THE DECLINE OF ASIAN TURTLES - Pro Wildlife · The Decline of Asian Turtles Pro Wildlife 3 1. Summary Southeast-Asia holds the richest diversity of terrestrial turtles in the world,

THE DECLINE OF ASIAN TURTLESFood markets, habitat destruction and pet trade drive

Asia’s freshwater turtles and tortoises to extinction

The Decline of Asian Turtles

Pro Wildlife

2

Contents Page 1. Summary 1.1. in English, in German 3 1.2. in French, in Spanish 4

2. Turtles in Mythology and Tradition 2.1. Role of Turtles in Asian Mythology 5 2.2. The Medicinal and Culinary Use of Turtles 5

3. Turtles Traded as Food and Medicine 6 3.1. Local Demand 6

3.1.1. China 6 3.1.2. Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam 6 3.1.3. Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand 7 3.1.4. Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal and Sri Lanka 7 3.1.5. Indonesia and Papua New Guinea 7

3.2. International trade 10 3.2.1. China 10

3.2.2. Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam 10 3.2.3. Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand 10 3.2.4. Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal & and Pakistan 10 3.2.5. Indonesia, Papua New Guinea 11 3.2.6. USA 11

3.3. Transport and Treatment 11

3.4. Farming of Turtles 11

4. Extent and Increase of the Turtle Trade for Food and Medicine 12 4.1. Escalating Demand in Southeast Asia 12 4.2. Imports to Hong Kong 12

5. Other threats to Asian Turtle Populations 13 5.1. Habitat Destruction 13

5.1.1. Sand Mining and Damming 13 5.1.2. Agriculture and Deforestation 13 5.1.3. Chemical Pollution and Other Factors 13

5.2. National and International Pet Trade 14 5.2.1. Turtles as Pets in Asian Countries 14 5.2.2. Asian Countries as Suppliers for the International Pet Trade 14 5.2.3. Asian Turtles as Pets in Europe and USA 15

6. Indicators of the Decline of Asia´s Turtle Fauna 16 6.1. Asian Box Turtles - The Genus Cuora 16 6.2. The genus Kachuga in the Indian Subcontinent 17 6.3. Asian Softshell Turtles 17 6.4. Chelonian Populations in China 17

7. Legal Aspects 18 7.1. National Protection Measures 18 7.2. International Legislation 18 7.3. Trade in CITES-listed Species at Asian Food Markets 19

8. Recommendations: 20 8.1. Immediate Measures at CoP 11 20 8.2. Appendix II for all Chelonians 20 8.3. Candidates for an Appendix I Listing 20 8.4. Recommendations beyond CITES 21

9. References 22

Millions of wild-caught Chelonians are on sale at Southeast Asian food markets each year

Pro Wildlife Loefflerstr. 5a 80999 Munich Germany Tel.: +49-89-81299-507 Fax: +49-89-81299-706 [email protected]

Written by Sandra Altherr & Daniela Freyer Copyright: March 2000, Pro Wildlife Photos by: Cover: Qing Ping market, China, B. McCord p. 2: M.-W. Lau ; p. 5: B. McCord ; p. 6: P. Valentin ; p. 7: M. Hardtke ; p. 10: P. Valentin ; p. 11: R. Wirth ; p. 12: B. McCord (left), p. Valentin (right); p. 13: Discovery; p. 14/15: R. Wirth; p. 16: Pro Wildlife (left); R. Wirth (right); p. 17: R. Wirth; p. 18/19: B. McCord p. 20: E. Meier ; p. 21: B. McCord


Pro Wildlife

3

1. Summary Southeast-Asia holds the richest diversity of terrestrial turtles in the world, encompassing over 25 % of the world`s chelonian species. Virtually all of these can be found in trade, either as food or medicine or for the pet trade. Freshwater turtles and tortoises have been utilised by humans for centuries and are still favoured as food and medicine in many Asian countries. However, with growing human populations and increasing affluence in Asia de-mand in luxury food and traditional medicine has in-creased. Consumption of and trade in turtles have risen dramatically in the past decade and, it is feared to rise even further. At present a minimum of 12 to 20 million freshwater turtles and tortoises are consumed in Asia each year. The trade in turtles constitutes a large proportion of the trans-border wildlife trade between certain Asian countries. This trade seems virtually unregulated. The great majority of animals on sale are wild caught and already the huge and ever-growing demand can no longer be met by native species: East Asian food markets are increasingly supplied with turtles from an ever-widening range of more and more distant countries. For example 98 % of specimens ob-served on sale during a visit to a Chinese market were non native. Some species are even imported from Papua New Guinea or the USA. The wild populations of many species that are on sale in food markets have severely declined, some even col-lapsed. Most of the trade is not recorded, even in CITES*-listed species. A significant proportion of the trade in turtles contravenes national or international legislation. While both national and international trade for food and medicine constitute a major threat to Asian turtles, habitat destruction, pollution and the pet trade further imperil wild populations. For some rare species that are in demand from Western turtle enthusiasts the pet trade has a particu-larly serious impact. Immediate action and international co–operation are nec-essary to avoid the impending extinction of turtle species: The exploitation of turtle populations must be reduced to a sustainable level and trade must be regulated. In a first step especially endangered species should be protected through international legislation. In view of the huge vol-ume of trade and the fact that it is largely unselective, all trade in turtles should be monitored and in the medium-term all turtle species should be included in CITES Appen-dix II. Enforcement of existing national and international legislation and in some countries improved legislation to protect turtles is urgently needed. In this report Pro Wildlife documents the increase in the exploitation of Asian turtles as food, medicine and pets as well as the decline of turtle fauna in different Asian coun-tries. In a 10 Point Plan immediate and long-term meas-ures to prevent Asian Chelonians from extinction are rec-ommended.

1. Zusammenfassung Südostasien ist Heimat einer einzigartigen Artenvielfalt von Schildkröten: Mehr als 25 Prozent aller Land- und Sumpf-schildkrötenarten leben hier. Fast alle sind im Handel vertreten. Sie werden seit Hunderten von Jahren gegessen und als Heilmittel verwendet sowie heutzutage auch als Haustier gehalten. Bevölkerungswachstum und zuneh-mender Wohlstand in Asien ließen die Nachfrage nach kulinarischen Spezialitäten und Präparaten der traditionel-len Medizin zunehmen. So stieg der Verzehr von und der Handel mit Schildkröten während des letzten Jahrzehnts explosionsartig an. Es ist zu befürchten, dass sich diese Entwicklung sogar noch fortsetzt. In Asien werden inzwischen jährlich mindestens 12 bis 20 Millionen Schildkröten verschlungen. Die Panzertiere ma-chen vielerorts einen Großteil des grenzüberschreitenden Wildtiergeschäftes aus. Dieser Handel verläuft nahezu unkontrolliert. Fast alle Tiere stammen aus der freien Wild-bahn. Bereits jetzt kann die riesige und immer noch wach-sende Nachfrage nicht mehr mit heimischen Arten abgedeckt werden. So waren z.B. 98 Prozent der Schild-kröten, die auf einem chinesischen Markt gesehen wurden, Importe aus anderen Ländern. Einige Arten stammten sogar aus so weit entfernten Ländern wie Papua Neugui-nea oder den USA. Die Wildbestände vieler gehandelter Arten sind drastisch zurückgegangen, manche sind bereits völlig zusammen-gebrochen. Der größte Teil des Handels, sogar mit CI-TES*-geschützten Tieren, wird nicht erfasst. Ein erhebli-cher Anteil des Schildkrötenhandels verstößt gegen natio-nale und internationale Gesetze. Während nationaler und internationaler Handel für den Verzehr und als Heilmittel die größte Bedrohung für die asiatischen Schildkröten darstellen, schaden Lebensraum-zerstörung und Heimtierhandel den Wildbeständen zu-sätzlich. Insbesondere seltene Arten sind von der starken Nachfrage westlicher Schildkrötenliebhaber betroffen. Umgehende Schutzmaßnahmen in internationaler Zu-sammenarbeit sind dringend erforderlich, um die bevorste-hende Ausrottung vieler Schildkrötenarten zu verhindern. Die völlig unkontrollierte Plünderung der Bestände muss ein Ende haben. In einem ersten Schritt sind besonders bedrohte Arten international zu schützen. Mit Blick auf das Ausmaß des nahezu unselektiven Handels ist der gesamte Handel zu überwachen. Mittelfristig muss er durch Auf-nahme aller Schildkrötenarten in Anhang II von CITES reguliert werden. Der Vollzug bereits bestehender nationa-ler und internationaler Gesetze ist unabdingbar, in einigen Ländern sind verbesserte Schutzvorschriften dringend erforderlich. Im vorliegenden Bericht dokumentiert Pro Wildlife die zunehmende Ausbeutung asiatischer Schildkröten für den Nahrungs-, Arznei- und Heimtiermarkt und die Folgen für die Wildbestände. In einem Zehn-Punkte-Plan werden sofortige und langfristige Maßnahmen empfohlen, um asiatische Schildkröten vor der Ausrottung zu bewahren.

* CITES = Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild Fauna and Flora


Pro Wildlife

4

1. Resumen En el sureste de Asia hay una gran variedad de tortugas: más del 25 por ciento de todas las tortugas de tierra y de pantano viven aqui. Cási todas están representadas en el comercio. Desde hace cientos de años estas tortugas se comen y se usan como medicina, también se tienen como animales de compañia. El crecimiento de la población y la prosperidad en Asia ha aumentado la demanda de especialidades culinarias y preparados de la medicina tradicional. Por esta razón el consumo y el comercio de tortugas aumentó en los últimos decenios de forma vertiginosa. Hay que temer el incremento de este desarollo. En Asia, entretanto se comen al menos de 12 hasta 30 milliones de tortugas al año. Estos animales de caparazón representan en muchos lugares la gran parte del tráfico clandestino de animales salvajes. Este comercio es incontrolable. Cási todos los animales provienen de lugares de entorno natural. Hoy en día la enorme y aún creciente demanda de tortugas no se puede silenciar. Así, por ejemplo, se observa que el 98 por ciento de tortugas que se han visto en un mercado asiático han sido importatadas de otros países. Unas especies provienen de países muy lejanos tal como los Estados Unidos o Papua, Nueva Guinea. Las existencias de muchas especies salvajes, con las cuales se comercia, se han reducido drásticamente, unas ya no existen. La majoría del comercio - incluso de animales protegidos por CITES – no está registrado. Gran parte del comercio de tortugas infringe los leyes nacionales e internacionales. Mientras el negocio nacional e international para el consumo y las medicinas representen amenaza para las tortugas asiáticas; la destrucción del espacio vital y el negocio con animales domésticos perjudican adicionalmente las existencias salvajes, especialmente las especies raras que están efectuadas por la enorme demanda de los amantes de las tortugas. Es absolutamente necesario tomar inmediatas medidas de protección, con la colaboración international para evitar la extinción segura de especies de tortugas. Hay que terminar el saqueo incontrolado de las existencias. En primer lugar, hay que proteger internationalmente las especies más amenazadas. Teniendo en cuenta el comercio inselectivo con tortugas, también hay que controlar el comercio total. A medio plazo hay que proteger todas las especies de tortugas mediante la asimilación en el anexo II de CITES. El cumplimiento con las existentes reglas nacionales e internacionales son absolutamente necesarios y también hay que mejorar estas reglas de protección en algunos paises. El presente reportaje de Pro Wildlife documenta la crecienda explotación de tortugas asiáticas para el mercado del consumo, medicina e animales de compañia y las consequencias para una supervivencia. Se recomiendan medidas inmediatas y a plazo largo en un plano de 10 puntos para proteger la existencia de las tortugas asiáticas.

1. Résumé 1. L'Asie du Sud-Est présente une diversité unique de tortues: plus de 25 % de toutes les tortues terrestres et des tortues des marais vivent ici. De ces espèces, presque toutes font l'objet d'un juteux commerce; mangées et utilisées comme remède depuis des centaines d'années, elles sont également devenues aujourd'hui animal domestique. Avec la croissance démographique et l'amélioration du niveau de vie en Asie, la demande de spécialités culinaires et de préparations de mé-decine traditionnelle croît hélas elle aussi. La consommation et le commerce de tortues ont connu une montée spectacu-laire au siècle dernier, et rien n'indique un renversement de tendance.

