h|~aedhd ejtije jo difitac

cithpaby abbjxetr ojp tlh viptxaccy xecigithd exg`hp jo bjgìeatijer jo ghdia itl libl a

~hprje bae xrh ieojpgatije thblejcjfy tj bjggxeibath aed iethp~pht caefxafh% Tlir gxctigjdac


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vih jo cithpaby lar `hbjgh ae aethbhdhet rkicc tlat ir phqxiphd ojp gaey ojpgr jo garr

~aptibi~atije% Ie hoohbt# tlhrh rkiccr ph~phrhet a eh rht jo bivib rkiccr tlat hg~jhp tlh ~x`cib tj

lavh a pj`xrt rjbiac cioh aed bjggxeity bjeehbtije%

1%0LY^JTLHRHR AED GHTLJDR

Tj h|agieh tlh ieocxhebh jo difitac cithpaby je vapijxr ojpgr jo garr ~aptibi~atije# I lavh

dhvhcj~hd tlh ojccjief ly~jtlhrhr tlat icc `h thrthd ie tlir tlhrir=

L1= Kejchdfh jo bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac irrxhr jo thblejcjfy ir bjpphcathd tlh gjrt

itl liflhp chvhcr jo garr ~aptibi~atije lhe bjg~aphd tj tlh jtlhp oivh djgaier

jo difitac cithpaby

L0= Difitac cithpaby rkiccr tlat aph xrhd ojp bphativity aed bjethet ~x`cibatije aph

bjpphcathd itl liflhp chvhcr garr ~aptibi~atije lhe bjg~aphd tj bjg~xthp#

ieojpgatije# aed bjggxeibatije rkiccr

L2= Difitac cithpaby ir tlh rtpjefhrt ~phdibtjp jo tpaditijeac garr ~aptibi~atije lhe

bjg~aphd tj rtpheftl jo ~jcitibac idhjcjfy aed rjbiac dhgjfpa~libr

L4= Jecieh ~aptibi~atije ir ieocxhebhd tlh gjrt `y difitac cithpaby rkiccr lhe bjg~aphd

abpjrr tlh ojxp djgaier jo garr ~aptibi~atije

L8= Liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby ~phdibt liflhp chvhcr jo ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije

I ~hpojpg a rhpihr jo rtatirtibac aeacyrhr tj thrt tlhrh ly~jtlhrhr# iebcxdief ^haprjer P

bjpphcatijer aed jpdieapy chart'rqxaph ,JCR) phfphrrijer% Tlhrh rtatirtibac ~pjbhdxphr xrh data

opjg tlh 0>10 Thblejcjfy Xrh Rxpvhy# libl ~pjvidh ieojpgatije je phr~jedhet chvhcr jo

difitac cithpaby ar gharxphd `y 89 iedibatjpr jo rkicc aed kejchdfh% Ie additije# tlh rxpvhy


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11'0>10 Jbbx~y Vacc Rtphht gjvhghet# aed tlh 0>11 Apa` R~pief# dhgjbpatib aed eje'

dhgjbpatib rjbihtihr acikh aph ph'ehfjtiatief tlh iethp~cay `hthhe thblejcjfy# rjbiac iertitxtijer#

aed rjbijhbjejgib ieocxhebh%

Ie tlir bla~thp# I liflciflt ~art cithpatxph je garr ~aptibi~atije# aethbhdhet rkiccr aed

~phbjeditijer ojp ~aptibi~atije# dhrbpi~tije jo difitac cithpaby tlhjpy# aed itr phcatijerli~ tj garr

~aptibi~atije% Oiprt# I h|~cjph tlh bjebh~t jo garr ~aptibi~atije aed dhoieh tlh ojxp djgaier jo


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~aptibi~atije tlat tlir tlhrir icc aeacy}h% Rhbjed# I phvih tlh lirtjpy jo garr ~aptibi~atije

phrhapbl ie tlh Xeithd Rtathr tj fht a fcig~rh jo lj garr ~aptibi~atije phrhapbl lar `hbjgh

liflcy dhtaichd ie dhrbpiìef tlh ty~hr jo ~hj~ch lj fht ievjcvhd ie vapijxr ~x`cib abtivitihr#

hr~hbiaccy ie tlh akh jo tlh dhvhcj~ghet jo tlh Iethpeht aed jtlhp difitac tjjcr% Eh|t# I h|agieh

~art jpk tlat idhetioihr aethbhdhet ~phbjeditijer aed rkiccr tlat lavh `hhe ojxed tj ~phdibt a

~hprjer chvhc jo garr ~aptibi~atije% Oieaccy# I h|~cjph tlh bjebh~t jo difitac cithpaby aed ~jritije

it itlie tlh bxpphet cithpatxph je aethbhdhet rkiccr aed ~phbjeditijer ojp garr ~aptibi~atije%

Difitac cithpaby lar dhvhcj~hd opjg tlh tpaditijeac ejtije jo cithpaby# libl lar `hhe h|~aedhd

`y tlh h|~jehetiac fpjtl jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr% Ar difitac cithpaby ir a eh aethbhdhet

rkicc# tlh ~jrrhrrije jo difitac cithpaby rkiccr agjef tlh ~x`cib bjxcd `h a eh iedibatjp jo rjbiac

ieocxhebh ar it ir h|hpbirhd tlpjxfl ~aptibi~atije%

0%1GARR ÂPTIBIÂTIJE DHOIEHD

Garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr lavh hemjyhd a pibl lirtjpy jo phrhapbl aed dirbxrrije% I

dhoieh I dhoieh garr ~aptibi~atije ar hefafhghet ie rjbiac# bivib# aed ~jcitibac abtivitihr%

Fhehpaccy# garr ~aptibi~atije iebcxdhr abtivitihr tj rjbiaci}h# tj ieocxhebh jtlhpr `hlavijpr aed

attitxdhr# jp tj hoohbt rjbiac jp ~jcitibac blaefh# rxbl ar hebjxpafief rjghjeh tj fivh gjehy tj a

baxrh jp ~htitijeief a ~x`cib jooibiac tjapd a ~aptibxcap ~jciby dhbirije% Ar iccxrtpathd ie Ta`ch

0%1# I aeacy}h ojxp djgaier jo garr ~aptibi~atije ie tlir tlhrir= ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije# bivib

~aptibi~atije# rjbiac ghg`hprli~ ~aptibi~atije# aed jecieh ~aptibi~atije% Habl jo tlh ojxp djgaier

ir arrjbiathd itl r~hbioib fjacr aed abtivitihr%


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Ojxp Djgaier jo Garr âptibi~atije

1%^jcitibac âptibi~atije

0% Bivib âptibi~atije

2% Rjbiac Ghg`hprli~ âptibi~atije

4% Jecieh âptibi~atije

Ta`ch 0%1

Ojxp Djgaier jo Garr âptibi~atije

^hpla~r tlh gjrt phrhapblhd djgaie jo garr ~aptibi~atije ir~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije%

_hpà# Rblcj}gae# aed @pady ,1998) aed ]xkie# ht ac% ,0>>?) dhoieh ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije ar

abtivity tlat lar tlh iethet jp hoohbt jo ieocxhebief fjvhpeghet abtije hitlhp diphbtcy `y

aoohbtief tlh gakief jp ig~chghetatije jo ~x`cib ~jciby# jp iediphbtcy `y ieocxhebief tlh

rhchbtije jo ~hj~ch lj gakh tljrh ~jcibihr ,~~% ?)% Abtivitihr rxbl ar vjtief# djeatief tj

~jcitibac baedidathr# bjetabtief ~x`cib jooibiacr# aed ~jcitibac bcx` ghg`hprli~ aph acc dirtiebt#

gharxpa`ch ojpgr jo ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije ,^xteag# 0>>># ~~% 28'4?)% Ie additije# ]xkie# ht ac%

,0>>?) idhetioy tlh bjebh~t jo~x`cib vjibh ie ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr# libl aph iediphbt

hoojptr tj ieocxhebh ~jcitibac jxtbjghr tlpjxfl tlh dirbxrrije jp rlapief jo ~jcitibac irrxhr

tlpjxfl vapijxr ghdia itl jtlhp ghg`hpr jo tlh ~x`cib% Acc jo tlhrh abtivitihr aph iebcxdhd ie

gy gharxphr jo ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije ar dhrbpi`hd ie Bla~thp 2%

Actljxfl rbljcapr lavh ciekhd it tj ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije# bivib ~aptibi~atije ir a dirtiebt

bathfjpy jo abtivity opjg ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije ,_hpà# Rblcj}gae# / @pady# 1998; ^xteag#

0>>>; ]xkie# ht ac%# 0>>?)% Bivib ~aptibi~atije ir ejt aighd at ieocxhebief fjvhpeghet abtije aed

ir xrxaccy arrjbiathd itl a lifl dhfphh jo vjcxethhpirg jp rhpvibh tj jtlhpr% Ar dhoiehd `y

]xkie# ht ac# bivib hefafhghet ir jpfaei}hd vjcxetapy abtivity ojbxrhd je ~pj`chg rjcvief aed


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lhc~ief jtlhpr% It iebcxdhr a idh paefh jo jpk xedhptakhe acjeh jp ie bjebhpt itl jtlhpr tj

hoohbt blaefh ,0>>?# ~~% 6)% I xrh tlir dhoieitije ojp bivib ~aptibi~atije ie tlir tlhrir ar it

iebcxdhr vjcxethhpirg# ~licaetlpj~y# jp jtlhp jvhpt hoojptr tj ieocxhebh rjbiac ~jciby jp ritxatijer%

Tlhrh abtivitihr# lich rh~apath opjg tljrh jo ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije# acrj rhhk jxtbjghr tlat

ieocxhebh rjbiac ritxatijer% Ar rxbl# tlir djgaie jo ~aptibi~atije ir ae ig~jptaet jeh phfapdief

tlh phrhapbl jo garr ~aptibi~atije# hvhe tljxfl rjgh rbljcapr apfxh tlat ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije

giflt `h gjph ig~jptaet ojp tlh dhgjbpatib lhactl ,]xkie# ht ac%# 0>>?)%

Vlich ejt ehbhrrapicy ~pjgjtief rjbiac blaefh jp rjcvief ~pj`chgr# rjgh ojpgr jo garr

~aptibi~atije bae iebpharh a ~hprjer rjbiac ba~itac tlat bae tlhe `h xrhd ojp bivib ~aptibi~atije

,^xteag# 0>>># ~~% 11?)% Tlh ty~hr jo bjggxeity abtivitihr tlat dj ejt h|~phrr a bchap iethet tj

rjcvh ~pj`chgr jp lhc~ jtlhpr `xt rticc rhpvh tj bjeehbt ~hj~ch# `xicd rjbiac ba~itac# jp aph xrhd

ojp ~hprjeac ratiroabtije jp fpjtl aph bcarrioihd xedhp lat I bacc tlhrjbiac ghg`hprli~

~aptibi~atije djgaie% Rjbiac ghg`hprli~ ~aptibi~atije ir dhoiehd ar ie'~hprje# vjcxetapy abtivity

ie libl ae iedividxac takhr ~apt ie jp rlaphr ie abtivitihr ojp ~hprjeac fpjtl aed bjggje

iethphrtr# `xt djhr ejt ehbhrrapicy rhhk tlh rjbiac blaefh jp ~pj`chg'rjcvief jxtbjghr

dhgjertpathd `y abtivitihr ie tlh bivib ~aptibi~atije djgaie% Abtivitihr itlie tlh rjbiac

ghg`hprli~ ~aptibi~atije djgaie iebcxdh mjieief bcx`r# jpfaei}atijer# lj``y fpjx~r# jp jtlhp

ghg`hprli~'jpihethd fpjx~r% Ie additije tj bivib ~aptibi~atije aed rjbiac rhpvibh# a pj`xrt rjbiac

cioh ir lhc~oxc ojp ig~pjvief ejt jecy tlh iedividxac `xt acrj tlh bjggxeity ie libl tlhy

iethpabt ,Jcdhe`xpf# 1999)% Vlich gaey fpjx~r giflt rhpvh tj rjcvh ~pj`chgr aed ghht

jxtbjghr# tlh `hehoit tj tlh iedividxac aed tlh bjggxeity ir ~phrhet tlpjxfl `jtl ~hprjeac aed

h|thpeac bjggxeity `hehoitr tlat bae hepibl tlh bjggxeitihr itl libl iedividxacr iethpabt#

tlhph`y addief tj bivib vi`paeby ,^xteag# 0>>>)%


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Rigicap tj tlh ty~hr jo abtivity ie tlh rjbiac ghg`hprli~ ~aptibi~atije djgaie# jecieh

~aptibi~atije lar `hbjgh ae hghpfhet avhexh ojp rjbiac abtivity ar tlh Iethpeht iebphariefcy

rhpvhr ar a ghdixg ojp iethp~hprjeac bjggxeibatije aed jpfaei}atije% Difitac bjggxeibatije

~catojpgr aoojpd tlh j~~jptxeity ojp phac'tigh rlapief# bpjrr'fhjfpa~libac bjeehbtije# aed

ghaeiefoxc h|blaefh tlat bae hg~jhp rjbiac cioh aed ~x`cib dirbjxprh ,Plhiefjcd# 1992;

Mhekier# 0>>?`; Kat} / Pibh# 0>>0; Bjchgae / @cxgchp# 0>>9)% Ar rxbl# rjgh rjbiac abtivitihr

gay jbbxp h|bcxrivhcy je difitac ~catojpgr% Actljxfl rigicap tj tlh rjbiac ghg`hprli~

~aptibi~atije djgaie ghetijehd a`jvh# I dhoieh jecieh ~aptibi~atije ar vjcxetapy abtivity ie

libl ae iedividxac takhr ~apt ie jp rlaphr ie abtivitihr ojp ~hprjeac fpjtl aed bjggje

iethphrtr# `xt djhr rj rjchcy via ehtjpkhd hchbtpjeib bjggxeibatijer% Abtivitihr ie tlir djgaie

iebcxdh ~aptibi~atije ie jecieh faghr# Iethpeht ghrrafh `japdr aed ojpxgr# jecieh datief# aed

jtlhp bjggxeitihr ojp rlapief ieojpgatije tlat aph ghdiathd rjchcy via tlh Iethpeht%

