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Paula A. Wilhite, Ed.D.
Professor of Mathematics
Division Director Mathematics, Physics, & Engineering
Northeast Texas Community College
AMATYC 2012
Grand Salon 6
S057
The Decline Of Reading Comprehension Among College Students
Mary Galloway
High Honors
Associate of Science 2011
Major – Psychology
Texas A&M University-Commerce
Honors Seminar 2010 Statistics & Psychology
Mary’s Presentations
2010 American Psychology Association Conference Poster Session, San Diego Undergraduate Statistics Project Competition (USPROC) sponsored by CAUSE, Spring 2011 Georgia Undergraduate Research in Psychology Conference, April 2011 Stanford Undergraduate Psychology Conference, May 2011
Semester Research Project MATH 1342 – PSYC 2301
Data Collection & Report
1) Instrument 2) Participation 3) Organization
Statistical Analysis
1) Choice 2) Correctness 3) Completeness
Oral/Written Presentation of Findings
1) Clarity 2) Creativity 3) Presentation
Literature Review
1996- Chall reported - National decline in reading ability - University of Michigan 1930’s to 1980’s - Increase of remedial reading courses in colleges - Great efforts to reform reading instruction - Decline due to lack of difficulty in textbooks.
1980- Gerow and Murphy found - Significant relationship between NDRT and Introduction to Psychology Examination Grades
The Purpose of Research
Reading comprehension decrease
Students reading below college level increase
Final grade and reading comprehension relationship
Outline of Research
3,326 Participants All students
• enrolled at NTCC
• tested a span of 2 decades
• in same professor’s Introduction to Psychology courses
Outline of Research (continued)
Nelson-Denny Reading Test (Comprehension)
Grade Equivalency Calculated
Analysis spring 2010
Nelson-Denny Reading Test
Form H
20-minute test
Scored right/wrong
Score range 3.6-18.9
Is there evidence of a decline in reading comprehension?
Test for difference in the means of reading equivalency scores for
the first decade (1988-1997) and the second decade (1998-2007).
Mean 13.10 St Dev 3.182 N 1890
Reading Equivalency Scores 1988-1997 1998-2007
Mean 12.69 St Dev 3.379 N 1436
Hypothesis: 2-Sample F Test for Equal Variances
𝐇𝟎: σ12 = σ2
2
H₁: σ12 ≠ σ2
2
Level of Significance
α = 0.05
Variances
N
Results
There is sufficient evidence at the level p = 0.015268 < 𝛼 = 0.05
to conclude that the 1988-1997 variance is not equal to the 1998-2007 variance.
2-Sample F-Test for Equal Variances
1988-1997 1998-2007
10.12789764
11.41636487
1890 1436
F Stat 0.887138573
p
0.0152683444
Hypothesis: 2-Sample t-Test
𝐇𝟎: µ₁=µ₂
H₁: µ₁>µ₂
Level of Significance
𝛼 = 0.05
Mean
Variances
Results
There is sufficient evidence at the level p < 0.0002 < 𝛼 = 0.05 that there was a statistically significant decrease in the mean reading score for the second decade (1998-2007) from the mean reading score for the first decade ( 1988-1997).
t-Test Assuming Unequal Variances
1988-1997 1998-2007
13.10084656 (13.1)
12.68990251 (12.7)
10.12789764 11.41636487
t Stat 3.562159826
P(T<=t) one-tail
0.000186779
y = -0.051x + 114.56 R² = 0.4154
12
12.2
12.4
12.6
12.8
13
13.2
13.4
13.6
13.8
14
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006Ave
rag
e R
ea
din
g E
qu
iva
len
cy N
um
be
r
Years
Average Reading Equivalency Scores 1988-2007
Is there evidence of an increase in the percentage of students reading below college level?
Test for difference in the proportions of students with reading scores < 13.0 for
the first decade (1988-1997) and for the second decade (1998-2007).
42.7%
48.5%
40%
45%
50%
Year 1988-1997 Year 1998-2007
Pe
rce
nta
ge
of
Stu
de
nts
Percentage of Students’
Reading Equivalency Scores Below College Level (13.0)
Hypothesis: 2-Proportion z-Test
𝐇𝟎: 𝐩 𝟏 = 𝐩 𝟐
H₁: 𝐩 𝟏 < 𝐩 𝟐
Level of Significance
𝛼 = 0.05
𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬
𝐓𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥𝐬
Results
There is sufficient evidence at the level p < 0.0005 < 𝜶 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 that the 1988-1997 proportion is significantly lower than the 1998-2007 proportion.