Bon an mal an, ce sont entre douze à vingt millions de tortues qui disparaissent ainsi chaque année. En maints endroits, les tortues représentent la majeure partie du commerce interna-tional d'animaux sauvage, un commerce qui profite d'une quasi-absence de contrôles et qui concerne presque exclusi-vement des animaux sauvages, capturés dans leur environ-nement naturel. Il est actuellement impossible de satisfaire la demande d'espèces animales locales, d'ores et déjà colos-sale, et appelée à s'accroître encore. Un pointage a révélé que 98 % des tortues vues sur les étals d'un marché chinois avaient été importées d'autres pays. Quelques-unes, c'est dire, provenaient des Etats-Unis et de Papouasie Nouvelle-Guinée.

Parmi les espèces ainsi commercialisées, beaucoup voient leurs effectifs s'effondrer, voire s'approchent de l'extinction pure et simple. La majeure partie du commerce, même celui concernant les animaux protégés par la CITES*, ne fait l'objet d'aucun enregistrement. Or, comme on sait, une part considé-rable du commerce de tortues contrevient aux lois tant natio-nales qu'internationales.

Si le commerce national et international de tortues destinées à la consommation humaine et à la fabrication de remèdes représente la menace la plus grave pour les tortues asiati-ques, la destruction de leur espace vital et leur capture en vue d'en faire des animaux de compagnie constituent eux aussi des dangers extrêmement sérieux. Et les plus menacées sont les espèces rares, qui jouissent d'une grande popularité parmi les "amateurs" occidentaux.

Seules des mesures de protection énergiques et immédiates, entreprises à l'échelon international, pourront éviter l'extinction de certaines espèces. Il est indispensable de faire cesser ce honteux pillage. Dans un premier temps, l'interdiction absolue de tout commerce s'impose pour les espèces particulièrement menacées; mais au vu du volume et de la nature non-sélective de ce commerce, c'est pour la branche d'activité tout entière qu'il faut établir au plus vite des instruments de contrôle efficaces. Parmi ces moyens, citons l'enregistrement à moyen terme de la totalité des espèces dans l'annexe II de la CITES, la mise en place de mécanismes d'application des lois nationales et internationales déjà en vigueur, et l'élabora-tion de règlements de protection dans ceux des pays qui n'en sont pas encore dotés.

Dans le présent rapport, Pro Wildlife documente l'aggravation de l'exploitation des tortues asiatiques destinées à la consommation humaine, à la production de remèdes et à la commercialisation en tant qu'animal de compagnie, en analy-sant les conséquences de ces pratiques pour les diverses espèces. Dans le cadre d'une programme en dix volets, l'or-ganisation recommande la prise de mesure tant immédiates qu'à plus long terme, destinées à garantir la survie des tortues asiatiques.

* CITES = Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild Fauna and Flora


Pro Wildlife

5

2. Turtles in Mythology and Tradition

2.1. Role of Turtles in Asian Mythology

According to Chinese mythology, the turtle together with the tiger, the dragon and the Feng bird, is one of four di-vine animals that were present at the creation of the world1. Each animal is associated with a season and a compass point. The turtle represents winter and the North. This is why turtles are regarded as “hot food”, to be eaten in winter to strengthen the body2. However, this central role in mythology did not protect turtles from exploitation. In Buddhism turtles are very popular as temple and re-lease animals3. At temples, turtles such as the Giant Asian Pond Turtle (Heosemys grandis) and the Yellow-headed Pond Turtle (Hieremys annandalei), are treated as sacred. To release a turtle into a temple pond is believed to count as a good deed, which is helpful for one’s fate after rebirth. Unfortunately, many release activities do not consider whether the place of release provides a suitable habitat for the particular species, and thus often result in the animals’ death1 3. 2.2. The Medicinal and Culinary Use of Turtles

Turtles are valued as food and medicines throughout Asia. Almost all Asian turtle species are affected. However, softshell turtles are the most sought after species for food because of the palatability and desirability of their meat 2 4. The collection of turtle eggs, too has a long tradition in many Asian cultures. Details about the extent of this trade and its alarming increase are documented in Sections 3 and 4 of this report.

Sacks filled with turtle plastrons for medicinal purposes

In China the use of turtle shells in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is a 4,000 year old tradition. Today, turtle shell is still one of the most common ingredients in tradi-tional Chinese potions and can be found in at least 117 preparations1 5 (see TABLE 1). The plastron is said to be “nourishing yin and suppressing hyperactive liver-yang, reinforcing the kidney to strengthen the bones, nourishing the blood, reinforcing the heart, and normalising menstrua-tion to cure menorrhagia” 6. Traditional prescriptions generally mention certain native species, like the Chinese Three-keeled Pond Turtle (Chi-nemys reevesii) and the Chinese Softshell Turtle. How-ever, systematic groupings vary greatly from those in western zoology. According to Chang5 “there are five or six general types based on considerations of local and me-dicinal effects. Makers and dealers of Chinese medicine may even market the shells of all assortments of species as just plain `turtle shell`”. Some species, such as the Three-striped Box Turtle (Cuora trifasciata) and the Gold-headed Box Turtle (Cuora aurocapitata) are especially sought for their assumed medicinal properties. These species are highly prized with the former now achieving prices of up to several thousand dollars per specimen7. Some parts of Cuora trifasciata are said to heal cancer8. This species is also prescribed to treat male erectile dysfunction. This attribute is based on the similarity of the turtle’s head to a phallus. Although turtles have been used in medical preparations for several centuries, some TCM practitioners argue that turtle ingredients are not essential for traditional prescrip-tions. The president of the Association of Chinese Medi-cine and Philosophy, Lo Yan-Wo, commented on the use of turtle shell and jelly in medicines as follows: „The herbs used in the jelly are the most important ingredients, not turtles. Herbs are very cheap, but by adding turtle, they can charge much more.” 9. TABLE 1: The use of turtles and tortoises in Tradi-tional Chinese Medicine preparations10

Name of Preparation

date of origin Application Chelonians

Used

Qinghao biejiatang

18th century

periodically recurring fever, chronic low fever

carapace of Amyda carti-laginea

Sanjia fumo-tang

18th century

fever, blood stasis, spasms

carapace of Amyda car-tilaginea & Testudo

Qinggusan 17th century

periodic fever, emaciation, red tongue

carapace of Amyda carti-laginea

Zuoguiwan 17th century

emaciation, infertility, night sweat, confu-sion, poor eye sight, dry mouth

Testudo

Dabuyinwan 14th century

irritability, cough, nocturnal emission, buzzing in the ears

carapace of Testudo, heated in vinegar

Sangpiao-xiaosan

12th century

uncontrolled ejacula-tion and urinary excre-tion, cloudy urine, forgetfulness, pale tongue

carapace of Testudo

Gujingwan 13th century

normalising menstrua-tion

carapace of Testudo

„We are on the brink of losing a group of animals that has managed to survive the upheavals of the last 200 million years, including the great extinction episode that eliminated the dinosaurs.”

Russell Mittermeier, Conservation International


Pro Wildlife

6

3. Turtles Traded as Food and Medicines

Trade constitutes the major threat to the conservation of Asian turtles. Almost all species of Asian freshwater turtles and tortoises are affected by trade for food and medicine. Increasingly even non-Asian species supply an ever grow-ing demand. Almost all specimens are wild-caught. TABLE 2 (page 8-9) gives an overview of 63 Asian and five Ameri-can species recorded for sale in Chinese food markets, as well as current population trends. In view of the sharp decline of a rapidly increasing number of turtle species there can be no doubt that affected populations can no longer withstand this unsustainable level of collection from the wild. To prevent their impending extinction immediate action is required. Data Availability: For a variety of reasons few detailed quantitative data on the demand for turtles in Asia are available:

1. The majority of the trade transactions are not recorded, and if they are there often is no discrimi-nation be-tween different species.

2. Often species are identified incorrectly, while others are completely unknown.

3. Turtle parts and products in trade are often unre-cognisable.

4. Shipments are often falsely labelled as “seafood”. 5. A significant proportion of trade is illegal.

Turtles on offer at Qing Ping market (China)

Generally turtles destined for consumption are sold alive or butchered at food markets. In addition, turtle parts, such as plastrons, carapaces, bile, blood etc., and manufactured products are sold for their use in traditional medicine. The shell, which is made into a jelly by prolonged boiling in water, is especially valued. 3.1. Local Demand

3.1.1. China

While humans have consumed turtles for several hundred years, recent changes in China’s economy have resulted in an increased demand for wildlife including turtles2 11. The demand for live wild animals is highest in southern China. Based on observations at several Chinese food markets, the annual consumption of turtles for China alone, is estimated between 12 to 20 million individuals8 12 13. According to Chinese traders the daily turnover of the Qing Ping market in Guangzhou alone is 30-60,000 kg14. In 1996 more than 37% of restaurants near the border between Guangxi and Vietnam offered dishes containing the Chinese Softshell Turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis). Nearly 26% sold tortoise-meat including Black-breasted Leaf Turtle (Geoemyda spengleri), Chinese Stripe-necked Tur-tle (Ocadia sinensis), and Chinese Three-keeled Turtle, Chineyms reevesi 15. During a survey in the provinces Guangxi and Guangdong in 1997, 27 turtle species were found in markets and restaurants. With the exception of the native Pelodiscus sinensis, non-native species were most abundant16. The situation in the province Fujian is similar, with more than 50% of the investigated restaurants selling wildlife dishes17. However, despite wildlife dishes in restaurants being very common the sale of wildlife for food in restaurants is prohibited in both Guangxi and Fujian. Furthermore, traditional medicines containing turtles are very popular in China. The consumption of turtle shells in Taiwan alone for example is estimated to be 100,000- 200,000 kg per annum5. 3.1.2. Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam

All over Cambodia tortoises like the Elongated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata) are collected and shipped to Phnom Penh. They are used for the manufacture of orna-ments or as ingredients for traditional medicines. The animals’ heads, as well as their shell are frequently sold as a tonic after childbirth and were on offer at 27% of shops investigated18. Amongst the wildlife on sale in Neak Lung, tortoises have by far the largest turnover by weight, with 9.5 tonnes sold in West Neak Lung in 1993, while 3.6 tonnes were sold in East Neak Lung in 1994. Most of these animals are destined for Vietnam but there is also some local demand. In Lao PDR softhell turtles such as the Asiatic Softshell Turtle (Amyda cartilaginea) are sought after for their meat and are offered at markets and in restaurants19. Tortoises, such as Indotestudo elongata are also on sale. At least 21 of Vietnam’s 23 native turtle species were recorded in trade between 1993 and 199620 21. Cau Mong market (Ho-Chi-Minh-City) in the South and Hanoi in the North are the country’s two wildlife trade centres22. During the last few years prices have risen significantly21 with softshell turtles on average achieving the highest prices23. Despite its CITES Appendix II listing in 1975, the Elon-gated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata) is perhaps the most

„Today, there is no more serious turtle crisis than that which is taking place in Southeast Asia and southern

China. Southeast Asia is being vacuumed of its turtles for China’s food markets.”

John Behler, IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group


Pro Wildlife

7

common turtle species in trade, followed by the Giant Asian Pond Turtle (Heosemys grandis) and the Keeled Box Turtle (Pyxidea mouhotii)24. The most frequently of-fered softshelled species is Amyda cartilaginea. The South Asian Box Turtle (Cuora amboinensis), the Indochinese Box Turtle (Cuora galbinifrons), Yellow-headed Temple Turtle (Hieremys annandalei), Impressed Tortoise (Manou-ria impressa), and the Malayan Snail-eating Turtle (Ma-layemys subtrijuga), are also abundant in trade22 25.

South Asian Box Turtle (Cuora amboinensis)

on sale in Cambodia 3.1.3. Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand

Softshell turtles are the most commonly eaten Chelonians in Peninsular Malaysia, with Amyda cartilaginea and Dogania subplana being most in demand2. Reportedly the eggs of softshell turtles are eaten whenever they are found. Trade in tortoises and emydid turtles is very low2. In the Philippines according to the country’s CITES Au-thority turtles are not used for medicines. However, in the lowlands they are now used for food26. In Thailand all native species of softshells are intensively exploited for commercial trade, and collection for the food and animal trade is still a major factor in the decline of many populations27. However, all turtle species (except for Amyda cartilaginea), are legally protected and overall the sale of turtles other than softshells is at a much lower level in Thailand than elsewhere in Indochina. Amyda cartilagi-nea is the species offered most at markets, although the Malayan Softshell Turtle (Dogania subplana) and the Nar-row-headed Softshell Turtle (Chitra indica) are sought after as well3. The consumption of small emydids seems to be at a low level while the collection of tortoises has been intense and caused a collapse of at least Indotestudo elongata2. Some species, e.g. Malayemeys subtrijuga, are offered as release animals for religious purposes27.