Tj rxggapi}h# Aghpibae garr ~aptibi~atije h|liìtr gxcti~ch djgaier jo abtivitihr tlat

paefh opjg cjbac rjbiac iethpabtije tj lifl fpjx~ ghg`hprli~ itl giccijer jo ghg`hpr aed

capfh ieopartpxbtxphr% âptibi~aetr ie tlhrh abtivitihr lavh vapijxr fjacr tlat paefh opjg tlh

oxcoiccief jo rjbiac iethpabtije aed ~hprjeac iethphrtr ,rxbl ar lj`ìhr jp hethptaieghet) tj blapity

jpk tj ~jcitibac blaefh% Tj ablihvh tlhrh fjacr# ~aptibi~aetr xrh vapijxr rkiccr aed kejchdfh

tlhy lavh abqxiphd hitlhp tlpjxfl ~art ~hprjeac h|~hpihebh jp tlhip dhriph tj ~aptibi~ath%

0%0GARR ÂPTIBIÂTIJE PHRHAPBL AED GHARXPHGHET

Tlh gharxphghet jo garr ~aptibi~atije lar `hhe jo ~aptibxcap iethphrt tj ~jcitibac rbihebh#

bjggxeibatijer# aed dhgjbpaby rbljcapr% Rjgh khy rtxdihr lavh rx`rtaetiaccy bjetpi`xthd tj tlh

xedhprtaedief jo garr ~aptibi~atije aed lavh chd tj rj~lirtibathd gjdhcr ojp itr rtxdy% Gic`patlr


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,19?8) rhgieac opaghjpk ~pjvidhd a rht jo ~apaghthpr itl libl rbljcapr bjxcd aeacy}h

~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije% Tlir opaghjpk blapabthpi}hd ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije ar a ~ypagid jo

abtivity ie libl ~hj~ch gjvh opjg cjhp chvhcr ,vjtief# chapeief a`jxt a baedidath) tj liflhp

chvhcr jo gjph hefafhd abtivity ,vjcxethhpief ojp a bag~aife jp pxeeief ojp jooibh)% Gic`patl

ar jeh jo tlh oiprt rbljcapr tj xrh a bathfjpi}hd gjdhc jo gharxphd ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije tj ciek

~aptibi~atije itl iedividxac aed h|thpeac blapabthpirtibr# rxbl ar rjbijhbjejgib rtatxr aed cioh

h|~hpihebhr% _hp`a aed Eih ,1960) hrta`cirlhd ojxp dirtiebt bathfjpihr jo ~jcitibac abtivity ie

libl tlh ~x`cib bae hefafh= vjtief# hchbtije bag~aife abtivity# bjetabtief ~x`cib jooibiacr# aed

bjj~hpativh abtivity% Ie tlhip aeacyrir# tlhy bjeoipghd tlh lifl bjpphcatije jo rjbijhbjejgib

rtatxr tj ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije% A ~hprjer pabh aed bjggxeity ri}h hph acrj dhthpgiehd tj `h

oabtjpr tlat dhthpgieh ~aptibi~atije% Bjeayr ,19>>)

oagjxr aeacyrir je rjbiac ba~itac h|~cjphd tlh `hlavijpr jo dhgjfpa~lib fpjx~r aed tlhip

abtivity ie a vapihty jo ~aptibi~atije djgaier% Aothp oiedief a fphat dhbcieh ie chvhcr ~aptibi~atije

ie acc djgaier opjg 198> tj 199># rxbl ar ie chvhcr jo ghg`hprli~ ie rjbiac jpfaei}atijer#

^xteag attpi`xthr tlir dpj~ ie abtivity tj ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr tlat lavh iedividxaci}hd tlh

Aghpibae ~x`cib aed lavh hebjxpafhd ae attitxdh jo irjcatije# ~aptibxcapcy tlpjxfl `pjadbart


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1>2) phaci}h tlat ~aptibi~atije

chvhcr giflt ierthad `h rliotief tj eh thppitjpy itl tlh iebpharh ie ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr#

aed ejt mxrt rig~cy dira~~hapief ar eh thblejcjfihr ojp hefafhghet hghpfh%

Abkejchdfief tlh pirh jo tlh Iethpeht ar a vhlibch ojp rjbiac bjggxeibatije aed

jpfaei}atije# Kat} aed Pibh ,0>>0) idhetioihd rjgh ig~cibatijer jo ~aptibi~atije ie tlh afh jo tlh

Iethpeht aed itr xrh je a vapihty jo rjbiac iertitxtijer% Tlhy oied tlat tlh Iethpeht ir ejt

ehbhrrapicy a tjjc tlat hebjxpafhr rjbiac irjcatije# `xt ierthad ojrthpr tlh dhvhcj~ghet jo eh

ojpgr jo bjggxeitihr% Rblxdrjer ,1999) phvih jo tlh lirtjpy jo biti}he ~aptibi~atije phvhacr

tlat acjefridh iebpharhd ghdiatije jvhp tlh yhapr# ~aptibi~atije lar iedhhd blaefhd ie ojpgaed

tlat bhptaie abtivitihr lavh chrrhehd ar rjbiac tphedr blaefhd% Ljhvhp# lh acrj oiedr tlat tlh

Aghpibae ~x`cib phgaier hefafhd aed atthetivh ie ayr tlat bjg~cighet tlh dhgaedr jo gjdhpe

daicy cioh% Tlhrh abtivitihr jothe `cxp tlh `jxedapihr `hthhe tlh tpaditijeaccy lhcd ~jcitibac aed

bivib bathfjpihr jo garr ~aptibi~atije# gakief it diooibxct tj kej lhe ~hj~ch aph ~ayief

atthetije jp hvhe abtivhcy ~aptibi~atief% Tlh jpk jo ]xkie# ht ac% ,0>>?)# bjeoipgr Rblxdrjer

,1999) arrhptije `y phvhacief tlat lich chvhcr jo bivib aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije lavh iedhhd

rliothd jvhp tlh cart laco'bhetxpy ojp rjgh r~hbioib abtivitihr# tlhph lar `hhe a pirh ie eh ty~hr jo

rjbiac jpfaei}atije aed bjggxeibatije# hr~hbiaccy lhe ~hj~ch lavh liflhp agjxetr jo ~pijp

~jcitibac aed bivib kejchdfh% Tlir ir ~aptibxcapcy tpxh jo tlh yjxefhp# gjph difitaccy a~t

fhehpatijer% Tlhip jpk acrj iccxrtpathr tlh bcxrthpief jo garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr `hthhe

tlh bivib aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije djgaier# gakief it lapdhp tj dhciehath bchap bathfjpibac

dhoieitijer ,~~% 191'190)% Abtivitihr lavh tlh ~jthetiac tj ph~phrhet gxcti~ch djgaier# rxbl ar

`hief rhpvibh aed ~jcitibaccy jpihethd at tlh ragh tigh rigxctaehjxrcy% Tlir gakhr it gjph

blacchefief tj abbxpathcy gharxph chvhcr jo garr ~aptibi~atije%


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0%2TLH IEOCXHEBH JO DIFITAC THBLEJCJFIHR JE GARR ÂPTIBIÂTIJE RKICCR AED

^PHBJEDITIJER

Bhptaie cioh h|~hpihebhr aed fjacr# rxbl ar ~aphetac fxidaebh# ~jcitibac rjbiaci}atije

itlie bjggxeitihr# jp ~hprjeac fpatioibatije# lavh `hhe tpaditijeaccy keje tj ieocxhebh a

~hprjer iethphrt ie garr ~aptibi~atije% Ar phrhapbl je garr ~aptibi~atije `pjadhehd# rbljcapr

lavh idhetioihd ie fphathp dhtaic jtlhp ~phbjeditijer aed aethbhdhet rkiccr tlat ieocxhebh a

~hprjer aìcity ojp aed iethphrt ie garr ~aptibi~atije% Tlhrh ~phbjeditijer aed rkiccr iebcxdh

abbhrr tj thblejcjfy aed ieocxhebh# ~jcitibac aed bivib kejchdfh# h|~jrxph tj ieojpgatije# aed

cithpaby aed bjggxeibatije rkiccr% Ar tlh iebpharhd xrh jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr lar

oabicitathd a eh ~aptibi~atjpy hevipjeghet# I apfxh tlat difitac cithpaby rkiccr lavh `hbjgh

liflcy ieocxhetiac ie hg~jhpief garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr% Ar rxbl# difitac cithpaby rkiccr

rljxcd `h bjeridhphd ar ae aethbhdhet rkicc rht% @y hea`cief ~hj~ch tj xrh vapijxr ieojpgatije

thblejcjfy tjjcr itl libl tj fatlhp aed ~pjbhrr ieojpgatije# difitac cithpaby rkiccr bae acrj

bjg~cighet tlh dhvhcj~ghet jo jtlhp aethbhdhet rkiccr aed ~phbjeditijer# rxbl ar bivib aed

~jcitibac kejchdfh fatlhpief aed abbhrr tj ieojpgatije%


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Oifxph 0%1

Phcatijerli~ `hthhe Aethbhdhet Phrjxpbhr aed Garr âptibi~atije,ar phochbthd ie ~art cithpatxph)

ârt phrhapbl lar h|agiehd tlh ~phrhebh jo phrjxpbh phqxiphghetr tlat aph ehbhrrapy

ojp garr ~aptibi~atije# rxbl ar r~hbioib rkiccr# ~phbjeditijer# aed kejchdfh ,Viclhcg# 0>>>;

Dhcci Bap~iei / Khthp# 1992; @pady# Yhpà# / Rblcj}gae# 1998; Lapfittai# 0>>2)% Vjpk ie tlir

oihcd lar phvhachd tlat tljrh itl liflhp chvhcr jo abbhrr tj aethbhdhet rkiccr jp kejchdfh icc

`h gjph cikhcy tj ~aptibi~ath% Vlich ~aptibi~atije ~phbjeditijer aed rkiccr aph jothe abqxiphd ar a

phrxct jo vapijxr cioh h|~hpihebhr xephcathd tj a ~hprjer garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr# tlhy bae

acrj `h chapehd ar a phrxct jo ae iethphrt jp dhriph ojp garr ~aptibi~atije ,Viclhcg# 0>>>; _hpà#

Rblcj}gae# / @pady# 1998; Cim~lapt# 1996)% Oifxph 0%1 iccxrtpathr tlh phcatijerli~ jo aethbhdhet

rkiccr# ~phbjeditijer# aed kejchdfh itl garr ~aptibi~atije aed lj tlhy rhpvh tj ieocxhebh

chvhcr jo ~aptibi~atije%


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Abbhrr tj phrjxpbhr jp ieocxhebh lar `hhe a phcia`ch ~phdibtjp jo garr ~aptibi~atije ojp

gaey yhapr% Tljrh itl liflhp chvhcr jo avaica`ch tigh# gjehy# jp rjbiac ieocxhebh fhehpaccy

~aptibi~ath at liflhp chvhcr tlae tljrh lj cabk rxbl phrjxpbhr ,Bjeay# 19; _hpà# Rblcj}gae# @pady# 1998; Cim~lapt# 1996)% Ie additije# ar ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr

`hbagh iebphariefcy iethfpathd ietj garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr# tljrh itljxt abbhrr tj tlh

thblejcjfibac tjjcr ojp bjggxeibatije jp ghdia bjerxg~tije aph chrr iebciehd tj ~aptibi~ath

,Ejppir# 0>>1; Vaprblaxhp# 0>>2; vae Dimk# 0>>8)% âptibi~atije itlie tlir difitac dividh

hevipjeghet lar `hhe phfxcapcy blapabthpi}hd ar ~pjliìtivh tj tljrh jo cjhp rjbijhbjejgib

rtatxr dxh tj tlh lifl bjrt jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfy aed Iethpeht abbhrr% Ljhvhp# ar bjrtr lavh

dpagatibaccy dhbpharhd riebh 0>>># tlh adj~tije jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr lar h|~jehetiaccy

iebpharhd agjef tlh ~x`cib% Ar a phrxct# abbhrr tj thblejcjfy ir chrr jo a bjebhpe tjday tlae it

lar `hhe ie yhapr ~art aed gay ~cay a chrrhp pjch ie ~phdibtief garr ~aptibi~atije% Dhr~ith tlir#

abbhrr h|irtr ar ae aethbhdhet ~phbjeditije ojp ~aptibi~atije%

^jcitibac aed bivib kejchdfh ir aejtlhp aethbhdhet phrjxpbh tlat bae ieocxhebh garr

~aptibi~atije% Tljrh itl liflhp chvhcr jo ~jcitibac aed bivib kejchdfh aph `htthp a`ch tj gakh

ieojpghd dhbirijer a`jxt tlhip abtivitihr ,Facrtje# 0>>1; Dhcci Bap~iei / Khthp# 199?; Gicehp#

0>>0; ^pijp# 0>>8# 0>>6)% H|ag~chr jo bivib aed ~jcitibac kejchdfh iebcxdh dhgjbpatib ~pjbhrr#

ieojpgatije a`jxt ~jcitibac chadhpr jp baedidathr# tlh ayr tj vjibh fpihvaebhr# aed kejchdfh

jo bxpphet hvhetr% Ojpgac bivib hdxbatije ~pjfpagr lavh `hhe rlje tj iebpharh ~jcitibac aed

bivib kejchdfh ie ~aptibi~aetr# aed# ar a phrxct# iebpharh ~aptibi~atije ,Oiekhc# 0>>2; Eihgi /