2-Proportion z-Test
1988-1997 1998-2007
𝒓𝟏
𝒏𝟏 =
𝟖𝟎𝟕
𝟏𝟖𝟗𝟎
𝒓𝟐
𝒏𝟐 =
𝟔𝟗𝟔
𝟏𝟒𝟑𝟔
0.426984 0.484680
z Stat - 3.31
P(Z<=z) one-tail
0.000463868
Is there evidence of a relationship between reading comprehension and final grades?
Test for a relationship between college-level grade equivalency scores
and final grades in PSYC 2301.
Reading Comprehension Final Grades
y = -0.051x + 114.56 R² = 0.4154
12
12.2
12.4
12.6
12.8
13
13.2
13.4
13.6
13.8
14
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006Ave
rag
e R
ea
din
g E
qu
iva
len
cy N
um
be
r
Years
Average Reading Equivalency Numbers 1988-2007
y = 0.0937x + 0.6611 R² = 0.9053
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
0.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.0 18.0
Ave
rag
e A
chie
vem
en
t
Reading Equivalency Scores
Average Achievement PSYC 2301 Reading Equivalency Scores
Hypothesis
𝐇𝟎: Reading equivalency scores and
final grades are independent.
H₁: Reading equivalency scores and
final grades are not independent.
Level of Significance: 𝛼 = 0.05
Degrees of Freedom = (3 – 1) (2 – 1) = 2
Final Grade
A or B
C
D or F
Results: X2 = 123.0649845 p = 1.8914 E -27
Reading comprehension and final grade are not independent at the p < 0.0000 < 𝜶 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
level of significance.
Chi-Square Test for Independence Reading Comprehension and Final Grade
College-level or above Below College-Level
O = 848 E = 695.5463
O = 421 E = 573.4567
O = 417 E = 458.2165
O = 419 E = 377.7835
O = 558 E = 669.2372
O = 663 E = 551.7628
Conclusion
Evidence of a decrease of reading comprehension
Relationship found between reading comprehension and final grades
Impact of Research
Students not prepared for college
Educational goals may not be obtained
Educators need to seek ways to increase reading
Where We Go From Here
• Accuracy of the tests
• Assess students’ benefit
Examine standardized testing for
Validity and reliability of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test
• Assess technology impact
Explore possible reasons for the decline in reading equivalency numbers
Literature Review
2008- Grimm finds - Third grade reading comprehension is a positive significant predictor of change in mathematics skills. - Evidence that suggests that students with a greater level of reading comprehension progress more quickly in understanding and applying conceptual mathematics.
Literature Review
2008- Grimm adds - These findings do not rule out the reciprocal that early mathematics achievement may be associated with changes in reading comprehension. - Mathematics achievement involves the use of a diverse collection of skills, such as reasoning, executive functioning, working memory, short- term memory, processing speed, and phonological processing.
Literature Review 2009- Gallagher cites - Less than 14% of low-income students are reading at grade level. Clearly, the reading odds are stacked heavily against our students with the most severe needs.
- By kindergarten, a gap of 32 million words already separates some children in linguistically impoverished homes from their more stimulated peers. (Wolf, 2007)
- Are we going to have an entire generation…who cannot reflect on abstract ideas? (Healy, 1990)
Literature Review
2009- Gallagher warns - Starving the part of the brain that needs to be developed before deeper reading can occur also has additional consequences. - If we want our students to be complex thinkers, they need to be challenged to read long, complex texts.
Acknowledgements
Dr. Shirley Clay Division Director for Social and Behavioral Science Northeast Texas Community College Mary Galloway Principal Researcher Honors Seminar 2010 Faith Clough Statistics Project Rubric AMATYC 2008
References
Chall, Jeanne C.. American Reading Achievement: Should We Worry?. (Oct 1996). Volume: 30 Number 3. Pages 303-310. Research in the Teaching of English.
Gallagher, Kelly. 2009. Readicide: How Schools Are Killing Reading and What You Can Do About It. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.
Gerow , Josh R., Daniel P. Murphy. Validity of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test as a predictor of performance in Introductory Psychology . (July 1980). Volume: 40 Issue: 2. Educational and Psychological Measurement.
References (continued)
Grimm, Kevin J.. Longitudinal Association Between Reading and Mathematics Achievement. (2008). Volume 33 #3. Pages 410-426. Developmental Neuropsychology.
Healy, Jane M.. 1990. Endangered Minds: Why Children
Don’t Think-and What We Can Do About It. New York: Touchstone.
Wolf, Maryanne. 2007. Proust and the Squid: The Story
and Science of the Reading Brain. New York: HarperCollins.