3.1.4. Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal and Sri Lanka

In Bangladesh the Spotted Pond Turtle (Geoclemys ham-iltonii), the Indian Eyed Turtle (Morenia petersi), the Nar-row-headed Softshell Turtle (Chitra indica) and the Indian Flapshell Turtle (Lissemys punctata) are heavily exploited for local food markets28. Despite its CITES Appendix I status Indian Roofed Turtles (Kachuga tecta) are captured in large numbers for local food markets as documented in section 7.3.. In India 50 million tribal people rely on turtles as a source of food. Here the commercial trade in turtles is largely concentrated in West Bengal, to which thousands of specimens are imported from neighbouring countries29. This enormous demand for turtle meat for food, but also shells and blood for medicinal purposes has resulted in a decline of most, if not all species in West Bengal. At the same time prices have risen tenfold29. The number of species on sale decreased from 10 in 198330 to seven in 199331, which might reflect a drop in availability. Turtles collected from all over the country are transported to Cal-cutta, India´s main turtle market. The most popular spe-cies, Lissemys punctata, is wanted for its soft meat and its chewy, cartilaginous shell29. Other softshell turtles, but also hard-shelled species like the Crowned River Turtle (Hardella thurjii) and the Roofed Turtles (Kachuga spp.) are also for sale31.

In Myanmar animal products are rarely used in traditional medicines32. Although trade in Chelonians is illegal, turtles are still viewed as an essential part of the diet and are either consumed locally or sold over the border to Thailand and China, where native populations are more depleted4. In Nepal eggs and meat of turtles, e.g. the Indian Softshell Turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus), several Roofed Turtles (Kachuga spp.) and the Indian Black Turtle (Melanochelys trijuga), are collected by several indigenous tribes for local markets33. There is a local demand for food and medicinal purposes, and large freshwater and softshell turtles are the most sought after species. Smaller species of hardshelled turtles are often used to make tourist souvenirs. Softshell turtles in Sri Lanka, e.g. the Indian Flapshell Turtle (Lissemys punctata), are sought after both for their meat and for use in traditional medicine. While the Indian Star Tortoise (Geochelone elegans) was formerly said to be unpalatable or even toxic, this opinion is no longer held and specimens are now consumed as food34. 3.1.5. Indonesia & Papua New Guinea

The comparatively low local demand for turtles in Indone-sia concentrates on softshell turtles. However, during a survey of local dealers in Sumatra, Cuora amboinensis was reported to be the most common turtle species on offer35. In Papua New Guinea the Asian Giant Softshell Turtle (Pelochelys bibroni), is reportedly an important part of the local people’s subsistence diet. Its large bony carapace is turned into decorated ceremonial masks. According to reports by local people this species has become rare dur-ing recent years36.


Pro Wildlife

8

TABLE 2: Freshwater turtles and tortoises identified at Asian food markets Species underlined = highly abundant on sale; * = local commercial exploitation in the range states Classifications based on: IUCN: Red List (1996)37, China: Red Data Book (1998)38 and Vietnam: Red Data Book(1992)39

Species Origin Status/Trends Ref. EMYDIDAE Annamemys annamensis Annam Leaf Turtle

Vietnam very rarely recorded 2, 12, 20, 24, 40,

Batagur baska* River Terrapin

Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia? Lao PDR? Singapore?, Vietnam?

CITES Appendix I IUCN: “endangered”; One of the ten most threatened turtles in Asia

2, 12, 43, 46, 47

Callagur borneoensis Painted Terrapin

Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Brunei? Myanmar?

CITES Appendix II IUCN: “critically endangered”

2, 12

Chelydra serpentina Common Snapping Turtle

Columbia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, USA

Has the largest distribution of any turtle in North America, no data on population size

12, 11, 48

Chinemys megalocephala Chinese Broad-headed Pond T.

China China: “endangered, rare”

12, 45

Chinemys nigri-cans Red-necked Pond Turtle

China, Vietnam? IUCN: “data deficient”; China: “endangered, rare”

12

Chinemys reevesii Chinese Three-keeled Pond Turtle

China, Japan, North Korea, South Korea

China: “sharply declining numbers”; One of the most abundant species on sale in Hong Kong

11, 12, 45

Cuora amboi-nensis South Asian Box Turtle

Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, China?

IUCN: “near threatened”; One of the most abundant species on sale in Hong Kong, declining populations

11, 20, 22, 27, 40, 43

Cuora aurocapitata Golden-headed Box Turtle

China IUCN: “data deficient”; China: “critically endangered, rare”, One of the most expensive species on sale, rapidly declining

7, 38

Cuora flava-marginata Chinese Box Turtle

China, Japan (Ryu Kyu Islands)

IUCN: “vulnerable”; China: “endangered”, populations declining

12, 38

Cuora galbini-frons Indochinese Box Turtle

Cambodia, China, Vietnam, Lao PDR?

IUCN: “near threatened”; China: “endangered”, populations declining

2, 12, 20, 22, 24,

Cuora mccordi McCord´s Box Turtle

China IUCN: “data deficient”; China: “data deficient”, rapidly declining population

7, 38, 44

Cuora trifasciata Three-striped Box Turtle

China, Lao PDR; Vietnam, Cambodia?

IUCN: “endangered”; China: critically endangered, very rare” Vietnam: “vulnerable”, The most expensive turtle species on sale

2, 7, 20, 38, 45

Cuora zhoui Zhou´s Box Turtle

China IUCN: “data deficient”; China: “data deficient, sharply declining numbers”

7, 38, 44

Cyclemys dentata Asian Leaf Turtle

Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PFR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philip-pines, Thailand, Bhutan?, Cambodia? Nepal? Singapore?

China: “endangered” Bangladesh: rare

2, 12, 40, 43, 45

Species Origin Status/Trends Ref. Cyclemys tcheponensis Stripe-necked Leaf Turtle

Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia? Lao PDR?

No data 2, 12, 20, 24

Geoclemys hamiltonii Spotted Pond Turtle

Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan

CITES Appendix I IUCN: “near threatened”; Nepal: in decline, Bangladesh: common

11, 12, 24, 33, 43

Geoemyda depressa Arakan Forest Turtle

Myanmar IUCN: “critically endangered”; extremely rare

2, 12, 44

Geoemyda spengleri Black-breasted Leaf Turtle

China, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Vietnam, Lao PDR?

China: “endangered” 2, 20, 44, 45

Geoemyda yuwonoi

Indonesia (Sulawesi)

IUCN: “data deficient” 12, 44, 48

Hardella thurjii* Crowned River Turtle

Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Pakistan

IUCN: “near threatened”; Nepal: “rare”, Bangladesh: fairly common

43, 45

Heosemys grandis Giant Asian Pond Turtle

Cambodia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Lao PDR?

IUCN: “near threatened” 2, 11, 12, 20, 24

Heosemys spinosa Spiny Turtle

Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Myanmar?

IUCN: “vulnerable” 2, 44

Hieremys annandalei Yellow-headed Temple Turtle

Lao PDR; Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia? Myanmar?

IUCN: “vulnerable” 2, 12, 20, 22

Kachuga dhon-goka* Three-striped Roofed Turtle

Bangladesh, India, Nepal

IUCN: “near threatened”; India: “vulnerable”, Nepal and Bangladesh: rare

12, 33, 41, 43

Kachuga kachuga* Red-crowned Roofed Turtle

Bangladesh, India, Pakistan

IUCN: “endangered”; India: population decline > 80% in 20 years, Nepal: rare; One of Asia´s ten most threatened turtles

12, 33, 41, 46

Kachuga smithii Brown Roofed Turtle

Bangladesh, India, Pakistan

Nepal: decreasing populations; Bangladesh: rare India: lower risk

12, 33, 42, 43

Kachuga tecta Indian Roofed Turtle


CITES Appendix I India: lower risk – near threatened Nepal: rare Bangladesh: common

11, 12, 33, 40, 43

Kachuga tentoria* Indian Tent Turtle

Bangladesh, India, Nepal

India: population decline > 20% in 10 years, Nepal: rare

12,

Malayemys subtrijuga Malayan Snail-eating Turtle

Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Lao PDR?

One of the most abundant species on sale in Hong Kong

2, 11, 12, 20, 24, 40

Mauremys iversoni Fujian Pond Turtle

China IUCN: “data deficient”; China: “data deficient”, In total 29 specimens known

12

Mauremys mutica Yellow Pond Turtle

China, Japan, Vietnam, Lao PDR?

China: “endangered” In 1996 the most common turtle found at markets in Hong Kong

2, 11, 12, 20, 44, 45

Mauremys pritchardi

China (Yunnan), Myanmar

no data 12

Melanochelys edeniana

Myanmar Widely distributed in Myanmar

12, 47

Melanochelys subtrijuga, Indian Black Turtle

Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand

IUCN: “data deficient”; Bangladesh: rare

12, 40, 43


Pro Wildlife

9

Species Origin Status/Trends Ref. Morenia ocellata Burmese Eyed Turtle

Myanmar CITES Appendix I IUCN: “near threatened”; Bangladesh: rare

2, 11, 12, 40, 43

Morenia petersi Indian Eyed Turtle

Bangladesh, India, Myanmar

IUCN: “near threatened”; Bangladesh: common

11, 12, 40, 43

Notochelys platynota Malayan Flat-shelled Turtle

Brunei, Indonesia, Lao, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singa-pore, Thailand, Cambodia?

IUCN: “data deficient” 2, 12, 20

Ocadia glyphistoma

China IUCN: “data deficient”; China: “Data deficient, in total only 10 specimens are known”

12, 44

Ocadia philippeni Philippen’s Striped Turtle

China (Hainan) IUCN: “data deficient”; China: “data deficient, in total only nine specimens are known”

12, 44

Ocadia sinensis Chinese Stripe-necked Turtle

China, Lao PDR , Taiwan, Vietnam

IUCN: “near threatened” China: “Endangered”, on sale in Hong Kong

2, 20, 44

Orlitia borneensis Malayan Giant Turtle

Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei?

IUCN: “near threatened” 2, 44

Pyxidea mouhotii Keeled Box Turtle

Cambodia, China, India, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam

China: “endangered”, on sale in Hong Kong

2, 12, 20, 24, 44

Sacalia bealei Four-eyed Turtle

China (incl. Hong Kong and Hainan), Vietnam, Lao PDR?

IUCN: “vulnerable” ; China: “endangered”

12

Sacalia pseudo-cellata Chinese Eyed Turtle

China (Hainan) IUCN: “data deficient”; China: “data deficient, in total three specimens are known”

12, 44

Sacalia qua-driocellata Four-eyed Turtle

China, Vietnam, Lao PDR?

IUCN: “vulnerable”; China: “endangered”

2, 12, 20

Siebenrockiella crassicollis Black Marsh Turtle

Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, Brunei?

2, 12, 20

Terrapene coahuila Coahuilan Box Turtle

Mexico CITES Appendix II IUCN: “endangered”

45

Trachemys scripta elegans Red Eared Slider

Mexico, USA 12, 24

TESTUDINIDAE Geochelone platynota Burmese Star Tortoise

Myanmar CITES Appendix II IUCN: “critically endangered”; One of Asia´s ten most threatened turtles

2, 12, 44, 46

Indotestudo elongata Elongated Tortoise

Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam

CITES Appendix II IUCN : “vulnerable” ; Vietnam: “vulnerable” China: “endangered” Nepal: rare Bangladesh: rare

2, 11, 12, 20, 22, 24, 33, 40, 43, 44, 45, 46

Indotestudo forstenii* Travancore Tortoise

India, Indonesia CITES Appendix II IUCN : “vulnerable”

2, 44

Manouria emys Asian Brown Tortoise

Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand

CITES Appendix II IUCN : “vulnerable” ; one of Asia´s ten most threatened turtles

12, 46, 47

Species Origin Status/Trends Ref. Manouria impressa* Impressed Tortoise

China, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia? Lao PDR?

CITES Appendix II IUCN: “vulnerable”; Vietnam: “vulnerable”; China: “endangered”; One of Asia´s ten most threatened turtles

11, 12, 20, 22, 40, 45, 46, 47

Testudo horsfieldii Central Asian Tortoise

Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, China, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan

CITES Appendix II IUCN: “vulnerable”; China: “critically endangered”

45

TRIONYCHIDAE Amyda cartilaginea* Asiatic Softshell Turtle

Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, Brunei?