Mxee# 199


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difitac phacg# ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr aed tlh Iethpeht lavh `hhe xrhd ie eh ayr tj

bjggxeibath ieojpgatije tj tlh ~x`cib%

Ae iccxrtpativh h|ag~ch jo tlh hoohbtr jo iethfpatief difitac tjjcr ie ~jcitibac aed bivib

kejchdfh ~pjgjtije lar `hhe ie tlh xrh jo tlh ~jcitibac h`rithr tj ieojpg vjthpr aed

hebjxpafh hefafhghet ,Fi`rje aed Vapd# 0>>>; Rtpjghp'Facchy# 0>>>; Jhe aed Davir# 0>>>8; Lhpperje# Rtjkhr'@pje# aed Liedgae# 0>>6; Catighp 0>>9)% Ar

difitac thblejcjfihr oxptlhp dhvhcj~hd# ~jcitibac h`rithr `hfae tj hg~cjy rjbiac ghdia aed jtlhp

iethpabtivh hchghetr tj hebjxpafh a vapihty jo ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr% Rbljcapr

ophqxhetcy oied# ljhvhp# tlat jecy ~aptiraer xrxaccy virit ~jcitibac h`rithr# aed ar rxbl# cittch

hoojpt ir gadh je bag~aife h`rithr tj hebjxpafh xebjggitthd vjthpr tjapd liflhp chvhcr jo

~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije ,@ig`hp aed Davir# 0>>2; Ojjt aed Rblehidhp# 0>>?)% Tlir cabk jo

ievjcvhghet `y eje'~aptiraer iedibathr tlat tpaditijeac abtivitihr h|thedhd ietj tlh difitac phacg

giflt ejt `h attpabtivh jp abbhrri`ch tj tljrh ejt acphady ~jrrhrrief bivib aed ~jcitibac

kejchdfh# libl jecy rhpvhr tj ~hp~htxath tlh tpaditijeaccy lhcd ieocxhebh rtpxbtxphr%

Eje~aptiraer giflt ierthad ~aptibi~ath ie garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr ie tlh ~jcitibac djgaie

dioohphetcy tlae lj ~jcitibiaer aed fjvhpeghet jooibiacr lavh dhrifehd tlh ~aptibi~atjpy

hevipjeghet# aed ~jrri`cy xrief dioohphet thblejcjfihr jp a~~cibatijer tlae tljrh iethedhd `y tlh

~jcitibac hcith%

Rigicap tj tlh abtivh ~jcitibac aed bivib kejchdfh fatlhpief abtivitihr ghetijehd a`jvh#

tlh ~x`cibr h|~jrxph tj ieojpgatije ir aejtlhp ~phbjeditije ojp garr ~aptibi~atije% ]xkie# ht ac

,0>>?)# jxtcieh tlir ty~h jo aethbhdhet ~phbjeditije ojp garr ~aptibi~atije ie lat tlhy bacc

bjfeitivh hefafhghet% Bjfeitivh hefafhghet ir tlh gaeehp ie libl ~hj~ch ~ay atthetije tj jp

aph h|~jrhd tj bivib aed ~jcitibac ieojpgatije# `xt djet ehbhrrapicy takh jvhpt abtije itl irrxhr


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jo ~jcitibr aed ~x`cib aooaipr ,~~% 84)% Tljrh itl liflhp chvhcr jo h|~jrxph aed atthetije tj bivib

aed ~jcitibac irrxhr icc `h gjph iebciehd ojp ~aptibi~atije ,Dhcci Bap~iei / Khthp# 199?)%

Rblxdrje ,1999) hbljhr tlir j`rhpvatije `y ~pj~jrief tlh ~phrhebh jo tlh gjeitjpiac biti}he#

jp a biti}he tlat ir atthetivh tj ~x`cib irrxhr tlat ieocxhebh lir jp lhp cioh ie tlh gjdhpe Aghpibae

lifl'thbl ~aptibi~atije hevipjeghet ,~~% 211)% Tlh gjeitjpiac biti}he djhret takh abtije xetic

irrxhr diphbtcy aoohbt tlhg% Ierthad# tlh gjeitjpiac biti}he rtayr a~~pairhd jo ehr tlat giflt

aoohbt tlhg aed ir ~jirhd ojp abtije io abtije ir phqxiphd ,~~% 211)%

Ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr lavh rlje ~pjgirh ie hg~jhpief tlh h|~jrxph ~phbjeditije#

`xt a ~hprje jxcd ehhd aethbhdhet thbleibac aed bjggxeibatije rkiccr tj `h bjeehbthd tj

ieojpgatije ie tlh oiprt ~cabh% Eh ghdia bjxcd xedhpgieh tpaditijeac ieojpgatije fathkhh~hp

pjchr aed rhh tlh pirh jo a gjph divhprh# r~hbiaci}hd ieojpgatije hevipjeghet tlat bae `h taicjphd

tj tlh iedividxacr ehhdr aed iethphrtr ,Vicciagr / Dhcci Bap~iei# 0>>>; Lapfittai# 0>>>;

Ehfpj~jeth# 1998)% Ie additije# tlh Iethpeht ir ophqxhetcy phfapdhd ar ~pjgirief dxh tj tlh a`icity

tj oied eiblh iethphrtr jp rjbiac baxrhr ie libl tlhy `hcihvh ,Aedhprje# 0>>?)%

Ljhvhp# aothp tlh yhap 0>>># hvidhebh jo tlh xrh jo difitac tjjcr ojp ieojpgatije

h|~jrxph ~jiethd tjapd fpigghp jxtbjghr% Lapfittai ,0>>2) ojxed tlat ie tlh bjxprh jo ~jcitibac

kejchdfh fatlhpief abtivitihr jvhp tlh Iethpeht# tlh ~x`cib cabkhd rj~lirtibatije ie rhapbl aed

ieojpgatije phtpihvac rkiccr% Tlir phrxcthd ie a eappjhp paefh jo ieojpgatije tlat jxcd `h

bjerxghd `y xrhpr# tlxr phdxbief tlh ~jthetiac jo tlh Vh`% Vitl tlh a`icity tj bxrtjgi}h

ieojpgatije rtphagr# Kapgapk aed Eyh ,0>>0) rxffhrt tlat tlh Vh` bjxcd `h ~pjgjtief a

opafghetatije hoohbt baxrhd `y tlh cabk jo `pjad'iethphrt idhar ie ~x`cib ieojpgatije blaeehcr

aed jecieh ehr ghdia% Jtlhp rbljcapr arrhpt tlat ae hblj blag`hp bjxcd `h bphathd opjg tlir

r~hbiaci}atije jo ieojpgatije rtphagr# itl tlh ~x`cib girrief jxt je khy ~ihbhr jo ieojpgatije


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tlat aph bpitibac tj ojpgief j~ieijer aed ieojpgief garr ~aptibi~atije ,Rxerthie# 0>>6; Magihrje

/ Ba~~hcca# 0>>11; Bladibk# 0>>?)% Tlhrh rbljcapr phbjfei}h tlat tlh a`icity tj

abqxiph aed hvacxath ieojpgatije opjg rhvhpac rjxpbhr ir `hbjgief ae ig~jptaet ~apt jo garr

~aptibi~atije aed rxffhrt tlat hoojptr tj phghdiath tlhrh ~jthetiac blacchefhr rljxcd `h hg~cjyhd%

Oieaccy# cithpaby aed bjggxeibatije rkiccr lavh `hhe ojxed tj `h aethbhdhet tj garr

~aptibi~atije ,Viclhcg# 0>>>; Rhe# 1990; Rtphbk# 1991>)% Difitac cithpaby ir dhoiehd ar tlh a`icity tj hooibihetcy xrh

hchbtpjeib# ehtjpkhd tjjcr tj oied# hvacxath# bphath# dirtpi`xth aed ryetlhri}h hchbtpjeibaccy


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ghdiathd ieojpgatije% Ar dirbxrrhd ie tlh a`jvh rhbtijer# rbljcapr lavh iccxrtpathd ae iebpharief

ehhd ojp tlh ~x`cib tj faie a garthpy jo thblejcjfy aed ieojpgatije ~pjbhrrief rkiccr% Ar rxbl#

rhvhpac bjg~xtief# ieojpgatije# aed jtlhp thblejcjfy rkiccr tlat oacc xedhp tlh bathfjpy jo difitac

cithpaby lavh `hbjgh a eh aethbhdhet rkicc rht ojp garr ~aptibi~atije% Tlir ir hr~hbiaccy tpxh ar

~x`cib iertitxtijer iebpharh tlhip xrh jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr# ar rbljjcr iethfpath tlh

thablief jo tlhrh rkiccr ietj tlh bxppibxcxg# ar ~jcitibac bag~aifer aph iebphariefcy difitaccy

ghdiathd# aed ar bivib dirbjxprh iebcxdhr `itr aed `ythr aed ejt mxrt oabh'tj'oabh bjevhpratijer%

Oifxph 0%0 oxptlhp iccxrtpathr difitac cithpaby ar ae aethbhdhet rkicc tj garr ~aptibi~atije% Ie tlir

gjdhc# difitac cithpaby jpkr acjefridh jtlhp aethbhdhet bjeditijer aed rkiccr tj ieocxhebh tlh

chvhc jo a ~hprjer garr ~aptibi~atije% Vlich tlh vapijxr aethbhdhet ~phbjeditijer aed rkiccr gay

ieocxhebh habl jtlhp# I dj ejt arrxgh rj ie tlir gjdhc ojp tlh rakh jo riefcief jxt difitac cithpaby

ar ae aethbhdhet rkicc ojp rtxdy%

Difitac cithpaby dhpivhr opjg tlh tpaditijeac bjebh~t jo cithpaby= tlh a`icity tj phad aed

pith% Ljhvhp# a dhoieitije jo rig~ch phadief aed pitief arrxghr xeiojpgity agjef acc

~aptibi~aetr aed tjjcr aed djhr ejt abbjxet ojp tpaerojpgatijer ie caefxafh% Jef ,19


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fphathp ba~aìcitihr ojp tlh ~x`cib tj xedhprtaed bivib ieojpgatije aed `hbjgh ievjcvhd ie tlhip

bjggxeitihr%

Oifxph 0%0Phcatijerli~ `hthhe Difitac Cithpaby aed Garr âptibi~atije

,iebcxdief jtlhp aethbhdhet phrjxpbhr)

@hojph difitac cithpaby hghpfhd ar a phrhapbl ojbxr jo itr je# rbljcapr ie tlh apha jo

eh cithpabihr tlhjpi}hd tlat ~cxpac cithpaby rkiccr h|irt% Tlh xedhprtaedief jo ~cxpac cithpabihr

rtapthd tj ph~cabh tlh gjph tpaditijeac dhoieitije jo cithpaby# jp tlh rig~ch aìcity tj phad aed pith

,@aptje# 1994; Rtphht# 1998; Kphrr# 0>>2; Bj~h / Kacaet}ir# 0>>>; Reydhp# 0>>0)% ^cxpac

cithpabihr dj ejt mxrt ph~phrhet tlh aìcity tj iethp~pht aed bphath caefxafh ie gxcti~ch ojpgatr# `xt

acrj tlh garthpy jo tlh tjjcr `y libl ~hj~ch bjggxeibath aed tlh rjbiac bjeth|tr xedhp libl


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bjggxeibatije ir xrhd% Ar rxbl# cithpapy rbljcapr ophqxhetcy rxffhrt tlat tlhph ir ejt a riefch

jvhpapblief dhrbpi~tije jo cithpaby rkiccr abpjrr djgaier# ar tlhrh rkiccr aph rjbiaccy ritxathd aed

bjeth|txac ,Fhh# 0>>?)% Tlir ejtije jo

cithpaby iebcxdhr `jtl taefi`ch# gharxpa`ch rkiccr ,rxbl ar tlh aìcity tj phad aed pith) aed jtlhp

ietaefi`ch rkiccr ,tlh aìcity tj iethp~pht bjggxeibatijer àrhd je rjbiac bjeth|t jp tj tliek

bpitibaccy)% Ar caefxafh itrhco ir mxrt ar ig~jptaet ar tlh ghdia itl libl tlh caefxafh ir

hebjdhd aed dhbjdhd# tlir ojbxr apha bjeridhpr garthpy jo `jtl tlh tjjcr ojp bjggxeibatije aed

tlh ieojpgatije tlh tjjcr bjetaie%

0%8DJGAIER JO DIFITAC CITHPABY

Tlh cithpatxph je difitac cithpaby capfhcy tlhjpi}hr tlh dioohphet ty~hr jo rkiccr tlat aph

phqxiphd ojp a difitaccy cithpath ~hprje% Ar jo pitief tlir# oh hg~ipibac rtxdihr lavh `hhe

~phrhethd ie tlh cithpatxph je tlh j`rhpvhd ~phrhebh jo difitac cithpaby aed itr ieocxhebh je garr

~aptibi~atije% I phvihhd tlhjpihr je difitac cithpaby aed dhoiehd rhvhpac bjg~htheby aphar itl

libl I bae dhgjertpath tlh rtpheftl jo vapijxr difitac cithpaby rkiccr% Ie tlir tlhrir# I idhetioy ri|

djgaier jo difitac cithpaby rkiccr aed kejchdfh tlat ~hj~ch bae a~~cy tj tlhip garr ~aptibi~atije

abtivitihr= bjg~xthp rkiccr# ieojpgatije rkiccr# bjggxeibatije rkiccr# ~x`cibatije rkiccr#

ieejvativh tliekief# aed bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac kejchdfh% Ar jxtciehd ie Ta`ch 0%0# tlhrh ri|

djgaier hebjg~arr rhvhpac dirbphth thblejcjfy# ieojpgatije ~pjbhrrief# aed tliekief rkiccr tlat

aph ehbhrrapy ojp tlh hooibihet j~hpatije jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr% Garthpy ie tlhrh ri|

djgaier bjxcd fivh ae iedividxac ae advaetafh itl garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr tlpjxfl tlh


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0>?a; Iethpeatijeac Thblejcjfy Hdxbatije Arrjbiatije# 0>>0; Tpiccief /

Oadhc# 0>>9)% @arib ieojpgatije thblejcjfy bjg~htheby a~~hapr ie viptxaccy hvhpy rtxdy jo

difitac cithpaby ar it ir tlh ojxedatije x~je libl acc jtlhp difitac cithpaby rkiccr aph `arhd%

Ljhvhp# rbljcapr ejth tlat a garthpy jo j~hpatief thblejcjfy djhr ejt acjeh bphath tlh difitaccy

cithpath ~hprje% ^haprje aed Yjxef ,0>>0) ejth tlat thbleibac ba~a`icity ir jecy jeh ~apt jo tlh