IUCN: “vulnerable”; most common softshell turtle in trade, declining populations

2, 11, 20, 24, 40, 47

Apalone ferox Florida Softshell Turtle

USA overall populations appear stable; some local populations may be in decline.

12

Apalone spinifera Spiny Softshell Turtle

USA overall populations appear stable; some local populations may be in decline.

11, 12

Aspideretes gangeticus* Indian Softshell Turtle


CITES Appendix I Nepal: common

12, 33, 40

Aspideretes hurum, *Peacock Softshell Turtle


CITES Appendix I Nepal: common, but declining

11, 12, 33, 40

Chitra indica* Narrow-headed Softshell Turtle

Bangladesh, India, Lao PDR, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, Bhutan? Malaysia? Myanmar?

IUCN: “vulnerable”; Populations declining; Nepal: common, but declining

12, 28, 33, 47

Dogania sub-plana*, Malayan Softshell Turtle

Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Brunei?

Thailand: declining populations in

12, 27

Lissemys punc-tata* Indian Flapshell Turtle

Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan?

CITES Appendix II Nepal: common Bangladesh: common

11, 12, 33, 43

Nilssonia for-mosa, Burmese Peacock Soft-shell Turtle

Myanmar, Thailand? China?

IUCN: vulnerable” 12

Palea steindachneri Wattle-necked Softshell Turtle

Vietnam, China, introduced in Hawaii and Mauritius

IUCN: “near threatened”; China: “endangered, very rare”

2, 12, 20, 38, 45

Pelochelys cantorii* Asian Giant Softshell Turtle

Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philip-pines, Thailand, Vietnam, Brunei?, Cambodia? Lao PDR? Singapore?

IUCN: “vulnerable”; Vietnam: “vulnerable”, declining populations

2, 12, 20, 27, 45, 47

Pelodiscus sinensis Chinese Softshell Turtle

China, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Japan, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Vietnam, introduced to Thailand

China: “vulnerable”, declining populations; One of the most abundant species on sale in Hong Kong

2, 11, 12, 20, 45

PLATYSTERNIDAE Platysternon megacephalum Big-headed Turtle

Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam

IUCN: “data deficient”; Vietnam: “rare”; China: “endangered, very rare”

2, 12, 20, 44


Pro Wildlife

10

3.2. International Trade

An increasing number of Chelonians are threatened by international trade. With declining native turtle popula-tions in the main consuming countries in East Asia demand is increasingly met by South and Southeast Asian popula-tions. Even species from North America are now supplying the food trade, and other continents like Africa and South America may soon also become involved. Some species are traded in spite of national and international trade bans. 3.2.1. China

As a substitute for dwindling native species, freshwater turtles and tortoises are increasingly collected from coun-tries further and further away and are imported in huge numbers. Species originate from Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan Papua New Guinea, Thailand, Vietnam and the U.S.A. From 68 turtle species recorded at Chinese food markets in Guangzhou and Sunzhen at least 42 dif-ferent species were not native (TABLE 2). As much as 98% of specimens on offer are said to be imported12. During a survey of markets and restaurants in Guangxi and Guangdong in 1997, of 27 turtle species on sale, non-native species were the most numerous16.

Large numbers of imported Painted Terrapins, (Callagur borneoensis), at a food market (China)

3.2.2.Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam

Cambodia exports an estimated 2-4 tons of turtles per day from Phnom Penh to Vietnam4, from where many are shipped on to China. In 1994 a single trader reported ship-ping one ton of Chelonians to Vietnam each month18. An-other trader said he was shipping 500 to 800 tons of turtles a year. From Lao PDR live turtles (e.g. Cuora amboinensis, In-dotestudo elongata) and shells (e.g. Melanochelys subtri-juga) are exported to Thailand19. Animal traders from Viet-nam stated that they too import turtles, from Lao PDR50 51. A recent survey reported exports of at least Cuora trifas-ciata, Cuora galbinifrons and Platysternon mega-cephalum52 to Vietnam.

About 90% of the turtles at markets in Vietnam are des-tined for China20. According to Klemens4 “Vietnam is truly the hub of the enormous and expanding illegal trade as turtles are funneled from throughout Indochina to supply the Chinese markets.” The trade in freshwater turtles and tortoises constitutes 61% of the wildlife trade between Vietnam and Southern China15. During an inspec-tion at the border between Guangxi and Vietnam, 2.29 to 29.325 tons of wildlife were exported from Vietnam to China every day of which 1.84 to 18.4 tons were turtles15. The most numerous species exported to China is Pelodis-cus sinensis. Other species commonly traded are In-dotestudo elongata24 52, and Cuora galbinifrons20. Some 40 cross-frontier trade sites have been established along the border to Guangxi (China), with more than 40 roads con-verging on these sites. However, wildlife officers are not present at every location53. 3.2.3. Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thai-

land

Malaysian turtles, e.g. Cuora amboinensis are regularly exported to Vietnam54, which for the majority of these animals acts as a through-route to China and Hong Kong2. In the Philippines according to official sources small num-bers of Cuora amboinensis were exported to Korea and Hong Kong in 1995 and 199626. It has to be assumed that they were destined for food markets. The CITES Management Authority of Singapore reported a substantial trade in at least Cuora amboinensis. More than 90% of these animals are said to be re-exported to other Asian countries55. 3.2.4. Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal & Pakistan

Bangladesh earns an average US$ 600,000 per year from the export of freshwater turtles, dried turtle shells and turtle oil. Recipient countries are Japan, China, Thailand, Malay-sia, Singapore, Korea and the UK. This trade provides a welcome contribution to annual foreign currency earnings and in 1993 involved about 15,000 people28. In 1999 this figure rose to 50.000 and the revenue earned from exports increased to US$ 1.5 million56. Even CITES Appendix I species are exported: e.g. Aspideretes gangeticus in large numbers to Hong Kong and China11, and Aspideretes hurum to Hong Kong, Singapore and Japan28. Geoclemys hamiltonii, Morenia petersi, Chitra indica and Lissemys punctata are exported to countries such as India. In 1993 610,000 kg of live Indotestudo elongata were exported to China, 103,010 kg live animals to Hong Kong, and 8,000 kg live animals went to Singapore57. In response to dwindling Indian turtle populations, animals from Bangladesh and Nepal, e.g. the sought-after Kachuga tecta (CITES Appendix I), are imported to satisfy the con-siderable local demand28 58. Presumably exports from India to SE Asian food markets also take place. In Chinese food markets at least 20 species, which are also native to India, are offered regularly, including Kachuga spp., In-dotestudo forstenii and Geoclemys hamiltonii. From Myanmar Chelonians are traded across the border to Thailand, Vietnam and China, where native populations have become more depleted4 32 51. In addition, shells, which are used for traditional medicine are exported to China and Thailand, where they fetch higher prices than at local markets32.

„A colossal wildlife network which covers some pro-vinces of China, Vietnam, other countries of Southeast Asia, Hong Kong and Macao has been formed during

the last five years”.

Li Yiming and Li Dianmo, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing


Pro Wildlife

11

From Nepal many turtles are exported to Bangladesh, India and increasingly to China58. In Pakistan increasing amounts of dead turtles native to Pakistan, which can be found in the mountains near the Chinese border provide an indication of exports to China. These turtles have been discarded by traders prior to crossing the border8. 3.2.5. Indonesia and Papua New Guinea

Live softshell turtles from Indonesia are exported in sub-stantial volumes to the Far East2. From Sulawesi alone up to 13 tonnes of Cuora amboinensis plastrons are exported annually to Hong Kong and China. This number is equiva-lent to about 200,000 individuals2 59. According to official figures, 147,344 Cuora amboinensis specimens were exported from Indonesia directly into Hong Kong between November 1993 and October 1994. Only Amyda cartilagi-nea, for which an export volume of 312,459 individuals has been reported, is more commonly exported from Indonesia to Hong Kong. Between 80-90% of these animals were re-exported from Hong Kong to China11. An animal trader from Hong Kong reported that 5,000 to 6,000 kg of turtles were directly exported from Indonesia to China in 19968. It has repeatedly been reported that Papua New Guinea supplies turtles for Chinese food markets12 59, although no detailed information is available. 3.2.6. USA

Between 1993 and 1996 the USA exported 31,5 million Red-eared Sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans) not only for the pet trade all over the world, but also for the live food trade in East and Southeast Asia60. The export of North American softshell turtles (Apalone spp.) began in 1985 with 65 specimens and expanded to 38,611 individuals in 1995. A similar increase was recorded for the Common Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina), 58,430 specimens of which were exported between 1990 and 1995. Unfortu-nately a discrimination between food and pet animals is not provided. However it is certain that at least part of these shipments are destined for Southeast Asia. TABLE 2 documents that at least four species that are native to the USA are regularly seen in Chinese food markets. Accord-ing to the US Fish & Wildlife Service 40 to 50 crates of live turtles pass through the airport of Los Angeles each week61.

3.3. Transport and Treatment

Many shipments take place by air,particularly from distant countries. Others follow land or sea routes or are made by river boat. A large number of air shipments are falsely labelled as “seafood”12 61, so that a realistic assessment of trade volumes is impossible. Transport conditions have often been criticised for not conforming to IATA regulations with regard to packaging and documentation. Poor transport conditions and nutri-tion, as well as inappropriate handling result in injuries

The USA exports Florida Softshell Turtles (Apalone ferox) to Asian food markets

and high mortality25 52. An increasing number of turtle car-casses are found in the mountains near the border be-tween Pakistan and China where dead animals have obvi-ously been discarded prior to crossing the border8. Inhumane treatment and especially extremely painful kill-ing methods, such as disembowelling and dismembering of live animals have also attracted criticism. This can also be observed in the “Chinatowns” districts of California in the USA, where animals are also butchered alive at the market62 63.

3.4. Farming of Turtles

The enormous and still increasing demand for Chelonians for culinary and medicinal purposes by far exceeds the number of animals bred in captivity. Although farming operations might help to relieve some pressure on wild populations, wild caught specimens are preferred and achieve higher prices. Pelodiscus sinensis is farmed for export in Malaysia, Indo-nesia and Thailand, where annual productivity was esti-mated at between 3-6 million hatchlings in 19942. From Thailand farmed animals are exported to China, Japan and Korea. Farming poses potential ecological risks as non-native animals can escape from farms and establish popu-lations in the wild. This is especially true for the easily bred Pelodiscus sinensis, which is farmed as a non-native spe-cies in several Asian countries. In addition, escaped ani-mals can expose native populations to diseases to which they are not accustomed, and which can have fatal conse-quences. Therefore activities to intensify farming should be carefully managed.


Pro Wildlife

12

4. Extent and Increase of the Turtle Trade for Food and Medicine

4.1. Escalating Demand in Southeast Asia

The radius of countries supplying the ever growing de-mand for turtles is widening. In China for example, rapid economic growth since the early 1980s has resulted in a steady rise in living standards. As a result the demand for luxury foods and traditional medicines has also in-creased53. The demand for wildlife products, including turtles, has stimulated not only the domestic trade but has also affected the cross-border trade with neighboring coun-tries, particularly Vietnam. After the decline of Chelonian populations in Vietnam, Lao PDR and Cambodia, turtles from an ever-widening range of more and more distant countries are imported to China. In the 1990´s the Indian subcontinent increasingly supplied the Southeast Asian demand. Even countries as far away as the USA play a growing part as a supplier of turtles to Asia. Meanwhile about 25% of the world’s 263 turtle species are af-fected by the draw of food and traditional medicine markets12 59. It must be considered likely that even Africa12 64 and South America may become future suppliers.

Crates filled with turtles are unloaded from a truck Detailed data on the current volume of consumption in Southeast Asia are not available. However, the following data are tangible indications of the tremendous threats facing Asian turtles. At two Chinese food markets alone an estimated 10,000 turtles were offered over a two-day period12. Bill McCord calculates that “if China only had five or six markets, ... , this would add up to at least 50,000 turtles on any given day. If the total replacement time was conservatively fig-ured to be a full week (2-3 days given orally), then five or six markets would process at least 2.6 million turtles a year!” Others7 13 estimate the number of markets to be a

lot higher and therefore calculate that more than 12 to 20 million turtles are sold each year in China alone. Probably even this calculation underestimates the true extent of consumption. There is no doubt that, due to this huge demand and the low reproductive potential of many spe-cies, this level of exploitation is not sustainable. Unless effective countermeasures are taken many of the affected species will be extinct in the wild within a few years. Due to continuously expanding human populations and increasing affluence, present problems are set to worsen.