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hqxatije# rtphrrief tlat gjph ietaefi`ch ayr jo tliekief aed abtief aed jtlhp kejchdfh je

tlh bxctxph jo thblejcjfy aed itr pirkr aed phapdr ir hqxaccy ehbhrrapy ,~~% 14'00)% Jtlhp

rbljcapr afphh itl tlir ehbhrrity jo gxcti'chvhc bjg~htheby ~art tlh abtxac thbleibac rkiccr

,Caekrlhap / Kej`hc# 0>>1>; Dhdh; 0>1>)% Bjg~xthp rkiccr aph jecy jeh digherije

jo difitac cithpaby# ac`hit ae ig~jptaet jeh% Dhr~ith gy atthg~t ie tlir tlhrir tj bphath pj`xrt

gharxphr jo bjg~xthp rkiccr# tlhrh rkiccr dioohp ar idhcy dxh tlh `cabk'`j|hd eatxph jo gaey

bjg~xtief ryrthgr% Ar rxbl# it ir cikhcy tlat ~hj~ch bae rticc ~aptibi~ath at a oaipcy lifl chvhc

itljxt dhh~ kejchdfh jo lj tlh ietpibabihr jo ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr aed ehtjpkr

oxebtije dje tj tlh bipbxit chvhc%

Rbljcapr lavh tlhjpi}hd tlat difitac cithpaby rljxcd acrj iebcxdh tlh eje'dirbphth rkiccr jo

abqxipief# ryetlhri}ief# aed mxdfief tlh qxacity jo ieojpgatije% Difitac cithpaby acrj iebcxdhr

lat I bacc lhph ieojpgatije rkiccr# jp tlh aìcity tj phtpihvh# aeacy}h# aed a~~cy ieojpgatije opjg

difitac ~catojpgr% @hbaxrh ieojpgatije lar `hbjgh iebphariefcy diooibxct tj divjpbh opjg tlh

ghdia aed thblejcjfihr tlat dhcivhp it# rbljcapr arrhpt tlat it ir hrrhetiac tj rigxctaehjxrcy kej

lj tj xrh difitac tjjcr ar hcc ar tlh ieojpgatije tlhy bjetaie ,@adhe# 0>>1; Reavhcy /

Bjj~hp# 1996)% Ficrthp ,1996)# lj ar tlh oiprt tj ~j~xcapcy xrh tlh thpg difitac cithpaby# ar

baphoxc tj ejth tlir dxac garthpy jo tjjcr aed ieojpgatije `y rayief difitac cithpaby ar mxrt ar

gxbl a`jxt garthpief idhar# aed ejt khyrtpjkhr% Ie additije# itl tlh jercaxflt jo ieojpgatije

avaica`ch je tlh Iethpeht# tlh aìcity tj hooibihetcy eavifath tlh dhcxfh jo data ir iebphariefcy

vacxa`ch ie daicy cioh ,Pxrlkjoo# 0>1>)%

Tlh ehhd tj bjggxeibath hoohbtivhcy jvhp gxcti~ch ghdia ir ae hqxaccy ig~jptaet djgaie

jo difitac cithpaby% Tlh djgaier jobjggxeibatijer rkiccr aed bphativh aed ~x`cibatije rkiccr

addphrr tlh aìcity tj phad aed pith hchbtpjeib th|tr aed bphath bjg~hccief ghrrafhr ie tlh


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difitac gxctighdia hbjryrthg%R~hbioibaccy# bjggxeibatijer rkiccr aph tljrh itl libl ~hj~ch

rhed aed phbhivh hchbtpjeib ghrrafhr ,bjg~htheby itl tlh ghaer jo bjggxeibatije)# lich

bphativh aed ~x`cibatije rkiccr aph tljrh itl libl ~hj~ch bphath aed dirtpi`xth gxctighdia

bjethet tj vapijxr axdihebhr ,bjg~htheby itl bphatief ieojpgatije)%Ghdia rbljcapr liflciflt

tlh dioohphet rtychr jo ieojpgatije aed ghrrafhr tlat bae `h bjevhyhd itl gxctighdia tjjcr%

Tlhy lavh ojxed tlat vart dioohphebhr ie iethp~phtatije aed bjeth|t h|irt `hthhe vapijxr

bjgìeatijer jo virxac# axditjpy# ahrtlhtib# aed iethpabtivh hchghetr tlat bae `h hg~cjyhd ie

tjdayr bjggxeibatijer ,Tyehp# 1992; Vicdh / Vicdh# 1991)%

Ar ghdia ojpgr bjevhpfh aed ie hoohbt bphath ehhp ojpgr jo bjggxeibatije aed h|~phrrije

,Mhekier# 0>>?`)# tlh difitaccy cithpath ~hprje ehhdr tj kej lj tj bjgìeh ghdia ie vapijxr

ayr tj bphath dioohphet ~x`cibatijer tlat ga|igi}h tlh rtpheftlr jo habl ghdixg% It ir itlie

tlir phacg tlat tpaditijeac cithpaby ir gjrt bcjrhcy acifehd= tlh aìcity tj phad aed pith ie vapijxr

gxctighdia bjeth|tr% Ar rxbl# tlh aìcity tj h|~phrr jehrhco difitaccy ir a vacxa`ch rkicc ojp garr

~aptibi~atije ar it hg~jhpr tlh ~x`cib tj lavh a gjph divhprh vjibh tlat bae ga|igi}h ghdia

hchghetr tj jehr advaetafh%

Ie additije tj thblejcjfy aed ieojpgatije rkiccr tlat aph hrrhetiac ojp difitac cithpaby#

rbljcapr rxffhrt tlat tljrh lj `xicd ghetac gjdhcr tj idhetioy ~pj`chgr# ly~jtlhri}h rjcxtijer#

aed vacxh ae h|~hpighetac attitxdh ie difitac hevipjeghetr aph fhehpaccy gjph rxbbhrroxc at tarkr

ievjcvief difitac thblejcjfihr ,Iethpeatijeac Thblejcjfy Hdxbtaije Arrjbiatije# 0>>0; Mhekier#

0>>?a; ^haprje / Yjxef# 0>>?; Ejptl Bhetpac Phfijeac Hdxbatijeac Ca`jpatjpy / Tlh Ghtipi

Fpjx~# 0>>2)% Rkiccr tlat gippjp tljrh jo tlh rbihetioib aed hefiehhpief bjggxeity oacc ie tlh

difitac cithpaby djgaie tlat I bacc ieejvativh tliekief% Ar ph~phrhethd ie tlh cithpatxph je `jtl

difitac cithpaby aed ieqxipy'àrhd rbihetioib cithpaby# ieejvativh tliekief rkiccr iebcxdh bpitibac


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tliekief# laìtr jo ithpativh aed h|~hpighetac abtivity# aed ievhetivh jp bphativh thedheby itl

thblejcjfy% ârt phrhapbl acrj rxffhrtr tlat rkiccr ie tlir djgaie hea`ch och|iìcity ie chapeief

eh thblejcjfihr# cikhcy dxh tj tlh a~~phbiatije ojp ithpatije aed ~pjfphrrivh ig~pjvhghet jo

gjdhcr ,Mhekier# 0>>?a; Aghpibae Arrjbiatije ojp tlh Advaebhghet jo Rbihebh# 199>)

Tlh oieac djgaie jo difitac cithpaby tlat I h|agieh bjggje tj tlh cithpatxph ir tlat jo

bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac kejchdfh% Tj ~phvhet thblejcjfy cjbk'ie jp xeojphrhhe ehfativh

bjerhqxhebhr# Aghpibaer ehhd tj kej tlh àrib thblejcjfy irrxhr aed bjeth|tr tlat abbjg~aey

tlh kejchdfh hbjejgy% Tlir iebcxdhr ae xedhprtaedief jo tlh pirkr arrjbiathd itl aey xrh jo

thblejcjfy# tlh ~jrriìcity jo cjrr jo ieojpgatije jp girtpaercatije lhe xrief difitac tjjcr ie

vapijxr rjbiac bjeth|tr# aed chfac jp rjbiac irrxhr tlat aoohbt thblejcjfy xrh ,^haprje / Yjxef#

0>>0; Mhekier# 0>>?a; Tpiccief / Oadhc# 0>>9)% ^pivaby aed tlh ig~cibatijer jo ae jecieh ~hprjea

ir aejtlhp khy kejchdfh apha# libl iebcxdhr ithgr rxbl ar kejief lj tj gaei~xcath tlh

vapijxr Oabh`jjk aed Titthp ~pivaby bjetpjcr aed ly tlhy gatthp% Kejief ~pivaby bjetpjcr

aed tlhip ig~cibatijer `hbjgh hr~hbiaccy ig~jptaet lhe thblejcjfihr blaefh tlhip dhoaxct

abbhrr jp iethpoabh# rxbl ar ie tlh barh jo Oabh`jjkr phbhet tpaeritije tj tlh Tighcieh ojpgat#

libl lad dpagatib rjbiac bjerhqxhebhr ojp tljrh lj hph chrr ieojpghd jo Oabh`jjkr

~pivaby bjetpjcr% Tlir bathfjpy acrj iebcxdhr ae xedhprtaedief jo tlh ~pjfpagghd eatxph jo

thblejcjfy# jp tlat acc thblejcjfihr lavh `hhe dhrifehd xedhp bhptaie ~apaghthpr tj rhpvh a

bhptaie ~xp~jrh% Pxrlkjoo ,0>1>) apfxhr tlat thblejcjfihr hg`jdy tlh vacxhr jo tlhip dhrifehpr

aed tlat ~hj~ch rljxcd kej tlhrh opaghjpkr ie jpdhp tj ghht tlhip ~hprjeac fjacr# ejt tlh

fjacr jo tlh dhrifehpr% @y adgjeirlief lir phadhpr tj chape tj ~pjfpag jp `h ~pjfpagghd#

Pxrlkjoo arrhptr tlat a `pjadhp kejchdfh jo tlh xedhpcyief rjbiac bjertpxbtr aed chapeief tlh

pharjer xedhp libl thblejcjfihr aph dhrifehd ir h|tphghcy vacxa`ch ojp tlh difitaccy cithpath


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~hprje% Tlir kejchdfh jxcd fivh ~hj~ch tlh a`icity tj xrh thblejcjfihr ie eh ayr aed

aetibi~ath tlh hoohbtr tlhy jxcd lavh je vapijxr bjggxeitihr jp je ~x`cib ~aptibi~atije%

0%?TLHJPHTIBAC OPAGHVJPK AED LY^JTLHRHR

Gy fjac ojp tlir tlhrir ir tj aeacy}h lj tlh ~jrrhrrije jo difitac cithpaby rkiccr

ieocxhebhr garr ~aptibi~atije ie Aghpiba% I abbjg~cirl tlir `y bjedxbtief rhvhpac ly~jtlhrir

thrtr tlat ~cabh difitac cithpaby ar ae aethbhdhet rkicc ojp vapijxr garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr% Tj

avjid r~xpijxr phrxctr# I bjetpjc ojp dhgjfpa~lib oabtjpr aed ~jcitibac idhetioibatije# acc jo libl

cikhcy ieocxhebh a ~hprjer ~pj~herity ojp garr ~aptibi~atije%

Oifxph 0%2

Tlhrir Tlhjphtibac Opaghjpk


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Gy ~pigapy apfxghet ie tlir tlhrir ir tlat difitac cithpaby ir ej ae aethbhdhet rkicc ojp

garr ~aptibi~atije% Ar rxbl# I rxffhrt tlat it rljxcd mjie tlh paekr jo jtlhp phqxiphd phrjxpbhr tlat

biti}her ehhd ojp hoohbtivh ~aptibi~atije% Oifxph 0%2 iccxrtpathr tlh gjdhc xedhp libl I gakh

tlhrh apfxghetr% Ar dhgjertpathd `y tlh ri| rgacc `j|hr je tlh chot ridh jo tlh gjdhc ie Oifxph

0%2# ri| digherijer jo difitac cithpaby bjg~jrh tlh bjg~chth difitac cithpaby bjebh~t tlat I

h|agieh ,libl ir iedibathd `y capfh bipbch)% I ly~jtlhri}h tlat liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby

icc ~phdibt liflhp chvhcr jo garr ~aptibi~atije% Tlir phcatijerli~ ir iedibathd `y tlh capfh appj

ie tlh bhethp jo tlh gjdhc% I acrj ly~jtlhri}h tlat `hbaxrh jo tlh iebpharhd difitac ghdia

hevipjeghet rxppjxedief gjdhpe Aghpibae ~jcitibr# difitac cithpaby ir gjph phchvaet ojp ~jcitibac

~aptibi~atije lhe bjg~aphd tj tlh tlphh djgaier jo tpaditijeac garr ~aptibi~atije ,rjbiac

ghg`hprli~# bivib# aed ~jcitibac)% Ie additije tj tlir ~pigapy phcatijerli~# I arrxgh tlat rhvhpac

iedh~hedhet bjetpjc vapia`chr iebcxdief rjbijhbjejgib rtatxr aed ~jcitibac idhetioibatije icc

ieocxhebh tlir phcatijerli~ ,iedibathd `y fpay jvacr)% Xrief data opjg rhvhpac difitac cithpaby

iedibatjpr ~pjvidhd `y tlh 0>10 Thblejcjfy Xrh Rxpvhy# I iccxrtpath tlh aethbhdhet difitac

cithpaby rkiccr tlat rtpjefcy chad tj garr ~aptibi~atije% Ie additije# gy tlhrir rhhkr tj hrta`cirl

`arhcieh iedibatjpr tlat bae `h xrhd tj tpabk difitac cithpaby tphedr jvhp tigh%


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0%?%1 Phrhapbl Qxhrtijer

I ark tlh ojccjief ~pigapy phrhapbl qxhrtije tj fxidh tlir rtxdy= Tj lat dhfphh ir

difitac cithpaby a ~phdibtjp jo garr ~aptibi~atije: Ie additije# ar difitac cithpaby lar yht tj `h

rtxdihd ie'dh~tl itlie tlh phacg jo ~aptibi~atije# I ark tlh ojccjief qxhrtijer tj fxidh tlh

bjertpxbtije jo tlh gharxphr xrhd ie tlir tlhrir= Vlat difitac cithpaby rkiccr aph xrhd ie daicy

cioh: Aph aey difitac cithpaby rkiccr phqxiphd ojp garr ~aptibi~atije ,i%h%# aph aethbhdhettj

~aptibi~atije):

0%?%0 Ly~jtlhrhr

Tj ~pjvidh hvidhebh ojp tlh phcatijerli~r `hthhe difitac cithpaby aed garr ~aptibi~atije#

I thrt tlh ojccjief ly~jtlhrhr ie tlir tlhrir=

L1= Kejchdfh jo bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac irrxhr jo thblejcjfy ir bjpphcathd tlh gjrt

itl liflhp chvhcr jo garr ~aptibi~atije lhe bjg~aphd tj tlh jtlhp oivh djgaier

jo difitac cithpaby

L0= Difitac cithpaby rkiccr tlat aph xrhd ojp bphativity aed bjethet ~x`cibatije aph

bjpphcathd itl liflhp chvhcr garr ~aptibi~atije lhe bjg~aphd tj bjg~xthp#

ieojpgatije# aed bjggxeibatije rkiccr

L2= Difitac cithpaby ir tlh rtpjefhrt ~phdibtjp jo tpaditijeac garr ~aptibi~atije lhe

bjg~aphd tj rtpheftl jo ~jcitibac idhjcjfy aed rjbiac dhgjfpa~libr

L4= Jecieh ~aptibi~atije ir ieocxhebhd tlh gjrt `y difitac cithpaby rkiccr lhe bjg~aphd

abpjrr tlh ojxp djgaier jo garr ~aptibi~atije

L8= Liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby ~phdibt liflhp chvhcr jo ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije


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BLA^THP2GHTLJDR

2%1GHTPIB DH_HCJ^GHET AED RTXDY DHRIFE

2%1%1 Rxpvhy Dhrife

Tj bjcchbt hg~ipibac data ojp tlir tlhrir# I bphathd a eatijeaccy ph~phrhetativh rxpvhy tj

bjg~aph chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby tj garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr% Riebh gxbl jo tlh ~phvijxr

jpk ie difitac cithpaby tj dath lar `hhe tlhjphtibac# I phqxiphd a rht jo `arhcieh iedibatjpr itl

libl I bjxcd thrt gy ly~jtlhrhr% Ar rxbl# I bphathd a rhpihr jo rxpvhy iedibatjpr tlat bjpphr~jed

tj tlh ri| difitac cithpaby djgaier tlat I dirbxrrhd ie Bla~thp 0= bjg~xthp rkiccr# ieojpgatije

rkiccr# bjggxeibatije rkiccr# ~x`cibatije rkiccr# ieejvativh tliekief# aed bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac

kejchdfh% Tlhrh qxhrtijer hph ieojpghd `y ~phvijxr jpk tlat tlhjpi}hd aed bathfjpi}hd

difitac cithpaby rkiccr ,h%f%# Eatijeac Phrhapbl Bjxebic# 1999; ^haprje / Yjxef# 0>>0; Ejptl

Bhetpac Phfijeac Hdxbatijeac Ca`jpatjpy / Tlh Ghtipi Fpjx~# 0>>2; Mhekier# 0>>?a; Hrlht'

Ackacai# 0>>4; Lapfittai# 0>>8; Gaptie# 0>>8# 0>1>)% 89 rh~apath iedibatjpr jo rkiccr aed

kejchdfh phcathd tj difitac cithpaby hph iebcxdhd je tlh rxpvhy% @hbaxrh habl djgaie ar ejt

xeiojpgcy ~pijpiti}hd agjef acc tlh rtxdihr# I aethd tj avjid chavief aey khy rkicc jxt jo tlh

gharxph aed iebcxdhd iedibatjpr ojp acc djgaier tlat I ojxed bjerirthetcy tlpjxfljxt tlh

cithpatxph% I ghpfhd tlh ri| djgaier ietj ae jgei`xr iedh| ie jpdhp tj thrt gy ly~jtlhrhr% Rxpvhy

phr~jedhetr hph arkhd tj aerhp qxhrtijer opjg a paefh jo 1 ,ejt at acc rkicchd) tj 8 ,vhpy

rkicchd*h|~hpt) je habl jo tlh 89 iedibatjpr jo rkiccr aed kejchdfh% Habl jo tlhrh iedibatjpr ar

ieojpghd `y ~art tlhjpy je difitac cithpaby# I j~hpatijeaci}hd tlhg ietj dirbphth tarkr tlat

gharxph bjg~hthebh jp kejchdfh itl ~aptibxcap difitac cithpaby abtivitihr% Habl jo tlh

iedibatjpr tlat I xrhd tj gharxph difitac cithpaby ir dhtaichd ie A~~hedi| I%


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Rigicap tj difitac cithpaby# I dhvhcj~hd rxpvhy qxhrtijer tj gharxph phr~jedhet chvhcr jo

garr ~aptibi~atije ie ojxp djgaier% Tlh gharxphr tlat I xrhd h|~aed x~je tlh bivib aed ~jcitibac

~aptibi~atije rxpvhy qxhrtijer xrhd `y ^xteag ,0>>>) ie lir bcarrib@jcief Acjeh rtxdy# libl

hph r~hbioibaccy dpae opjg tlh ghtljdjcjfy ie tlh Pj~hp Rjbiac aed ^jcitibac Tphedr Data

rtxdy# 1962'1994 ,Pj~hp# 1994)% I h|~aedhd tlhrh iedibatjpr ie tlh ^xteag*Pj~hp rxpvhy opjg

phqxipief a dibljtjgjxr phr~jerh ,h%f%# Did yjx ~aptibi~ath ie \ abtivity: Yhr*ej) tj ierthad

accjief phr~jedhetr tj iedibath tlh chvhc jo tlhip abtivity je a rbach opjg 1 tj 8% Tlh exghpib

rbjphr ph~phrhethd ej abtivity ie tlh cart yhap ,1) tj ophqxhet abtivity*rhpvhd ar a chadhp jp

jpfaei}hp ,8) je 4< garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr itlie ojxp djgaier% Ie additije tj tlh qxhrtijer

tlat hph a~~cihd diphbtcy opjg tlh Pj~hp ghtljdjcjfy ,rhh A~~hedi| III)# I addhd gxcti~ch

jpifieac qxhrtijer tlat oxptlhp faxfh garr ~aptibi~atije# ~aptibxcapcy tljrh tlat ievjcvh Iethpeht

aed bjg~xthp'ghdiathd abtivity% Tlir iebcxdhd a `atthpy jo qxhrtijer tlat I dhvhcj~hd tlat

r~hbioibaccy dirbxrr jecieh'jecy rjbiac abtivitihr% Habl jo tlh iedibatjpr tlat I xrhd tj gharxph

garr ~aptibi~atije ir dhtaichd ie A~~hedi| II%

Tlh bjg~chth rxpvhy ir ~pjvidhd ie A~~hedi| I_% Phr~jedhetr acrj aerhphd 1>

qxhrtijer je tlhip dhgjfpa~lib aed `abkfpjxed ieojpgatije% Ie additije tj tlh difitac cithpaby

aed ~aptibi~atije iedibatjpr# I acrj dhvhcj~hd a vapihty jo jtlhp jpifieac qxhrtijer ojp tlir rxpvhy

tlat faxfhd phr~jedhet attitxdhr aed `hlavijpr tjapd thblejcjfy hdxbatije# garr ~aptibi~atije#

aed tlh vacxh tlhy faie opjg thblejcjfy ie tlhip daicy civhr% Ljhvhp# gaey jo tlhrh qxhrtijer

hph ejt xrhd diphbtcy ie tlir tlhrir%


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2%1%0 Tlh Difitac Cithpaby Iedh|hr aed J~hpatijeac Dhoieitijer

Tj gharxph tlh bjebh~t jo difitac cithpaby# I bphathd tlh jgei`xr Difitac Cithpaby Iedh|

,DCI)% Tlir iedh| ir bjg~jrhd jo tlh 40 iedibatjpr jo difitac cithpaby bjcchbthd ie tlh 0>10

Thblejcjfy Xrh Rxpvhy ghetijehd ie tlh rhbtije a`jvh% Tlh iedh| fivhr habl phr~jedhet a DCI

rbjph tlat ir ~pj~jptijeath tj lj tlhy phr~jedhd tj tlh 40 iedibatjpr jo difitac cithpaby rkicc aed

kejchdfh% Tlh DCI ar ojxed tj `h liflcy phcia`ch ,Bpje`ablr = %91>)% Ar tlh DCI ir ae

additivh rbach# girrief vacxhr itlie aey iedibatjp bjxcd dpagatibaccy rkh a phr~jedhetr rbjph

tjapd tlh cj hed jo tlh rbach% Tj gitifath tlir# tlh ghdiae vacxh ojp a ~aptibxcap iedibatjp ie

tlh rag~ch ph~cabhd girrief vacxhr `hojph tlh DCI ar bjertpxbthd%

Ie additije tj tlh DCI# I bphathd ri| additijeac iedh|hr tlat j~hpatijeaci}h r~hbioib

bathfjpihr jo rkiccr aed bjertitxth tlh `pjadhp bjebh~t jo difitac cithpaby# libl aph jxtciehd ie

Ta`ch 2%1% Rigicap tj tlh DCI# habl jo tlhrh iedibatjpr ar ojxed tj `h liflcy phcia`ch aed I

ph~cabhd aey girrief vacxhr ie ae iedibatjp itl tlh ghdiae vacxh ojp tlat ~aptibxcap iedibatjp%

Tlhrh iedh|hr aph xrhd tj oxptlhp h|~cjph phcatijerli~r `hthhe tlhrh gjph r~hbioib djgaier jo

difitac cithpaby aed garr ~aptibi~atije% Dhtaicr je tlh r~hbioib rxpvhy iedibatjpr tlat hph xrhd tj

bjertpxbt tlhrh iedh|hr aph avaica`ch ie A~~hedi| I%


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Ta`ch 2%1

J~hpatijeac Rx`'Iedh|hr= Djgaier jo Difitac Cithpaby

,rhh A~~hedi| I ojp gjph dhtaicr)


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2%1%2 Tlh Garr âptibi~atije Iedh|hr aed J~hpatijeac Dhoieitijer

I bphathd tlh jgei`xr Tpaditijeac âptibi~atije Iedh| tj gharxph jvhpacc garr

~aptibi~atije ie bjggxeity aed ~jcitibac aooaipr% Tlir iedh| bjgìehr tlphh ty~hr jo tpaditijeac

garr ~aptibi~atije= rjbiac ghg`hprli~ ~aptibi~atije# bivib ~aptibi~atije# aed ~jcitibac

~aptibi~atije% Ie tlir gharxph# I atthg~t tj h|bcxdh hghpfhet ojpgr jo rjbiac hefafhghet tlat

jbbxp ie ae jecieh'jecy r~abh% Tlir ir djeh ie jpdhp tj ba~txph tlh hoohbtr jo difitac cithpaby je

tlh gjph tpaditijeac ojpgr jo garr ~aptibi~atije aed bjg~aph phrxctr tj jecieh ojpgr jo

~aptibi~atije% Ie jpdhp tj bjg~aph tj hghpfief ojpgr jo jecieh ~aptibi~atije# I dhoieh tpaditijeac

garr ~aptibi~atije ar garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr tlat aph ejt ~hpojpghd rjchcy jecieh# phochbtief

abtivitihr tlat h|irthd `hojph tlh dhvhcj~ghet jo tlh Iethpeht% Vitl tlh advhet jo tlh Iethpeht#

ljhvhp# lar bjgh ae xeavjida`ch bpjrrjvhp jo tlh jecieh aed joocieh ~aptibi~atjpy

hevipjeghetr# aed I arrxgh a dhfphh jo iethpgiefcief ir xeavjida`ch `hthhe tlhrh bathfjpihr%

Tlh Tpaditijeac âptibi~atije Iedh| ,TÎ) bjgìehr 24 iedibatjpr jo ~aptibi~atije ie tlh

tlphh djgaier jo tpaditijeac ~aptibi~atije ,rjbiac ghg`hprli~# bivib# aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije)%

Tlhrh iedibatjpr hph dpae opjg qxhrtijer je tlh 0>10 Thblejcjfy Xrh Rxpvhy# itl habl

iedibatjp gharxpief tlh chvhc jo ~aptibi~atije ie a r~hbioib abtivity% Tlh TÎ j~hpatijeaci}hr tlhrh

iedibatjpr jo ~aptibi~atije jetj a exghpib rbach# itl a liflhp vacxh iedibatief a liflhp chvhc jo

~aptibi~atije ie a ~aptibxcap abtivity% Tlh TÎ ar ojxed tj `h liflcy phcia`ch ,Bpjeàblr =

%906) lhe acc 24 iedibatjpr hph bjgìehd% Phgjvief aey iedibatjp opjg tlh iedh| jxcd ejt

baxrh a rifeioibaetcy liflhp jp cjhp phciaìcity bjhooibihet%

I acrj bphathd tlphh rh~apath iedh|hr ojp tlh tlphh ty~hr jo garr ~aptibi~atije tlat

bjg~jrh tlh TÎ= Tlh Rjbiac Ghg`hprli~ âptibi~atije Iedh|# tlh Bivib âptibi~atije Iedh|# aed

tlh ^jcitibac âptibi~atije Iedh|% Tlhrh tlphh iedh|hr gharxph tlh bjertitxhet ~aptr jo tlh TÎ


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aed accj ojp fphathp r~hbioibatije jo tlh ieocxhebh tlat difitac cithpaby lar je tlh vapijxr ojpgr

jo ~aptibi~atije% Dhtaicr je tlhrh tlphh iedh|hr aph ojxed ie Ta`ch 2%0% Ojp habl iedibatjp ie tlh