The daily turnover of the Qing Ping market is estimated at 30-60 tonnes of Chelonians

4.2. Imports to Hong Kong

The imports of food Chelonians to Hong Kong, a major export centre to China are well documented and therefore a good indicator of trends in demand. An alarming in-crease in turtle imports is revealed in the past few years. “In 1977, 139,200 kg of food Chelonians was imported to Hong Kong. In 1991, 110,574 kg of food Chelonians was imported and rose to 680,582 kg in 1993. In the first ten months of 1994, a record high of 1.8 million kg of animals was imported.” 11. In 1996 Hong Kong imported 3.5 million Kg of turtles65. According to recent import statistics this volume has once again increased to up to 12 million kg in 19989. This means a more than 100-fold increase in amounts imported since 1977 (FIGURE 1). FIGURE 1: Volume of Food Chelonians imported to

Hong Kong.

„Today, the heavy hand of man is extirpating whole populations, even whole species of rare or localised

turtles in eastern and south eastern Asia, and is seri-ously depleting even widespread ones.”

Peter Pritchard, Chelonia Institute, Florida

0

2.000

4.000

6.000

8.000

10.000

12.000

wei

gh

t (to

nn

es)

1977 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998


Pro Wildlife

13

5. Other Threats to Asian Turtle Populations

5.1. Habitat Destruction 5.1.1. Sand Mining and Damming Sand mining has become one of the most serious factors threatening the survival of tropical Asian turtles30. In Ma-laysia, Thailand, Indonesia, India and Bangladesh large rivers are severely damaged. As a consequence, sand-nesting turtles like the River Terrapin (Batagur baska), the Painted Terrapin (Callagur borneoensis), Roofed Turtles (Kachuga spp.), and the large softhell turtles (Amyda carti-laginea, Aspideretes hurum, Chitra indica and Pelochelys cantorii) face serious environmental pressure. Upriver dams exacerbate this problem further by prevent-ing the replacement of removed sand and increasing ero-sion by periodic and unseason flooding caused by artificial regulation of water levels. Turtle populations may also be affected by flooding programmes in Eastern India and Bangladesh66. In Nepal damming and canalisation of cer-tain rivers is reported to have negative impacts on aquatic and semi-aquatic species, such as the Indian Softshell Turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus), the Crowned River Turtle (Hardella thurjii), the Three-striped Roofed Turtle (Kachuga dhongoka), the Red-crowned Roofed Turtle (Kachuga kachuga) and on tortoises, including the Elongated Tor-toise (Indotestudo elongata)33. All of China’s major rivers have been dammed within less than forty years67.

In many Asian countries only small areas of forest have

been spared from large scale logging activities

5.1.2. Agriculture and Deforestation In Bangladesh deforestation and annual fires are said to have caused a decline of terrestrial species such as In-dotestudo elongata and the Asian Brown Turtle (Manouria emys)43. The draining of ponds, canals and other waters is responsible for the loss of further crucial turtle habitat. In Cambodia huge areas of jungle and forest were cleared during the Khmer Rouge regime18 68 with inevitable delete-rious consequences for chelonians. It is more than likely that turtle populations in China have been affected by the large-scale deforestation carried out in Southwest China in the course of the past 50 years69. Many forest areas in India have been replaced by planta-tions. Further areas have been destroyed by fires. As a result forest-inhabitants like the very rare Geoemyda silva-tica and Indotestudo forstenii have suffered34. Human relocation and deforestation programmes impact heavily on the forests of Indonesia68. In Borneo the situa-tion is further exacerbated by large-scale fires, which have destroyed huge forested areas mainly in the eastern part of the island. Logging contracts between Myanmar and Thailand have resulted in one of the fastest rates of decline in forest cover in the world32 70. In Nepal, too, deforestation has negatively affected the country’s turtle species, e.g. Narrow-headed Softshell Turtle (Chitra indica)33 58. Similarly, in Sri Lanka forests are progressively replaced by agricultural areas primarily for the plantation of rice, tea and coconuts34 68. Meanwhile, forest cover in Thailand has been reduced from 53% of the country’s land area in 1961 to 28% in 199127. In the Mae Klong basin the Asian Giant Softshell Turtle (Pelochelys cantorii), formerly an abundant species, has recently almost disappeared as a consequence of logging activities in mangrove forests to make way for artificial shrimp ponds. At the same time, the threat of forest fires remains a concern for Thailand’s wildlife. Only 8% of Vietnam’s primary vegetation is said to re-main23 . Forest clearing, often by fire, takes place all over the country. Commercial logging also continues, with an estimated 2,000 km2 cleared each year with only 1,600 km2 being reforested22. 5.1.3. Chemical Pollution and Other Factors Human settlement and agricultural expansion have re-sulted in increased pollution along Thailand’s riverbanks27. In Nepal several rivers are polluted with heavy metals, pesticides and DDT33. Scientists are concerned that the indiscriminate use of agrochemicals may cause infertility, sterility and thinning of eggshells in turtles43. In Bangladesh discharge of industrial chemical waste is thought to have contaminated the aquatic habitats of the Padma and Karnaphully rivers. In many areas forests are affected by acid rain. The most affected regions in China are the Guangxi and Guangdong provinces71. Concrete and asphalt cover of the lakeside at the Hoan-Kiem-Lake in Vietnam make nesting impossible for tur-tles72.

„Many turtles and tortoises appear to be declining from destruction and modifications of their forest habitats

and from collection for food and the pet trade.”

Indraneil Das, Centre for Herpetology, Madras Crocodile bank, India


Pro Wildlife

14

5.2. National and International Pet Trade

After collection for food and habitat destruction the pet trade poses a further serious threat to the populations of small- and medium-sized forest-dwelling turtles and tor-toises46. In contrast to food markets, the pet industry tends to prefer smaller species and specimens. Hundreds of thousands of Asian turtles are estimated to have been collected for international pet markets in the past 20 years. On the one hand, demand for the most popular and common species causes them to be sold in tens of thou-sands. On the other hand a specialist market specifically targets rare species, and thus threatens their survival. Once again, reliable data are lacking since generally only trade in species contained in the CITES Appendices is recorded. The data presented below represent only a tiny fraction of the true trade volume in turtles as pets. 5.2.1. Turtles as Pets in Asia

While there appears to be no demand for turtles as pets in mainland-China, in Hong Kong there is a significant over-lap between turtle species used for food or as pets11. In Taiwan some species (e.g. from the genus Cuora) have become quite popular as pets and are gradually displacing imported North American Red-eared Sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans)5.

The demand for turtles as pets in Malaysia is met mainly by the North American Trachemys scripta elegans, while native species don’t seem to play an important role2.

In Vietnam juvenile Chelonians including the Elongated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata) are kept as pets21.

In Thailand, too there is demand for some species in the local pet trade, e.g. the Annam Leaf Turtle (Annamemys annamensis)2.

In India several species, e.g. Indian Star Tortoise (Geo-che-lone elegans), Indian Black Turtle (Melanochelys sub-trijuga) and Indian Roofed Turtle (Kachuga tecta) are sold as pets. Western Turtles as Invasive Species The North American Red-eared Slider (Trachemys scripta elegans) has become the most common turtle on sale in Thailand and Malaysia2. Escaped individuals of this spe-cies, of which more than 31 million individuals were ex-ported by the USA between 1993 and 199660, can pose strong competition with native turtles in the wild, as is illustrated in several locations in Thailand2 3. Although this is definitely not an Asia-specific problem, it provides an example of some side effects of the interna-tional pet trade that are hard to guard against, which affect both exporting and importing countries.

5.2.2. Asian Countries as Suppliers for the International Pet Trade

In 1995 Southeast Asian Chelonians reportedly did not play a prominent role in the Western pet trade, although a relatively wide range of species were subject to trade2. A survey of species offered by European pet traders carried out by Pro Wildlife in 1999, together with US import statis-tics demonstrates that at least 51 Asian turtle species are now available in western pet shops (TABLE 3). According to a reptile trader in Indonesia almost every unprotected Indonesian reptile species has attracted the interest of the pet industry73. Thus, the trade in reptiles has gradually gathered pace since the early 1990´s. The de-mand for Indonesian turtle species is illustrated by a trade report of 1998, where South Asian Box Turtles (Cuora amboinensis), Spiny Turtles (Heosemys spinosa), Asiatic Softshell Turtles (Amyda cartilaginea), and Black Marsh Turtles (Siebenrockiella crassicollis) are described as “abundant”, in other words “thousands can be collected if needed”. Asian Brown Tortoises (Manouria emys), Tra-vancore Tortoises (Indotestudo forstenii), Painted Terra-pins (Callagur borneoensis), Malayan Flatshelled Turtles (Notochelys platynota) and Malayan Softshell Turtles (Dogania subplana) are said to be “common”, i.e. “always available in adequate numbers”. Only Pelochelys bibroni and Geoemyda yuwonoi are classified as rare and there-fore “difficult to get in any quantity”. Most of these species are on sale at western pet markets as shown in TABLE 3. Official exports of CITES Appendix II species to the USA, Japan and Europe between 1993 and 1996 are as follows: 2089 individuals of Indotestudo forstenii, 218 of In-dotestudo elongata, and 1399 of Manouria emys57.

Roofed Turtles (here Kachuga smithii) are in demand as pets In Malaysia only official export figures of CITES Appendix II species are recorded. Between 1993 and 1996, 4812 individuals of Indotestudo elongata, 645 of Manouria emys, and 221 of Manouria impressa were exported to the USA, Japan and Europe57. In addition, Cuora amboinensis specimens were shipped to Switzerland74. India primarily exports the Indian Star Tortoise (Geoche-lone elegans). This CITES Appendix II species is in great demand from turtle enthusiasts60, although the species is difficult to maintain in captivity. The increasing availability of this species in the western and Southeast Asian pet trade has raised concerns amongst herpetologists2 31. According to TRAFFIC India 10-15,000 individuals enter the trade each year31. Frazier75 even reports a trade of “tens of thousands animals a year”.

„The exotic pet trade is especially worrisome, for it preys heavily on wild populations where habitat re-

mains intact. The world´s exotic pet markets are poorly regulated.”

John Behler, IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtles Specialist Group


Pro Wildlife

15

In mainland-China and Hong Kong a small number of traders specialise in the demands of Western herpetolo-gists and turtle enthusiasts for rare and only recently dis-covered species: Many species and subspecies, which have been recently described ex situ, have been exported by a single dealer in Hong Kong76 77, e.g. Platysternon megacephalum shiui, Cuora amboinensis lineata, Cuora aurocapitata, Cuora mccordi, Cuora zhoui, Mauremys iversoni, Mauremys pritchardi, Ocadia glyphistoma, Ocadia philippeni, Sacalia pseudocellata. Some of these species are occasionally for sale in Europe and the USA and can fetch very high prices. McCord’s Box Turtle (Cuora mccordi) and Golden-headed Box Turtle (Cuora aurocapi-tata) for example are sold for up to 2,000 US$ per speci-men. In addition, 1,588 Indotestudo elongata and 55 Man-ouria impressa, both CITES Appendix II species were exported to the USA, Japan and Europe between 1993 and 1996 according to official records57. Vietnam exports emydids such as the Annam Leaf Turtle (Annamemys annamensis) as pets to Europe and Thai-land2. A Dutch wholesaler offered at least 11 turtle species originating from Vietnam78. Official exports of CITES Ap-pendix II species to the USA, Japan, Europe between 1993 and 1996 were 415 specimens of Manouria im-pressa57. 5.2.3. Asian Turtles as Pets in Europe and USA

Altogether at least 49 Asian turtle species are available for sale in Europe (TABLE 3). Already in the 1980´s several Asian turtle species were regularly offered in the European pet markets, including the Chinese Three-keeled Pond Turtle (Chinemys reevesii), the Giant Asian Pond Turtle (Heosemys grandis), four Asian box turtles, Cuora spp., Annamemys annamensis and the Big-headed Turtle (Platysternon megacephalum)79. Following European Un-ion import restrictions on North American Box Turtles (Ter-rapene spp.), European keepers discovered Asian box turtles as an attractive alternative80. Tens of thousands of Cuora amboinensis were imported to Europe during the past decade, although the majority of animals did not sur-vive in captivity for long7. There is also a demand for other species that are difficult to keep, e.g. the Indochinese Box Turtle (Cuora galbinifrons) and Spiny Turtle (Heosemys spinosa) 50 81 82. Prior to 1991, the United Kingdom collected trade figures for some species not listed by CITES83. A total of 16,817 Asian turtles were imported into the UK between 1986 and 1990. The following species were recorded: Chinemys reevesii (4,766), Cuora amboinensis (3,833), Amyda carti-laginea (2,044), Platysternon megacephalum (2,013), Malayemys subtrijuga (1,443), Cyclemys dentata (1,032), Cuora trifasciata (827), Heosemys spinosa (775), and Cuora galbinifrons (84). A wide variety of Asian Chelonians is on sale in Germany, although detailed import data do not exist. As shown in TABLE 3, at least 27 species are available. The genus Cuora constitutes one of the most dominant varieties, since these animals are visually attractive and therefore highly sought after.