TÎ aed itr tlphh bjertitxhet rx`'iedh|hr# girrief vacxhr hph ph~cabhd itl tlh ghdiae rbjph

ojp a ~aptibxcap iedibatjp ie jpdhp tj gitifath rkhehrr tjapd a rbjph jo }hpj io a ~aptibxcap barh

h|liìtr girrief vacxhr%

Dpaief opjg tlhjpy tlat rxffhrtr tlat eh ojpgr jo garr ~aptibi~atije giflt `h gjvief

tj jecieh'jecy r~abhr# I acrj bphathd tlh Jecieh âptibi~atije Iedh|# libl gharxphr tlh dhfphh

tlat ~hj~ch ~aptibi~athd ie jecieh'jecy rjbiac abtivitihr% Dhoiehd# jecieh ~aptibi~atije ir vjcxetapy

abtivity ie libl ae iedividxac takhr ~apt ie jp rlaphr ie abtivitihr ojp ~hprjeac fpjtl aed

bjggje iethphrtr# `xt djhr rj rjchcy jvhp tlh Iethpeht aed jtlhp ehtjpkhd hchbtpjeib

bjggxeibatijer% Tlir iebcxdhr abtivitihr rxbl ar ghhtief eh ~hj~ch jecieh# bjeehbtief itl

opihedr jecieh# aed rlapief bjggje iethphrtr itl jtlhpr jecieh% Tlh Jecieh âptibi~atije Iedh|

ir gharxphd itl 9 rh~apath iedibatjpr opjg tlh rxpvhy tlat oacc itlie tlir dhoieitije% It ir

~jrri`ch tlat tlh Jecieh âptibi~atije Iedh| phciaìcity bjhooibihet giflt `h cjhp tlh jtlhp tlphh

rx`'djgaier `hbaxrh jo tlh ejvhcty jo tlir gharxph= tlhrh iedibatjpr lavh ejt yht `hhe xrhd ie a

rtxdy jo garr ~aptibi~atije aed phqxiph oxptlhp aeacyrir tlat bjghr itl additijeac rtxdy%


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2%0DATA BJCCHBTIJE=TLH 0>10THBLEJCJFY XRH RXP_HY

I xrhd phrxctr opjg tlh 0>10 Thblejcjfy Xrh Rxpvhy ar gy ~pigapy data rjxpbh% Tlh

rxpvhy bjcchbthd ieojpgatije je phr~jedhet difitac cithpaby rkiccr ar hcc ar tlhip garr

~aptibi~atije `hlavijpr aed attitxdhr%

Tlh rxpvhy ar adgieirthphd jvhp tlh Iethpeht `y xrief Ghblaeibac Txpk `y

Aga}je%bjg ,ltt~=**%gtxpk%bjg)# a rhpvibh tlat hea`chr phqxhrthpr tj ~ay phr~jedhpr tj

bjg~chth rgacc tarkr# iebcxdief rbihetioib rxpvhyr% Phr~jedhetr hph phbpxithd tlpjxfl tlh

rhpvibh aed aerhphd rxpvhy qxhrtijer ieridh jo a h` `pjrhp `y bcibkief phr~jerhr a~~pj~piath

tj tlhip bljibh% Phr~jedhetr hph ejt bjeehbthd tj tlh ievhrtifatjp ie aey ay aed hph

phbpxithd `y Ghblaeibac Txpk aothp vihief a hcbjgh ghrrafh `y tlh ievhrtifatjp%

Tj qxacioy ojp tlh rxpvhy# phr~jedhetr hph phqxiphd tj `h a phfirthphd ghg`hp jo tlh

Ghblaeibac Txpk rhpvibh# `h a Xeithd Rtathr phridhet# aed `h jvhp 1< yhapr jcd% Ie additije#

phr~jedhetr hph phqxiphd tj lavh ae a~~pjvac patief jo at chart 98( itl ~art jpk ~hpojpghd

je tlh Ghblaeibac Txpk rhpvibh# a bjetpjc gharxph kh~t `y tlh Ghblaeibac Txpk rhpvibh tj

hebjxpafh qxacity jpk agjef phr~jedhetr% Phr~jedhetr hph bjg~herathd itl a ejgieac ohh

ojp tlhip ievjcvhghet x~je bjg~chtief tlh hetiph rxpvhy# ~aid diphbtcy `y Ghblaeibac Txpk tj tlh

phr~jedhet%

Tlh rxpvhy ar caxeblhd je Oh`pxapy 010 aed bcjrhd je Gapbl 18# 0>10% Tlh

rxpvhy ~pjvidhd a paedjg rag~ch ri}h jo 11 vacid phr~jerhr%


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2%2AEACYRIR GHTLJDR

I hg~cjyhd tlh Difitac Cithpaby Iedh|# Tpaditijeac ^aptibi~atije Iedh|# aed Jecieh

^aptibi~atije Iedh| ghetijehd ie tlh rxpvhy bjertpxbtije ghtljdjcjfy rhbtije tj h|agieh tlh

ieocxhebh jo difitac cithpaby ar ae aethbhdhet rkicc ojp garr ~aptibi~atije% I joohp a rhpihr jo

dhrbpi~tivh rtatirtibr opjg tlh rxpvhy tj ~pjvidh a rea~rljt ietj tlh bxpphet rtath jo difitac

cithpaby aed ~aptibi~atije ie itr vapijxr ojpgr ie tlh Xeithd Rtathr% Ie additije tj tlh dhrbpi~tivh

aeacyrir# I thrthd oivh ly~jtlhrhr `y xrief a rhpihr jo JCR phfphrrije aed bjpphcatije gjdhcr ie

libl I dhgjertpathd tlh rtpheftl `y libl difitac cithpaby aed itr rx`'djgaier jo bjg~htheby

ieocxhebh tlh dioohpief ty~hr jo ~aptibi~atije ie tlh Xeithd Rtathr tjday% I bjetpjcchd ojp

dhgjfpa~lib aed ~jcitibac idhetioibatije oabtjpr tj iebpharh tlh r~hbioibatije jo tlh phcatijerli~

`hthhe difitac cithpaby aed ~aptibi~atije% Tlhrh bjetpjc vapia`chr iebcxdh fhedhp# afh# hdxbatije

chvhc# hg~cjyghet rtatxr# ljxrhljcd iebjgh# ~apty idhetioibatije# aed rtpheftl jo ~jcitibac

idhjcjfy%

2%2%1 Admxrthd Rxggapy Rbachr ojp Dhrbpi~tivh Ghaer Bjg~apirje

Ojp tlh dhrbpi~tivh bjg~apirje `hthhe djgaier jo difitac cithpaby aed garr

~aptibi~atije# I bphathd admxrthd rxggapy rbachr% Tlhrh rxggapy rbachr# libl aph acc gharxphd

itl vacxhr jo 1 tj 8# hph dhpivhd opjg tlh jpifieac iedh|hr ghetijehd ie rhbtijer 2%1%0 aed

2%1%2% Tlir tpaerojpgatije ar ehbhrrapy ie jpdhp tj bjg~aph tlh ri| difitac cithpaby djgaie

iedh|hr# ar habl iedh| bphathd ie rhbtije 2%1%0 lar a dioohphet paefh jo vacxhr% Tlir acrj a~~cihr

tj tlh ojxp iedh|hr jo ~aptibi~atije bphathd ie rhbtije 2%1%2% Rxggapy gharxph iedh|hr aph jecy

xrhd ojp bjg~apativh ~xp~jrhr ie tlh dhrbpi~tivh aeacyrir aed aph ejt xrhd tj thrt ly~jtlhrhr ie

tlir tlhrir% Tj gakh tlhrh admxrtghetr# habl rxggapy rbach ar arrifehd a vacxh abbjpdief tj a


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tj'rth~ ~pjbhrr% Oiprt# I bacbxcathd tlh ghae rbjph ojp habl iedibatjp tlat a~~haphd ie ae iedh|%

Rhbjed# riebh habl iedibatjp ar rbjphd je tlh ragh rbach jo 1 tj 8# I bacbxcathd tlh ghae rbjph

jo acc iedibatjpr a~~hapief itlie ae iedh| aed arrifehd tlir phrxct ar tlh rxggapy rbach vacxh

,ph~phrhethd ar RxgRbc)% Oifxph 2%1 iccxrtpathr tlh hqxatije `y libl tlh rxggapy rbachr hph

arrifehd vacxhr joRxgRbc# itl e hqxac tj tlh tjtac exg`hp jo iedibatjpr a~~hapief ie habl

iedh|% A tjtac jo 6 difitac cithpaby rxggapy rbachr ,1 jgei`xr rbach aed ? rx`'djgaier) aed 8

~aptibi~atije rxggapy rbachr hph bphathd ojp tlir bjg~apirje ,1 jg`i`xr rbach aed 4 rx`'

djgaie rbachr)%

RxgRbc 7

| i

i71

e

e

Oifxph 2%1

Rxggapy Rbach _acxh Hqxatije# RxgRbc,xrhd ojp habl rxggapy rbach)

Ojp difitac cithpaby# habl rxggapy rbach ar admxrthd tj ph~phrhet a paefh jo cj difitac

cithpaby ,rbjph jo 1) tj lifl difitac cithpaby ,rbjph jo 8)% Ojp tlh gharxph jo garr ~aptibi~atije

aed itr ojxp djgaier# habl rxggapy rbach ar admxrthd tj ph~phrhet a paefh jo cj ~aptibi~atije

,rbjph jo 1) tj lifl ~aptibi~atije ,rbjph jo 8)% I dirbxrrhd tlh ghae rbjphr jo tlh rhvhe rxggapy

difitac cithpaby rbachr ,admxrthd rxggapihr jo tlh oxcc iedh| aed ri| bjertitxhet iedh|hr) aed

iccxrtpathd j`rhpvhd dioohphebhr `hthhe djgaier jo difitac cithpaby rkiccr% Rigicapcy# I phvihhd

tlh rbjphr jo tlh oivh rxggapy ~aptibi~atije rbachr ,tlh admxrthd rxggapy tpaditijeac

~aptibi~atije rbach aed tlh ojxp rx`'djgaier jo ~aptibi~atije) aed rlj tlh j`rhpvhd dioohphebhr

`hthhe ty~hr jo ~aptibi~atije abbjpdiefcy%


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2%2%0 Dhrbpi~tivh Aeacyrir aed Dhgjfpa~lib Bjg~apirjer

I pae a rhpihr jo ophqxhebihr dirtpi`xtijer aed dioohphebh jo ghaer thrtr tj ~pjvidh

dhrbpi~tivh aeacyrhr jo ~x`cib chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby aed garr ~aptibi~atije ie tlhip vapijxr

ojpgr% Tlhrh gharxphr aph bpjrr'bjg~aphd itl bjggje rjbiac dhgjfpa~libr rxbl ar fhedhp#

afh# hdxbatije# aed iebjgh% Tlir rhbtije liflcifltr tlh vapijxr dioohphebhr ie `jtl difitac cithpaby

aed garr ~aptibi~atije agjef rjbiac dhgjfpa~lib fpjx~r ie tlh Xeithd Rtathr%

Tj j`rhpvh dioohphebhr `hthhe tlh ri| djgaier jo difitac cithpaby ar hcc ar tlh ojxp

djgaier jo ~aptibi~atije# I bjg~aphd tlh ghaer jo tlh rhvhpac rxggapy rbach gharxphr bphathd

ie Rhbtije 2%1% Tj iccxrtpath dioohphebhr jo rxggapy rbach rbjphr `hthhe bjggje dhgjfpa~lib

fpjx~r itlie tlh ~x`cib# I xrhd AEJ_A aed iedh~hedhet rag~chr t'thrt aeacyrhr tj dhthpgieh

dioohphebhr ie ghae rbjphr jo tlh rxggapy gharxphr `arhd je fpjx~ ghg`hprli~% Ie tlir

rhbtije# I liflciflthd dioohphebhr ie tlh rxggapy rbach rbjphr ojp difitac cithpaby aed garr

~aptibi~atije `hthhe fhedhp# hdxbatije chvhc# aed afh%

2%2%2 Ly~jtlhrir Thrtief aed Aeacyrir

Tj thrt tlh ly~jtlhrhr ie tlir tlhrir# I hg~cjyhd a rhpihr jo jpdieapy chart'rqxaphr

phfphrrijer aed ^haprjer P bjpphcatijer tj dhthpgieh tlh rtpheftl aed diphbtije jo tlh ieocxhebh

jo difitac cithpaby je tlh vapijxr djgaier jo garr ~aptibi~atije% Tlh bjebh~tr jo difitac cithpaby

aed garr ~aptibi~atije aph aeacy}hd ar gharxphd `y tlh jgei`xr Difitac Cithpaby Iedh|# tlh

jgei`xr Tpaditijeac ^aptibi~atije Iedh|# aed tlh bjertitxhet ~aptibi~atije djgaie iedh|hr

dirbxrrhd ie Rhbtije 2%1%2% Ojp habl aeacyrir# jeh jo tlh ~aptibi~atije iedh|hr rhpvhr ar tlh

dh~hedhet vapia`ch ie tlh hqxatije%


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Ojp tlh oiprt aeacyrir# I bjg~aphd habl djgaie jo difitac cithpaby tj tlh Tpaditijeac

âptibi~atije Iedh| xrief ìvapiath ^haprjer P aeacyrhr tj arrhrr tlh rtpheftl jo habl jo tlh ri|

iedividxac rx`'bathfjpihr jo difitac cithpaby je garr ~aptibi~atije% @y xrief tlh ^haprjer P

bjhooibihetr# I ag a`ch tj rhh tlh rtpheftl jo bjpphcatije `hthhe a ~aptibxcap difitac cithpaby

djgaie aed chvhcr jo tpaditijeac garr ~aptibi~atije% Xrief tlir ghtljd# I bjg~aph tlh ^haprjer

P bjhooibihetr tj rhh libl difitac cithpaby djgaie ieocxhebhr garr ~aptibi~atije ie tlh rtpjefhrt

gaeehp% Habl jo tlh ri| djgaier jo difitac cithpaby ir liflcy bjpphcathd itl habl jtlhp ,i%h%# habl

ìvapiath bjg~apirje dhgjertpatief jvhp a %?>> ^haprjer P bjhooibihet)% Tlir ghtljd accjr gh

tj dhgjertpath tlh rtpheftl jo difitac cithpaby djgaier lich avjidief ghtljdjcjfibac vijcatijer

itl JCR phfphrrije gjdhcr%

Ie tlh rhbjed aeacyrir# I thrt tlh ieocxhebh jo difitac cithpaby je tlh jgei`xr Tpaditijeac