In Europe at least 49 different Asian turtle species are sold as

pets, here Spiny Turtle (Heosemys spinosa) TABLE 3: Asian Turtle Species in Western Pet Trade Bold letters = species abundant in trade, i.e. offered regularly or in high numbers, A = Austria; BE = Belgium; CH = Switzerland; DE= Germany; NL = Netherlands; US = USA.

Species Country Species Country Amyda cartilaginea NL, UK Geoemyda sp. DE

Annamemys ann. CH, DE Heosemys grandis DE, NL

Callagur borneon. NL Heosemys spinosa CH, DE, NL, UK

Chinemys kwang-tungensis

CH Hieremys annand.

DE, NL, US

Chinemys megal. CH Indotestudo elong. CH, DE, NL, US

Chinemys nigricans CH, US Indotestudo forsten. CH, US

Chinemys reevesii CH, DE, NL, UK, US Kachuga smithii CH, DE

Chitra indica US Kachuga tecta A, CH, DE

Cuora amboinen. CH, DE, NL, UK, US

Kachuga tentoria circumdata

CH

Cuora amboinensis lineata

CH Lissemys punctata

A, CH, US

Cuora aurocapitata DE Malayemis subtrij. DE, NL, UK

Cuora flavomarg. CH, DE, NL, US Manouria emys BE, CH,

DE, NL, US

Cuora galbinifrons CH, DE, NL, UK, US Manouria impressa DE, US

Cuora galbinifrons bourretti

CH Mauremys japonica

CH, US

Cuora mccordi CH, DE Mauremys mutica CH, DE, NL, US

Cuora pani A, CH Melanochelys trij. A, CH, DE

Cuora trifasciata A, DE, UK, US Notochelys platyn. CH, NL

Cyclemys dentata CH, DE, NL, UK, US Ocadia sinensis CH, DE,

NL, US Cyclemys mouhotii US Orlitia borneensis CH, DE, NL

Cyclemys tchepon. CH Pelodiscus sinensis CH

Cyclemys sp. NL Platysternon mega. CH, DE, NL, UK, US

Dogania subplana DE, NL Pyxidea mouhotii CH, DE, NL, US

Geochelone ele-gans

A, BE, CH, DE Sacalia bealei

CH, DE, NL, US

Geoclemys hamilt. A, DE Sacalia quadriocel. CH, DE

Geoemyda spengl. CH, DE, NL, US

Siebenrockiella crassicollis

DE, NL

Geoemyda spinif. US

In 1999 Pro Wildlife carried out a survey of 27 German wholesalers and specialist reptile shops to investigate the availability of the genus Cuora. It was found that Cuora amboinensis was available at 44.5% of businesses ques-tioned. A further third offered to supply the species on request. Cuora flavomarginata was in stock in 48.2% of businesses surveyed and could have been obtained on request at a further 11%. Cuora galbinifrons, too was in stock at 44,5% and available on request at 7.5%. Import-


Pro Wildlife

16

ers report that Cuora galbinifrons and Cuora flavomargi-nata are available at decreasing numbers while prices are increasing. This is highly likely to be a consequence of the decline of wild populations. If available at all, other species of the genus (Cuora auro-capitata, Cuora mccordi, Cuora trifasciata) could only be supplied by special order. Individuals of these rare species are in great demand: Collectors pay as much as US$ 500-1,000. Reptiles are not only offered in pet shops, but are also sold by private dealers at special fairs, where species like Cuora galbinifrons, Cuora flavomarginata and Dogania subplana can be bought.

Indochinese Box Turtle (Cuora galbinifrons)

on a sale event in Germany At least 23 species of Asian freshwater turtles and tor-toises are on sale within the Netherlands (TABLE 3). Once again, exact import statistics are not available. At least 34 different Asian turtle species are on offer in Switzerland (TABLE 3). Collectors have a special interest in rare species like Cuora mccordi, Cuora pani and Manou-ria emys, which achieve remarkably high prices. The range of a Swiss wholesaler is dominated by Chinese species74. A minimum of 23 Asian turtle species are on sale in the USA. During a three-year-period, between 1993 and 1995, 24,600 Asian turtles were imported to the USA60. With 14,476 specimens imported Cuora amboinensis is the most commonly imported Asian turtle in the US. It is fol-lowed by Cuora flavomarginata (2,140), Chinemys reevesii (1,884), Cuora galbinifrons (1,179) and Indotestudo elon-gata (1,115). Other species are imported in lower num-bers, e.g. Pyxidea mouhotii (991), Geomyda spengleri (748), Platysternon megacephalum (569), Cyclemys den-tata (511), Manouria impressa (279), Cuora trifasciata (286), Sacalia bealei (276) and Manouria emys (210).

6. Indicators of the Decline of Asia’s Turtle Fauna

Both the food and traditional medicine trade prefer large turtles, which have successfully survived to an advanced age. Removing adult specimens of a long-lived, slow-maturing species with low reproductive potential from the wild has potentially fatal consequences for the long-term survival of the population. As a result of increasingly un-sustainable exploitation levels, populations of Asian turtles are in decline across much of their range. Affected coun-tries include Bangladesh28, Cambodia4, China38, more details in Section 6.4.), India29 84, Lao PDR85, Malaysia2, Myanmar70, Nepal33 46, Thailand4 27 and Vietnam85. Some examples of species that are under huge pressure from the markets are given in the following.

6.1. Asian Box Turtles - The Genus Cuora

Eight of nine Cuora species have suffered a precipitous decline within the past decade – the ninth had probably already become extinct at the beginning of the 20th cen-tury. Unsustainable harvesting and trade to satisfy the still intensifying demand of Asian food markets is the main cause behind these species’ demise. As a result of their low reproductive potential these long-lived, slow growing animals are particularly vulnerable to overexploitation. Most members of the genus produce only one or two nests a year with clutch sizes of between one and four eggs. Five of the nine Cuora species are classified as ”en-dangered” or even ”critically endangered” in China´s Red Data Book. Unless the whole genus is offered inter-national protection against commercial overexploitation it is likely some of its species and subspecies will become extinct within the space of a few years.

Populations of the formerly common South Asian Box Turtle (Cuora amboinensis) are declining

„Long-lived Chelonians cannot tolerate commercial collection. The concept of sustainable harvest of al-ready-reduced populations of long-lived organisms appears to be an oxymoron“

J.D. Congdon, Conservation Biologist


Pro Wildlife

17

Two Cuora species, Cuora mccordi and Cuora zhoui are so far known solely from food markets. No information about their population status, habitat etc. is available. According to recent accounts65, neither species has been seen at food markets for several years, although Western herpetologists have offered large sums of money. Such information raises concerns that these species may al-ready be hovering on the brink of extinction. Cuora trifas-ciata is the most sought after of all Chelonian species for use in traditional medicine: It achieves prices ten times higher than most other species2 86 . Today, specimens fetch as much as US$ 1,00087 or even more. Certain Cuora species are further imperilled through continued exports for the European and North American pet trade (see Section 5.2.3). 6.2. Roofed Turtles (Kachuga spp.) in the

Indian Subcontinent

Populations of all six species of the Roofed Turtles (Kachuga spp.) are declining at least in some range states. Following unsustainable harvesting for food, Red-crowned Roofed Turtle populations (Kachuga kachuga) have been reduced by more than 80% within the past 20 years. The situation of the Assam Roofed Turtle (Kachuga sylheten-sis), the rarest species of this genus88, is even worse, with populations collapsing to less than 10% in the space of 10 years41. Indian populations of this species are now nation-ally classified as “critically endangered” by the IUCN41. According to Das46 Kachuga kachuga and Kachuga sylhetensis belong to the 10 most threatened turtle species in tropical Asia. The remaining four species of this genus are also in decline – not only in India but also in Nepal58 and Bangladesh43, and individuals are increasingly hard to find. In contrast to the situation 10 years earlier, species such as Kachuga dhongoka and Kachuga tentoria have already disappeared from Indian market stalls31. As a further example populations of Kachuga trivittata, a spe-cies which is classified as “endangered” by the IUCN37 are considered locally extinct in Myanmar70. 6.3. Asian Softshell Turtles

Softshell turtles play a central role in traditional medicine and are generally regarded as the most palatable non-marine Chelonians within Southeast Asia2 19. The Burmese Flapshell Turtle (Lissemys punctata) is the most popular turtle species at markets in India31, and the Chinese Soft-shell Turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis) is the dominant species exported from Vietnam to China15. Unsustainable levels of exploitation have caused the rapid decline of almost all softshell turtle populations in Thailand27, Myanmar70, Malaysia2, Nepal33 and Bangladesh28. The situation in Laos and Vietnam is unlikely to be better21 85. There are also fears that without immediate remedial action the Nar-row-headed Softshell Turtle (Chitra indica) and the Giant Softshell Turtle (Pelochelys bibroni) might soon become extinct in the wild87.

The Black Softshell Turtle, (Aspideretes nigricans), is en-demic to a single pond in Chittagong (Bangladesh). With a population of an estimated 400 specimens, this species is highly sensitive to direct or indirect disturbance89. With only an estimated 16 surviving individuals the Striped Narrow-headed Softshell Turtles (Chitra chitra), which is endemic to the Mae Klong Basin in Thailand, counts as one of the rarest and most endangered turtle species in the world27 46. 6.4. Chelonian Populations in China

All of China’s native turtle species which are accessible to collectors are directly affected by escalating commercial demands11 12. As a result most populations have collapsed. The Red Data Book of China38 classifies 15 native turtle species as “endangered”, four as “critically endangered” and two as “probably extinct in the wild” – These 21 species represent 70 % of the 30 native fresh-water turtles and tortoises. A further 17 % are classified as “data deficient”.

Two thirds of Chinese freshwater turtle and tortoise species

are classified as endangered (here the Four-eyed Turtle, Sacalia quadriocellata) or critically endangered

Due to overexploitation meanwhile only 2% of the Chelo-nian specimens on sale are native to China12. Lau et al. describe the situation in China: “ In the late 1970´s the hard-shelled Chelonian trade was dominated by Chinese species. Now there are more Southeast Asian species for sale than Chinese ones.”11 The dramatic collapse of China’s Chelonian populations can only add to the threats facing turtles and tortoises in the rest of SE Asia unless immediate and effective action is taken.

„Today, there is no more serious turtle crisis than that which is taking place in Southeast Asia and southern China. Southeast Asia is being vacuumed of its turtles for China’s food markets.”

John Behler, IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, Southeast Asia


Pro Wildlife

18

7. Legal Aspects

7.1. National Protection Measures

The level of national protection afforded to Asian Chelo-nians within range states is summarised in TABLE 4. Al-though national legislation to conserve Chelonians does exist in several Asian countries, large quantities of protected species are still subject to national as well as international trade. Inadequate enforcement of existing legislation is a major hindrance to turtle conserva-tion. In addition, many species which are abundant in the international trade for food (e.g. Amyda cartilaginea, Chi-nemys reevesii) and as pets (e.g. Cuora amboinensis) are not protected across most range states. Furthermore na-tional measures are not consistent between provinces in some states. TABLE 4: National legislative measures for the pro-

tection of turtles in Asia

Country National Legislation

Bangladesh Capture, trade and killing of all wild fauna is prohibited (Wildlife Preservation Amendment)

Cambodia Hunting and exporting of native wildlife is illegal

China

Capture, transport and sale of wildlife, includ-ing between provinces, requires a permit (Wildlife Protection Law); Marine turtles and Testudo horsfieldii are excluded from con-sumption; stronger protection measures in some provinces, e.g. Anhui, Guangxi, Fujian

India Hunting, capture and export of wildlife is pro-hibited

Indonesia Trade in some species, e.g. Chitra indica, is prohibited; export quota systems for other species

Lao PDR

Some species (e.g. Cuora amboinensis, Sie-benrockiella crassicollis) are strictly protected; limited hunting for Indotestudo elongata, Man-ouria emys and Amyda cartilaginea

Malaysia

Sarawak: some species (e.g., Manouria emys) are protected; Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah: Wildlife Pro-tection Act does not cover turtles;

Myanmar Subsistence hunting of native wildlife is permit-ted, but no commercial trade

Nepal Turtles are not protected

Papua New Guinea International trade is restricted or prohibited

Philippines Export of native wildlife is prohibited

Singapore Possession of, and trade in some species, e.g. Kachuga tecta and Lissemys punctata, is prohibited

Thailand Capture and trade in all turtle species is pro-hibited, except for Amyda cartilaginea

Vietnam Only Indotestudo elongata and Pelochelys cantoriii are protected

7.2. International Legislation

While most Asian freshwater turtles and tortoises are not protected by international legislation, seven species are listed in CITES Appendix I and six in Appendix II (see TABLE 5). An expansion of international protection meas-ures is urgently required to control the unregulated trade in turtles. TABLE 5: Asian Chelonians protected by CITES

Species CITES App. Protected Since

Aspideretes gangeticus I 01.07.75

Aspideretes hurum I 01.07.75

Aspideretes nigricans I 01.07.75

Batagur baska I 01.07.75

Geoclemys hamiltonii I 01.07.75

Kachuga tecta I 01.07.75

Morenia ocellata I 01.07.75

Callagur borneoensis II 18.09.97

Geochelone platynota II 04.02.77

Indotestudo elongata II 04.02.77

Lissemys punctata II 16.02.95

Manouria emys II 04.02.77

Manouria impressa II 04.02.77

In 1999 the 15th Animals Committee to CITES for the first time addressed the decline of Asian turtles when an infor-mation document presented by Pro Wildlife was consid-ered. Several attending range states shared the concerns expressed over dwindling turtle populations, and the con-cept of more intensive efforts on this issue within CITES was supported.

Large numbers of Elongated Tortoises (Indotestudo elon-gata), listed on CITES-Appendix II, are regularly on sale at

food markets At the 11th Conference of the Parties to CITES, Germany and the USA will present a discussion document on the “Trade in Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises to and in Southeast Asia” 90, which contains a set of recommenda-tions for the conservation of turtles, addressed to ranges states and consumer nations. In addition, a proposal to list the entire genus Cuora on Appendix II is submitted91. The


Pro Wildlife

19

genus Cuora, which represents all Asian Box Turtles, belongs to the species most threatened by commercial food, medicine and pet trade (as described in sections 3, 5 and 6). 7.3. Trade in CITES-listed Species at

Asian Food Markets

Except for Aspideretes nigricans all CITES listed Chelonians have been found on sale at Chinese food markets, although none were native to China (see TABLE 6). In Vietnam, the Elongated Tortoise, Indotestudo elongata, a CITES Appendix II species, is traded and ex-ported to China in very large quantities24 53. During several surveys in China, at least six Appendix I and six Appendix II species were seen at markets11 12. At the Ruli market in China’s Yunnan province 81 specimens of Morenia ocel-lata (App. I) were seen for sale in 199340 – a species that is endemic to Myanmar. About 100 specimens of Kachuga tecta (also App I), originating from the Indian subcontinent, were observed at the Qing Ping market in the province Guangzhou in 199592.

Peacock Softshell Turtles (Aspideretes hurun), originating from India and Bangladesh and banned from international

trade( CITES App. I), on sale at Qing Ping market (China)

These observations clearly illustrate the existence of illegal international trade at least in Appendix I species. I It also seems very doubtful that the volume of Appendix II species in trade is sold in accordance with CITES regulations, and the requirement for non-detriment findings.

TABLE 6: CITES Appendix I and II Chelonians on sale

at Chinese food markets

Species Origin CITES Location

Aspideretes gangeticus


App. I Guangzhou & Sunzhen (McCord12; Kuchling40)

Aspideretes hurum

Bangladesh, India

App. I Guangzhou & Sunzhen (McCord12; Kuchling40); Hong Kong & China (Lau et al 11.)

Batagur baska

Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia

App. I Guangzhou & Sunzhen (McCord12)

Geoclemys hamiltonii


App. I Guangzhou & Sunzhen (McCord12; Artner92); Hong Kong & China (Lau et al. 11)

Kachuga tecta


App. I Guangzhou & Sunzhen (McCord12; Kuchling40); Hong Kong & China (Lau et al. 11)

Morenia ocellata

Myanmar App. I Guangzhou & Sunzhen (McCord12) Ruli (Yunnan), Kuchling40

Callagur borneoensis

Indonesia App. II Guangzhou & Sunzhen (McCord12)

Indotestudo elongata

India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka

App. II Guangzhou & Sunzhen (McCord12); Hong Kong & China (Lau et al. 11); Ruli (Yunnan), Kuchling

Geochelone platynota

Myanmar App. II Guangzhou & Sunzhen (McCord12)

Lissemys punctata

Bangladesh, Myanmar, Ne-pal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka

App. II Guangzhou & Sunzhen (McCord12, Artner92); Ruli (Yunnan), Kuchling40

Manouria emys

Indonesia, Ma-laysia, Myan-mar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka

App. II Guangzhou & Sunzhen (McCord12)

Manouria impressa

Lao PDR, Ma-laysia,Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam

App. II Guangzhou & Sunzhen (Kuchling40); Hong Kong & China (Lau et al. 11)

Enforcement and compliance with CITES regulations, as well as national legislation within range states and consumer nations is essential to prevent the anihilation of Asia’s turtles.

„Indotestudo elongata is perhaps the most common trade species in Vietnam. Despite its App. II status, it

appears in most sizeable shipments to China.”

Doug Hendrie, Cuc Phuong Conservation Project, Vietnam


Pro Wildlife

20

8. Recommendations

8.1. Immediate Measures at

CITES CoP 11 The future of Asian Chelonians rests in the hands of range and consumer states alike. Prompt and effective action is necessary if the extinction of several highly endangered Asian turtle species is to be prevented. Since international trade is the most immediate cause of the decline of Asian Chelonians, it is imperative that CITES Parties make a strong commitment to address this problem now. In April 2000, two important practical measures for the conserva-tion of Asian turtles will be discussed at the 11th Confer-ence of the Parties to CITES: • A proposal to include all nine Asian Box Turtle species,

Cuora spp., which are amongst those most heavily traded as food and pets, in CITES Appendix II.

• A discussion document entitled “Trade in Freshwater

Turtles and Tortoises to and in Southeast Asia” may initiate more comprehensive measures for the conser-vation of all Asian Chelonians at the national and inter-national level.

Both issues require maximum support at the Confer-ence of the Parties: They are potentially important turning points for the achievement of effective interna-tional co-operation to protect Asian Chelonians. 8.2. CITES Appendix II for all Chelonians There are three important reasons why it is appropriate for all Chelonians, except for those suitable for a CITES Ap-pendix I listing, to be included in Appendix II: 1. Recognising that once former sources have begun to show signs of depletion, Asian food markets readily exploit any other available Chelonian species, even from abroad and overseas, the inclusion of all Chelonian species in Appendix II is necessary, in order to be able to monitor trade developments. This information in turn is essential for the timely regulation of the still growing trade in Chelo-nians and their parts. 2. Difficulties in distinguishing between the many Chelo-nian species in trade present enforcement agencies with a difficult task. Furthermore, missing or incomplete docu-mentation as well as false labelling render identification and monitoring of shipments almost impossible. With an Appendix II listing for all species in place, appropriate documentation will be required, enabling authorities to register and identify all turtle specimens in trade.

3. Traditional medicine does not discriminate between turtle species according to western taxonomy. Chang5 states that turtles are divided into five or six general cate-gories based on their of medicinal effects. Traditional Medicine products, such as turtle jelly, can be made from several species, while shells of various different species are often offered simply as “turtle shell”.

McCord`s Box Turtle (Cuora mccordi) is considered to be commercially extinct.

8.3. Candidates for an Appendix I Listing The following Asian turtle species require stronger protec-tion and should be included in CITES Appendix I: • While all Asian Box Turtles meet the criteria for an

Appendix II listing some face imminent extinction. These include the Three-striped Box Turtle (Cuora trifasciata), which is classified as “endangered” by the IUCN and as “critically endangered” by the Chi-nese Red Data Book38. The species has become very rare at markets and achieves extremely high prices.

• McCord’s Box Turtles (Cuora mccordi) and Zhou’s

Box Turtles (Cuora zhoui) are both classified as “data deficient” by the IUCN37 and China’s Red Data Book38. Recent reports state that these species are almost commercially extinct7 65 87.

• The Golden-headed Box Turtle (Cuora aurocapi-

tata) is classified as “critically endangered” in China’s Red Data Book38 and as “data deficient” by the IUCN37. The species appears to have vanished from both markets and the wild87 93.

• The Striped Narrow-headed Softshell Turtle, Chitra

chitra, is endemic to the Mae Klong Basin in Thai-land and is classified as “critically endangered” by the IUCN37. With a total population of only about 16 indi-viduals this species is one of the most threatened animals in the world.

• Beal’s Eyed-Turtle (Sacalia bealei) and Four-Eyed

Turtle (Sacalia quadriocellata) are both classified as “vulnerable” by the IUCN37 and as “endangered” by China’s Red Data Book38. They have a limited range and are highly sought-after by both the food and the pet trade.

„A complete CITES Appendix II listing for all turtle species – except those that should be included in

Appendix I - may be a valid option.”

Peter Paul van Dijk, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok


Pro Wildlife

21

• Red-crowned Roofed Turtle (Kachuga kachuga) and Assam Roofed Turtle (Kachuga sylhetensis) popu-lations are in sharp decline (see section 6.2). Kachuga kachuga is classified as “critically endan-gered” by the IUCN37, while Kachuga sylhetensis is said to be the rarest species of its genus in Assam88. Both are reported to “belong to the 10 most threat-ened species of tropical Asia” 46.

• Kachuga trivittata is endemic to Myanmar and is

classified as “endangered” by the IUCN37. It is heavily affected by habitat destruction and already suffers lo-calised extinction70.

• The Malayan Giant Turtle Orlitia borneensis, a large

river terrapin, is classified as “near threatened” by the IUCN37. It is in great demand at food markets, and as a result populations in both range states, Malaysia and Indonesia, are said to be sharply decreasing8.

• The Shanghai Softshell Turtle, Rafetus swinhoe,

was originally said to be extinct from the wild38 and recently has been rediscovered in the Hoan Kiem Lake in Vietnam94. The small population might be-come exploited for the food markets.

Large numbers of the Malayan Giant Turtle (Orlitia borneensis) for sale at a market

Although other Asian turtle species, e.g. Pan’s Box Turtle (Cuora pani), Crowned River Turtle (Hardella thurjii), are also likely to meet the criteria for a CITES Appendix I list-ing, detailed data are not available.

8.4. Recommendations beyond CITES Apart from protection against unsustainable international trade, further international as well as national measures, including reliable enforcement and compliance, are re-quired to avert the extinction of most Asian freshwater turtles and tortoises. 1. Trade in Chelonians must urgently be reduced to

sustainable levels. 2. Range and consumer states should closely co-

operate for immediate action and for effective long-term enforcement.

3. Range states should review and amend their na-tional protection measures to improve protection of Chelonians. National and international legisla-tion must be enforced at all levels.

4. Turtle shipments should strictly comply with IATA.

Airlines involved in transporting turtles have a special responsibility in this respect, and should not only guarantee proper transport conditions, but also insist on and confirm appropriate documentation.

5. Identification guides to assist authorities in identi-

fying turtle species should be developed. 6. Surveys of key species should be conducted in

the field as well as in markets. Data on trade and range, population status and trends, as well as habitat are urgently required for conservation and manage-ment purposes.

7. In collaboration with TCM practitioners, research

to identify herbal alternatives to turtle products in traditional medicine should be initiated.

8. Public awareness and education efforts should be

undertaken in both supplying and consuming na-tions.