âptibi~atije Iedh| xrief ae JCR phfphrrije gjdhc tlat iebcxdhr dhgjfpa~lib aed ~jcitibac

idhetioibatije bjetpjc vapia`chr% Ie tlh oieac aeacyrir# I thrt tlh ieocxhebh jo difitac cithpaby je tlh

iedividxac ~aptibi~atije iedh|hr xrief a rhpihr jo JCR phfphrrijer# ie libl tlh `hta bjhooibihetr

ojp habl vapia`ch aph bjg~aphd abpjrr djgaier% Ojp habl aeacyrir# tlh jgei`xr Difitac Cithpaby

Iedh| rhpvhr ar ae iedh~hedhet vapia`ch tj ~phdibt chvhcr jo ~aptibi~atije acjefridh a rhpihr jo

bjetpjc vapia`chr% Tlhrh bjetpjcr iebcxdh afh# fhedhp# hdxbatije chvhc# hg~cjyghet rtatxr#

ljxrhljcd iebjgh# ~apty idhetioibatije# aed rtpheftl jo ~jcitibac idhjcjfy%


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BLA^THP4DHRBPI^TI_H DIOOHPHEBHR IE DIFITAC CITHPABY AED GARR ^APTIBI^ATIJE

Ie tlir bla~thp# I ~pjvidh a rea~rljt jo tlh bxpphet chvhcr jo tlh difitac cithpaby rkiccr jo

Aghpibaer aed iccxrtpath lj jothe Aghpibaer hefafh ie garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr% Xrief data

opjg tlh 0>10 Thblejcjfy Xrh Rxpvhy# I liflciflt dioohphebhr ie difitac cithpaby rkiccr aed garr

~aptibi~atije itlie tj khy dhgjfpa~libr= fhedhp aed afh% Tlhrh aeacyrhr aph dpae opjg tlh

admxrthd rxggapy rbachr jo habl jo tlh ri| djgaier jo difitac cithpaby aed ojxp djgaier jo garr

~aptibi~atije ,ghetijehd ie fphathp dhtaic ie rhbtije 2%1%4)% Dioohphebhr jo ghaer `hthhe fpjx~r

aph aeacy}hd itl iedh~hedhet rag~chr t'thrtr aed jeh'ay AEJ_A thrtr%

Tlh dhrbpi~tivh rtatirtibr ie tlir bla~thp rlj tlat yjxefhp ~hj~ch aph `htthp rkicchd itl

difitac tjjcr# gachr lavh a rciflt advaetafh ie chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby# aed jtlhp dhgjfpa~libr

rxbl ar hdxbatije chvhc dj ejt rifeioibaetcy iedibath dioohphebhr ie difitac cithpaby% Tlhrh oiediefr

iccxrtpath rjgh jo tlh bxpphet irrxhr oabief difitac cithpaby abqxiritije aed hdxbatije ie tlh Xeithd

Rtathr% ^pigapicy# ar difitac cithpaby lar `hbjgh ae aethbhdhet rkicc rht ojp garr ~aptibi~atije

abtivitihr# tlhrh oiediefr jxcd iedibath tlat fpjx~r rxbl ar jcdhp adxctr aed ohgachr jxcd `h

gjph diradvaetafhd lhe it bjghr tj ~aptibi~atjpy abtivitihr% Garthpy jo difitac cithpaby rkiccr

icc `h hrrhetiac tj hoohbt rjbiac blaefh jp tj hvhe mjie a rjbiac fpjx~ ar ieojpgatije thblejcjfihr

aph iebphariefcy xrhd ie tlh ~aptibi~atjpy hevipjeghet% Ar gjph ieojpgatije'lhavy mj`r `hbjgh

tlh ejpg ie tlh 01rt

Bhetxpy kejchdfh hbjejgy# it icc acrj `h iebphariefcy ig~jptaet ojp

~hj~ch jo acc afhr aed hdxbatije chvhcr tj lavh a lifl chvhc jo difitac cithpaby%

I acrj iccxrtpath lj tlh ~x`cib ar hefafhd ie garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr ie 0>11'0>10

xrief j`rhpvhd admxrthd ghae rbjphr itlie ~aptibi~atije djgaier% Tj h|~cjph tlh dhfphh tj

libl jecieh ~aptibi~atije ~atthper bjg~aph tj gjph tpaditijeac ojpgr jo garr ~aptibi~atije# I

rjpt tlh ojxp djgaier jo ~aptibi~atije ietj tj bathfjpihr= tpaditijeac ~aptibi~atije ,bjerirtief jo


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4>0; Caekrlhap / Kej`hc#


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0>>


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81

4%1%0 Ghe Lavh Liflhp Chvhcr jo Difitac Cithpaby

Oifxph 4%0 iccxrtpathr tlh dioohphebh ie difitac cithpaby rkiccr ,ar gharxphd `y tlh jgei`xr

admxrthd rxggapy rbach) rh~apathd `y fhedhp% Xrief ae iedh~hedhet rag~chr t'thrt# tlh

dioohphebh ie ghae rbjphr `hthhe ghe aed jghe ar rtatirtibaccy rifeioibaet at tlh ~ 3 %>>>

chvhc%

Oifxph 4%0

Difitac Cithpaby `y Fhedhp,`arhd je rxggapy rbach ghae rbjph; tjtac e 7 11)

Vlich it ir `hyjed tlh rbj~h jo tlir tlhrir tj r~hbxcath tlh pharjer ojp dioohphebhr

`hthhe fhedhpr# it a~~hapr tlat gachr lavh a rciflt advaetafh ie difitac cithpaby rkiccr% Ljhvhp#

tlir fa~ ir ejt h|tphghcy idh# aed bjxcd ~jthetiaccy bcjrh ar ieojpgatije thblejcjfy rkiccr

`hbjgh gjph ~pijpiti}hd ie tlh hbjejgy aed ar hdxbatijeac ieitiativhr hebjxpafh ~hj~ch tj hethp

baphhpr tlat phqxiph liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby# rxbl ar rbihebh# thblejcjfy# hefiehhpief# aed

gatlhgatibr ,RTHG) baphhp oihcdr%

4%1%2 Yjxef ^hj~ch Lavh Liflhp Chvhcr jo Difitac Cithpaby

Yjxef ~hj~ch lavh `hhe ~j~xcapcy keje ar tlh eht fhehpatije jp ar difitac eativhr

aed aph ophqxhetcy phfapdhd tj lavh liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby tlae jcdhp afh bjljptr% Tlh

data ie tlir tlhrir rlj ej h|bh~tije tj tlir tphed% Dioohphebhr `hthhe ghae rbjphr agjef afh

fpjx~r phvhacr a djeapd diphbtijeac tphed ie difitac cithpaby ghae rbjphr ar afh iebpharhr%


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80

Oifxph 4%2 liflcifltr tlir j`rhpvatije# itl yjxefhp ~hj~ch h|li`itief liflhp ghae rbjphr jo

difitac cithpaby tlae tljrh jo jcdhp bjljptr%

Oifxph 4%2

Difitac Cithpaby `y Afh,`arhd je rxggapy rbach ghae rbjph; tjtac e 7 11)

Tj thrt ojp rifeioibaet dioohphebhr `hthhe ghae difitac cithpaby rbjphr `y afh fpjx~# I pae

a jeh'ay `hthhe'rx`mhbtr AEJ_A thrt ,O 7 29%>4; ~ 3 %>>1) je difitac cithpaby rkiccr fpjx~hd

`y ae afh oabtjp% ^jrt ljb bjg~apirjer xrief tlh Taglaehr T'0 thrt# libl iedibath a tpxh

dioohphebh jo ghaer io tlh bjg~apirje ir rtatirtibaccy rifeioibaet# rljhd tlat tlh ghae rbjph tlh

18 jp fphathp)

lhe bjg~apief ghae rbjphr `hthhe fpjx~r itl tlh h|bh~tije jo tlphh bjg~apirjer= 21'4> tj

41'8># 41'8> tj 81'?># aed 81'?> tj jvhp ?1%


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82

Bjg~apirje Rif% Rtd% Hppjp

1 %>>> %>?0

1 %>>> %>9>> %10 tj 81'?> %>>> %10 tj 81'?> %411 %142

41'8> tj ?1+ %>0? %028

81'?> tj ?1+ %484 %049

Ta`ch 4%1

Difitac Cithpaby Dioohphebhr jo Ghaer `hthhe Afh Fpjx~rJeh'ay AEJ_A ~jrt'ljb thrt; Taglaehr T'0

Rifeioibaet bjg~apirjer at ~ 3 >%>8 aph rladhd ie fpay

Phfapdchrr jo tlh cabk jo rifeioibaet dioohphebhr `hthhe jcdhp afh fpjx~r# tlhrh phrxctr

rlj tlat yjxefhp ~hj~ch lavh liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby% Ar difitac cithpaby ir ae

aethbhdhet rkicc ojp garr ~aptibi~atije# tlhrh data iedibath tlat yjxef ~hj~ch lavh ae advaetafh

ie tlhip aìcity tj ~aptibi~ath%

4%1%4 Jtlhp Dhgjfpa~lib Dioohphebhr

Fhedhp aed afh ~pjvidh tj fjjd h|ag~chr jo difitac cithpaby divirije agjef

dhgjfpa~lib fpjx~r% Vlhe thrtief jtlhp dhgjfpa~libr# ljhvhp# fpjx~ dioohphebhr aph hitlhp

ejt rtatirtibaccy rifeioibaet% Tlir ljcdr tpxh ojp hdxbatije# hg~cjyghet chvhc# aed bity ri}h

,xpàe*rx`xpàe*pxpac)%


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84

4%0GARR ÂPTIBIÂTIJE IE TLH XEITHD RTATHR#0>11'0>10

4%0%1 ^hj~ch Bljjrh Jecieh âptibi~atije jvhp Jtlhp Djgaier jo Garr âptibi~atije

Tlir tlhrir gharxphr ojxp dioohphet djgaier jo garr ~aptibi~atije aed lj tlhy aph

ieocxhebhd `y difitac cithpaby rkiccr% Xrief tlh admxrthd rxggapy rbachr ojp tlhrh ojxp djgaier# I

bjg~aphd chvhcr jo j`rhpvhd ~aptibi~atije abpjrr djgaier# ar iccxrtpathd ie Oifxph 4%4% Vlich

~aptibi~atije ir phcativhcy cj ie acc ojxp djgaier ,rbjpief `hthhe 1 aed 0 je a 1'8 rbach)# jecieh

~aptibi~atije a~~hapr tj `h gxbl liflhp tlae tlh jtlhp tlphh djgaier jo ~aptibi~atije%

Oifxph 4%4

Garr âptibi~atije Djgaie Rxggapy Iedh| Ghae Rbjphr,àrhd je rxggapy rbach ghae rbjphr; e 7 11)

@arhd je tlh j`rhpvhd ghae rbjphr# jecieh ~aptibi~atije ir acgjrt laco'~jiet liflhp ie

ophqxheby tlae tlh jtlhp tlphh djgaier# libl# je a 1'8 rbach# iedibathr a capfh dhfphh jo

vapiatije% Riebh tlh tlphh djgaier jo rjbiac ghg`hprli~# bivib# aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije

ph~phrhet gjph tpaditijeac ojpgr jo garr ~aptibi~atije# I arrhpt tlat jecieh ~aptibi~atije lar

`hbjgh a eh oavjpith djgaie jo ~aptibi~atije agjef tlh ~x`cib ojp rjbiaci}atije aed ghhtief

jtlhpr% I acrj apfxh tlat tlir gay ejt iedibath tpjx`ch ojp tlh jtlhp tlphh djgaier jo ~aptibi~atije%

Jecieh ~aptibi~atije bjxcd hebjxpafh ~aptibi~aetr tj hefafh ie jtlhp ojpgr jo ~aptibi~atije itl


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88

ljg tlhy ghht aed iethpabt jecieh% Ie additije# ~hj~ch bjxcd chape a`jxt abtivitihr ie jtlhp

~aptibi~atije djgaier jecieh%

I aet tj ejth# ljhvhp# tlat tlhrh data iedibath tlatrjgh abtivity ir ~phrhet ie acc

djgaier# hvhe tljxfl habl djgaie a~~hapr tj `h rbjphd cj% Io tlh ~x`cib hefafhd ie ej

abtivity# tlh ghae rbjphr jxcd `h gxbl bcjrhp tj 1%> tlae tlhy a~~hap% Ej ~aptibi~atije itlie a

djgaie jxcd phqxiph phr~jedhetr tj aerhp 1# libl iedibathr ehvhp je tlh rxpvhy ,Rhh

A~~hedi|hr II aed I_ ojp gjph dhtaicr je rxpvhy qxhrtije rbjpief% Vlich tlir ir ejt a cjtjo

abtivity# it bhptaiecy rxffhrtr tlat ~hj~ch lavh `hhe at chart rjghlat abtivh dxpief tlh cart yhap

riebh liflhp rbjphr ,i%h%# 2 jp 4) je tlir iedh| jxcd bjpphr~jed tj rbjpief lifl je acciedibatjpr%

Rbjpief vhpy lifl je tlir rbach jxcd `h bcjrh tj ig~jrri`ch# ar a lifl rbjph bjpphr~jedr tj

~hj~ch ~aptibi~atief ophqxhetcy ie hvhpy abtivity bjetaiehd itlie tlhrh rbachr ,habl rbach paefief

opjg 9 tj 14 rh~apath abtivitihr)% Ar rxbl# I ieohp tlat ~hj~ch aph ~aptibi~atief ie acc djgaier# `xt

ejt ehapcy tj tlh dhfphh tlhy aph ~aptibi~atief ie tlh jecieh djgaie# libl ir gxbl liflhp%

Vitl daicy cioh `hief `xry aed dhgaedief ojp gaey Aghpibaer# it ir xedhprtaeda`ch tlat

garr ~aptibi~atije chvhcr aph ejt h|tphghcy lifl% Tlh bxctxphr jo jpk aed ljgh dj ejt dhgaed

a pj`xrt rjbiac cioh jp bjertaet ievjcvhghet ie ~licaetlpj~ib jp ~jcitibac rhpvibh abtivitihr%

Rlxdrje ,1999) apfxhr tlat tlir ir abtxaccy ejpgac# itl ~hj~ch tjday dhchfatief gxbl jo tlhip

~jcitibac aed rjbiac aooaipr tj jtlhpr tlat bae `h phr~jeri`ch ojp tlhg je a daicy `arir% Tlir lar

accjhd ojp r~hbiacirtr ie tlh bivib aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije phacg# rxbl ar ~jcitibiaer# ~jcitibac

aidhr# aed `xphaxbpatr# tj ojbxr je abtivitihr jo fjvhpeaebh aed rjbiac blaefh% Tlir iret tj ray

tlat tlh ~x`cib ir ieatthetivh# ljhvhp% Rlxdrje arrhptr tlat tlh gjeitjpiac biti}he ir ej

~phrhet# jp tlh biti}he tlat ~ayr atthetije tj bxpphet aooaipr aed icc `hbjgh abtivh ie bivib jp

~jcitibac aooaipr jecy aothp tlhip ~aptibi~atije `hbjghr ehbhrrapy# rxbl ar lhe ritxatijer `hbjgh


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diph aed ae iedividxac ir r~xpphd tj vjcxethhpirg jp ~jcitibac abtivity ojp a ~aptibxcap irrxh tlat

tlhy baph a`jxt% Ie tlh ghae tigh# ~hj~ch icc ierthad dhchfath tlhrh bivib aed ~jcitibac tarkr tj

r~hbiacirtr# accjief tlh eje'r~hbiacirtr tj civh aed jpk itljxt tjj gxbl garr ~aptibi~atije%

4%2DIRBXRRIJE JO DHRBPI^TI_H RTATIRTIBR

Ar dhgjertpathd ie tlh eh|t bla~thp# I oied tlat difitac cithpaby ir ae aethbhdhet rkicc ojp

garr ~aptibi~atije% Tlh `phakdje jo j`rhpvhd chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby aed ~aptibi~atije `y

dhgjfpa~lib ie tlir bla~thp iccxrtpath rjgh jo tlh blacchefhr arrjbiathd itl garr ~aptibi~atije

ie a difitac afh= a ~hprje ehhdr ~pj~hp difitac rkiccr ie jpdhp tj ~aptibi~ath% Fa~r ie chvhcr jo

difitac cithpaby agjef dhgjfpa~lib fpjx~r rlj a difitac cithpaby advaetafh ojp rjgh# `xt acrj

~pjvidh a `cxh~piet ojp oi|ief tlir difitac cithpaby dividh% Tlh data rlj tlat yjxefhp ~hj~ch aph

liflcy advaetafhd lhe it bjghr tj difitac cithpaby rkiccr% Ghe acrj lavh a rciflt difitac

advaetafh% Tlhrh fpjx~r icc cikhcy bjetiexh tj ieocxhebh bivib aed ~jcitibac aooaipr ie fphathp

ayr bjg~aphd tj tlhip bjxethp~aptr ar tlhy hemjy liflhp chvhcr jo difitac cithpaby rkiccr% Hoojptr

tj gitifath tlhrh dioohphebhr# rxbl ar thblejcjfy hdxbatije ieitiativhr aed thblejcjfy tpaieief

tapfhthd tj r~hbioib dhgjfpa~libr bjxcd lhc~ oxptlhp dhvhcj~ tlhrh difitac cithpaby rkiccr tj tlh

~jiet tlhy `hbjgh bjertaet agjef dhgjfpa~lib fpjx~r%

Vlich difitac cithpaby ir ejt tlh jecy aethbhdhet ~phbjeditije ojp garr ~aptibi~atije# it bae

bhptaiecy lhc~ rjghjeh ~aptibi~ath lhe tlhy ohhc bjg~hcchd tj dj rj% Tpaditijeac ~aptibi~atije

ieopartpxbtxph# aethbhdhet rkiccr# aed rjbiac dyeagibr bjebhpeief ~jcitibac jp rjbiac ieocxhebh rticc

cikhcy dhthpgieh rjbiac blaefh aed ~jcitibr tj a fphat dhfphh% Ljhvhp# itl tlh iebpharief

iethfpatije jo difitac tjjcr ietj tlh ~aptibi~atjpy hevipjeghet# tpaditijeac ieocxhebh lihpapblihr


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giflt `h phehfjtiathd ar tigh fjhr je% Phfapdchrr# tljrh itl difitac cithpaby rkiccr icc cikhcy `h

gjph ieocxhetiac ie bjggxeibatief tlhip ehhdr aed iethphrtr ar hcc ar bjeehbtief itl jtlhpr%

Tlh irrxh phgaier# ljhvhp# tlat ~hj~ch itl difitac cithpaby rkiccr aph `htthp hqxi~~hd ojp

garr ~aptibi~atije# aed tlat tlh data opjg tlh bjg~apirjer ie tlir bla~thp rlj vapyief chvhcr jo

rkiccr agjef tlh difitac cithpaby djgaier% Tlir ir hr~hbiaccy tpxh phfapdief tlh dhaptl jo bphativh

~x`cibatije aed rkiccr tlat ar j`rhpvhd% Ar tlh ~x`cibatije rkiccr djgaie lar a lifl ieocxhebh je

garr ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr# I gakh tlh apfxghet tlat tljrh itl tlhrh gjph ietaefi`ch# bphativh

rkiccr icc hemjy a liflhp dhfphh jo rxbbhrr lhe atthg~tief bivib jp ~jcitibac blaefh% Ljhvhp#

riebh tlhrh rkiccr a~~hap chrr ophqxhetcy tlae dirbphth# thbleibac bjg~xthp aed ieojpgatije rkiccr#

tlhph ir a ehhd ojp gjph hdxbatije aed hg~jhpghet ie tlir apha% ^jritivh hoohbtr ~pjvidhd `y

difitac cithpaby bjxcd hvhe bappy jvhp tj a ~hprjer baphhp jp daicy cioh# actljxfl tlir ir ae apha ojp

oxtxph rtxdy%


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8

Ta`ch 8%1 iccxrtpathr tlh iedividxac ìvapiath ^haprjer P bjpphcatijer ojp tlir aeacyrir% I

dhthpgieh tlh iedividxac difitac cithpaby djgaier aed lj tlhy aph bjpphcathd itl tpaditijeac aed

jecieh ~aptibi~atije# itl a liflhp ^haprjer P bjhooibihet iedibatief a rtpjefhp phcatijerli~% Ie

tlh aeacyrir ie Ta`ch 8%1# tpaditijeac ~aptibi~atije ir gharxphd xrief tlh jgei`xr Tpaditijeac

âptibi~atije Iedh|# libl iebcxdhr rjbiac ghg`hprli~# bivib# aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije

rigxctaehjxrcy% Jecieh ~aptibi~atije ir gharxphd xrief tlh jgei`xr Jecieh âptibi~atije Iedh|%

Dxh tj tlh lifl chvhc jo bjpphcatije `hthhe tlh difitac cithpaby iedh~hedhet vapia`chr ,^haprjer

P jvhp %?>> ojp hvhpy bjg~apirje)# I ag xea`ch tj hethp tlhrh djgaier iedividxaccy ietj a

bjevhetijeac JCR phfphrrije gjdhc%

Ojp tlir gjdhc# I bjetpjcchd ojp rtpheftl jo ~jcitibac idhjcjfy ar a ojcdhd bjebh~t% Ie jtlhp

jpdr# I ar ejt iethphrthd ie lhtlhp rjghjeh ar bjerhpvativh jp ci`hpac# `xt ierthad lhtlhp

tlhy lad rtpjef idhjcjfibac chaeiefr jp ejt% Tlh idhjcjfy rtpheftl vapia`ch ar bjdhd ar 1 ojp

cj chvhc jo idhjcjfibac chaeief# 0 ojp ~hj~ch lj idhetioy hitlhp ar bjerhpvativh jp ci`hpac# aed 2

ojp ~hj~ch lj idhetioy ar vhpy bjerhpvativh jp vhpy ci`hpac% Dpaief opjg ~art tlhjpy ie

~jcitibac ~aptibi~atije# I aetibi~ath tlat a ~hprjer rtpheftl jo ~jcitibac idhjcjfy icc dpa tlhg

tjapd garr ~aptibi~atije% Ie tlh jtlhp bjetpjcr rhbtije# I iebcxdhd dhgjfpa~lib vapia`chr jo

afh aed hdxbatije ar hcc%


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?1

Tpaditijeac Jecieh

Bjg~xthp Rkiccr %110-- %0?>--

Ieojpgatije Rkiccr %1?4-- %218--

Bjggxeibatije Rkiccr %11?-- %099-- %02?

Afh '%>89- '%1?1- '%>6>-

_acxhr ie ^haprjer P Bjhooibihetr% e 7 11-# -- iedibathr rifeioibaebh at tlh 98( aed 99( chvhc# phr~hbtivhcy

Ta`ch 8%1

^haprjer P Bjhooibihetr= Difitac Cithpaby Djgaier je Garr ^aptibi~atije[Tpaditijeac ^aptibi~atije Iedh| iebcxdhr rjbiac ghg`hprli~# bivib# aed ~jcitibac ~aptibi~atijeW

Oiediefr aed Ly~jtlhrir Thrtr

Habl jo tlh bjpphcatijer `hthhe difitac cithpaby aed ~aptibi~atije djgaier ar

rtatirtibaccy rifeioibaet% Ie acc bathfjpihr# difitac cithpaby ar gjph liflcy bjpphcathd itl jecieh

~aptibi~atije tlae tpaditijeac ~aptibi~atije% Lirtjpibac aed bxctxpac kejchdfh ph~phrhetr tlh

djgaie jo difitac cithpaby itl tlh liflhrt ieocxhebh je `jtl tpaditijeac aed jecieh ~aptibi~atije

,^haprjer P= %09> tpaditijeac; %29< jecieh)% Tlir ir ojccjhd bcjrhcy `y bphativh aed ~x`cibatije

rkiccr ,%042 tpaditijeac; %2 jecieh)% Bjg~xthp rkiccr ,%110 tpaditijeac; %0?> jecieh)# ieojpgatije

rkiccr ,%110 tpaditijeac; %0?> jecieh)# bjggxeibatije rkiccr ,%110 tpaditijeac; %0?> jecieh)# aed

ieejvativh tliekief rkiccr ,%110 tpaditijeac; %0?> jecieh) acc rlj a rifeioibaet bjpphcatije tj `jtl

tpaditijeac aed jecieh ~aptibi~atije# `xt tj a hakhp dhfphh tlae tlh jtlhp djgaier% Tlh rtpheftl


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jo idhjcjfy vapia`ch ir jecy rcifltcy phcathd tj garr ~aptibi~atije ie tlir gjdhc ,%>96 tpaditijeac;

ejt rifeioibaet ojp jecieh ~aptibi~atije)% Riebh tlir gjdhc ir ejt oxccy ~jcitibac ie eatxph# idhjcjfy

rtpheftl ~cayr chrr jo a pjch% Tlh jtlhp bjetpjc vapia`chr aph rifeioibaetcy bjpphcathd aed dir~cay

rifeioibaet# `xt fhehpaccy hakhp# phcatijerli~r%

Tj thrt tlh Ly~jtlhrir 1# I bjg~aph tlh ^haprjer P bjhooibihetr agjef tlh difitac

cithpaby djgaier% I ly~jtlhri}h ~hj~ch itl liflhp agjxetr jo kejchdfh jo tlh irrxhr oabief

rjbihty phcathd tj thblejcjfy icc `h gjph iebciehd tj ~aptibi~ath% Tlir ly~jtlhrir ir bjeoipghd#

ar bxctxpac aed lirtjpibac kejchdfh lar tlh liflhrt ^haprjer P bjhooibihetr agjef tlh ri|

difitac cithpaby djgaier%

I acrj h|~hbt tlat bphativh aed ~x`cibatije rkiccr icc `h liflcy bjpphcathd itl

~aptibi~atije# gjph rj tlae bjg~xthp# ieojpgatije# aed bjggxeibatije rkiccr% Tj thrt Ly~jtlhrir

0# I h|agieh tlh ^haprjer P bjhooibihetr ojp tlhrh ojxp djgaier% Tlh data rlj tlat ~hj~ch itl

tlh advaebhd ba~a`icity tj h|~phrr jehrhco# tj rlaph idhar itl gxctighdia# aed tj bphath bjethet

tlat bae `h ~hprxarivh aed hefafief icc `h gjph iebciehd tj ~aptibi~ath# hr~hbiaccy jecieh% I bae

bjeoipg tlir ly~jtlhrir%

Tlhrh tj ly~jtlhrhr rx~~jpt tlh apfxghet tlat tlh ri| djgaier jo difitac cithpaby aph

~phrhet ie liflhp chvhcr jo ~aptibi~atije abtivitihr% Tlir ir ~aptibxcapcy tpxh jo tlh rkiccr tlat aph

gjph bphativh ,~x`cibatije) aed ~pjvidh a fphathp bjeth|t jo tlh xrh jo thblejcjfy ie rjbihty

,rjbiac aed lirtjpibac kejchdfh)% Actljxfl rljief cjhp chvhcr jo phcatijerli~ tj ~aptibi~atije#

tlh djgaier itl cjhp rbjphr ,bjg~xthp# ieojpgatije# bjggxeibatije) ~pjvidh ehbhrrapy rkiccr

ojp liflhp'jpdhp ~x`cibatije aed bjethet'rlapief rkiccr% Additijeac rtxdihr tlat `htthp r~hbioy tlir

phcatijerli~ `hthhe difitac cithpaby djgaier bjxcd `h xrhoxc ojp tlh rjbiac rbihebhr ie

dhthpgieief tlh hoohbtr jo difitac cithpaby je vapijxr rjbiac iertitxtijer aed abtivitihr%


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8%0DIFITAC CITHPABY IR TLH RTPJEFHRT ^PHDIBTJP JO LIFLHPCH_HCR JO

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The Digitally Literate Citizen: How Digital Literacy Empowers Mass Participation in the United States