9. Precautionary measures, including habitat con-

servation should be pursued. 10. Ex situ captive breeding conservation pro-

grammes should be closely co-ordinated with range states if they are to guarantee a long-term per-spective for a successful re-introduction of individuals into their natural habitat.


Pro Wildlife

22

9. References 1 Chang, C.-J. (1996a): “Worshipped and Cursed – The Turtle’s

place in Chinese Culture”, Sinorama July 1996. 2 Jenkins M.D. (1995): “Tortoises and Freshwater Turtles: The

trade in Southeast Asia” TRAFFIC Network Report. 3 Manzke, U. (1993): “Schildkröten in Thailand”, DATZ 46 (9),

594-599. 4 Klemens, M. (1998): “Troubling Times in Southeast Asia.” Wildlife Conservation Society Turtle Recovery Program Annual Update, January. 5 Chang, C.-J. (1996b) : “From Panaceas to Pollutants – Turtle

shells’ Checkered History”, Sinorama, July 1996. 6 Chinese Materia Medica (1996), Publishing House of Shanghai,

University of Traditional Chinese Medicine 1996. 7 Meier, E. (1998), in litt. to Pro Wildlife, July 1998.

8 Meier, E. (1999): „Sind die Schildkröten Asiens noch zu retten?“

Reptilia, February/March 1999 5ff.. 9 Lee, S. (1999): “Turtles facing extinction”, Hong Kong Standard Newspaper, front page article, August 1999. 10 Porkert, M. (1982): „Klassische chinesische Rezeptur“, Acta Medicinae Sinensis, Zug, Switzerland, 1984. 11

Lau, M. W., Ades, G., Goodyer, N., Zou F. (1995): “Wildlife Trade in Southern China Including Hong Kong and Macao”. Kadoori Farm & Botanic Garden Cooperation. 12 McCord, B. (1998): Personal report on a survey Species presently impacted by the Chinese food markets. 2/98, in lit. to R. Wirth (June). 13

Salzberg, A. (1998): “The Chinese Turtle Problem”. Reptilia, June 1998. 14

Valentin, P. (1999): in litt. to the German CITES Scientific Authority, 30th September 1999. 15

Li, Y. & Li, L. (1998): “The dynamics of trade in live wildlife across the Guangxi border between China and Vietnam during 1993 - 1996 and its control strategies.” Biodiversity and Conserva-tion, 7, 895-914. 16

Fellowes, J.R. & Hau Chi-Hang (1998): “A Faunal Survey of Nine Forest Reserves in Tropical South China, with a Review of Conservation Priorities in the Region”, Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden, Hong Kong. 17 Environmental News Service (1999): “Fujian Restaurants Serving Protected Wild Animals“, WorldScan Weekly Notebook, December 17th 1999. 18

Martin, E.B. & Phipps, M. (1996):”A review of the wild animal trade in Cambodia”. TRAFFIC Bulletin, Vol 16, No.2, 45-60. 19 Salter, R.E. (1993): “Wildlife in Lao PDR – A status report”, IUCN. 20

Lehr, E. (1996): „Zur innerartlichen Variabilität der hinterindi-schen Cuora galbinifrons“, Diplomarbeit Institut für Molekulare Genetik, Universität Mainz. 21

Lehr, E. (1997): „Untersuchungen zum Schildkrötenhandel in Vietnam zwischen 1993 und 1996“. Mitteilungen der Zoolo-gischen Gesellschaft für Arten- und Populationsschutz, Issue 2 1997, 12 ff.), Germany. 22

Peter, W. (1996): ”Reptilienausverkauf in Vietnam”, DATZ 5, pages 302 ff.. 23

Rudolphi, M. & Weser, R. (1998): „Die Weichschildkröten Nord-vietnams unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Nackendorn-Weichschildkröte, Palea steindachneri“, SAURIA, 120, 3-14. 24

Hendrie, D. (1998): ”Protecting Vietnam´s turtles”, Report of the Cuc Phuong Conservation Projekt, October 1998. 25

Serov, D. (1997): „Wildtiere auf den Märkten in Vietnam“, DATZ, 4/1997, 222-223, Germany. 26

Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety of the Philippines (1999): in litt. to the German CITES Scientific Authority, dated 10th October 1999. 27

Thirakhupt, K. & van Dijk, P.P. (1997): “The Turtles of Western Thailand - Pushed to the Edge by Progress.” In Proceedings: Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles - An International Conference, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, 272 ff..

28 Rashid, S.M.A. & Swingland, I.R. (1997): ”On the ecology of some freshwater turtles in Bangladesh.” in Proceedings: Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles - An International Conference, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society 1997, 225 ff.. 29

Whitaker, R. (1997).: “Turtle Rearing in Village Ponds”, in Pro-ceedings: Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tor-toises and Turtles - An International Conference, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, 106 ff.. 30

Moll, E. O. (1997): “Effects of habitat alteration on river turtles of tropical Asia with emphasis on sand mining and dams”, in Proceedings: Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles - An International Conference, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society 1997, 37 ff.. 31 Choudhury, B.C. & Bhupathy S. (1993): “Turtle Trade in India - A Study of Tortoises and Freshwater Turtles”, Traffic India. 32 Martin, E.B. (1997): “Wildlife products for sale in Myanmar”. TRAFFIC Bulletin, Vol 17., No.1, 33-44). 33

Shrestha, T.K. (1997): ”Status, biology, conservation, and mana-gement of tortoises and turtles in the Himalayan foothills of Nepal”, in Proceedings: Conservation, Restoration and Manage-ment of Tortoises and Turtles - An International Conference, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society 1997, 278 ff. 34

Praschag, R. (1999): „Schildkröten und Krokodile in Sri Lanka“, DATZ 9, 38-41(part 1) and DATZ 10, 30-34 (part 2). 35

Fritz, U. & Gaulke, M. (1997): „Zur Herpetofauna Nord-Sumatras – Teil 1: Schildkröten“, herpetofauna 19 (110), October 1997,12 ff.. 36

Rhodin, A.G.J.; Mittermaier, R.A. & Hall, P.M. (1993): “Distribution, Osteology, and Natural History of the Asian Giant Softshell Turtle, Pelochelys bibroni, in Papua New Guinea”, Chelonian Conservation and Biology 1, 19-30. 37 IUCN Species Survival Commission (1996): “IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals”. 38 NEPA (1998): “China Red Data Book of Endangered Animals -Amphibia and Reptilia”, Science Press, Beijing, Hong Kong, New York. 39 Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment of Vietnam (1992): “Red Data Book of Vietnam.” 40 Kuchling, G. (1995): “Turtles at a Market in Western Yunnan: Possible Range Extensions for some Southern Asiatic Chelonians in China and Myanmar”. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, Vol. 1, No. 3, 223 ff.. 41

BCPP: “Taxon data sheets on Kachuga spp.”, BCPP Reptile CAMP report, 1997. 42

Ernst, K.; Shah, K.; Schleich, H. (1997): „Schildkrötenschutz in Nepal“, Reptilia 7, pages 43 ff.. 43

Sarker, S.U. & Hossain, L.: “Population and Habitat Status of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises of Bangladesh and Their Conservation Status”, in: Proceedings: Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles - An International Conference, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society 1997, 290 ff.. 44

Barzyk, J.E. (1999): “Turtles in Crisis: The Asian Food Markets.” Tortoise Trust (www.tortoisetrust.org/articles). 45

Wenjun, L.; Fuller, T.K. & Sung, W. (1996): “A survey of wildlife trade in Guangxi and Guangdong, China”. TRAFFIC Bulletin, Vol.16, No.1, 9-16. 46

Das, I. (1997): “Conservation Problems of Tropical Asia´s Most-Threatened Turtles.” In Proceedings: Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles - An International Conference, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, 295 ff.. 47

van Dijk, P.P. (1999): pers. comm. to Pro Wildlife, 10th October 1999. 48

Pritchard, P. (1997): “Conservation Strategies – An Overview: Implications for Management”, In Proceedings: Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles - An International Conference, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, 467 ff.. 49

Dillon, C. D. (1998) : “The Common Snapping Turtle, Chelydra serpentina”, Tortuga Gazette 34(3), 1-4, March 1998.


Pro Wildlife

23

50 Lehr, E., Fritz, U. & Obst, F.J. (1998): “Cuora galbinifrons picturata subsp. nov., eine neue Unterart der Hinterindischen Scharnierschildkröte, Herpetofauna 20 (119), 5-11, Germany. 51 Li, Y. & Li, L. (1997a): “The investigation on wildlife trade across Guangxi borders between China and Vietnam”, in: Con-serving China´s Biodiversity, Reports of the Biodiversity Working Group, China Council for International Co-operation on Environ-ment and Development (1992-1996), Beijing 1997, 118-127. 52 Hendrie, D. (1999): “Compiled Notes on the Wildlife Trade in Vietnam”, Cuc Phuong Conservation Project, 31th December. 53 Wenjun, L.; Fuller, T.K. & Sung, W. (1996): “A survey of wildlife trade in Guangxi and Guangdong, China”. TRAFFIC Bulletin, Vol.16, No.1, 9-16. 54 Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment of Malaysia (1999): in litt. to the German CITES Scientific Authority, dated 9th June 1999. 55 CITES Management Authority of Singapore (1999): in litt. to the German CITES Scientific Authority, dated 16th June 1999. 56 Reuters News Service (1999): „Asian Tortoises Facing Extinc-tion“, dated 6th December 1999. 57 WCMC (1998): Annotated CITES Appendices and Reserva-tions 1998, Cambridge, United Kingdom. 58

: Ernst, K.; Shah, K.; Schleich, H. (1997): „Schildkrötenschutz in Nepal“, Reptilia 7, 43 ff.. 59

Collins, D.E. (1998): “Turtles in peril - China´s turtle population decreasing drastically in our lifetimes.” River Watch (Magazine of Tennessee Aquariums), Summer 1998,16 ff.. 60

Hoover, C. (1998): “The U.S. Role in the International Live Reptile Trade: Amazon Tree Boas to Zululand Dwarf Chame-leons.” TRAFFIC North America, August 1998. 61

Williams, W. (1999):”Turtle Tragedy – Demand in Asia may be wiping out turtle populations worldwide”, Scientific American, June 1999. 62

Dove, J. (1999): Live Animal Markets, Earth Island Institute – The Journal, 13, No.4. 63

Vogel, N. (1999): Turtle Imports Stir up Debate: Asian Custom Raises Health, Cruelty Issues, Sacramento Bee, 21st March 1999. 64

van Dijk, P.P. (1999): pers. comm. to Pro Wildlife, 10th October 1999. 65

Barzyk, J.E. (1999): “Turtles in Crisis: The Asian Food Markets.” Tortoise Trust (www.tortoisetrust.org/articles). 66

Smith, A. (1996): “The river dolphins : the road to extinction”, in: The Conservation of Whales and Dolphins - Science and practice, Simmonds, M; Hutchinson, J.D. (eds.), Chichester 1996. 67

Fu, S. (1997): “A profile of dams in China”. In: The River Dragon has Gone, Dai Qing (ed.). 68

Collins, M. (ed.) (1990): “Atlas of the rain forests”. In The last Rain Forests, pp. 150. 69

Studley, J. (1998): “Progress, Biodiversity Loss & Environmental Degradation in SW China”, Washington Post, dated 22th November 1998. 70

van Dijk, P.P. (1997): “Turtle Conservation in Myanmar: Past, Present and Future”. In Proceedings: Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles - An International Conference, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, 265 ff.. 71

Greenpeace (1998): “China Environment Report”, Greenpeace China. 72

Niekisch, M.; Farkas, B.; Fritz, U. & Duc, H.D. (1997): „Rekordgrößen bei Weichschildkröten im Stadtzentrum von Hanoi, Vietnam“, herpetofauna 19 (107), 28 ff.. 73

Yuwono, F.B. (1998): “The Trade of Live Reptiles in Indonesia”, In: Conservation, Trade and Sustainable Use of Lizards and Snakes in Indonesia, Mertensiella 9, 1st September 1998, Rhein-bach. 74

Theiler, M. (1998): pet shop in Switzerland, specialised on reptiles, Turtle Price List, 15.12.98. 75

Frazer, J. G. (1997): “Management of Tropical Chelonians: Dream or Nightmare?”, In: Proceedings: Conservation, Restora-tion and Management of Tortoises and Turtles – An International Conference, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, 422ff..

76

Fritz, U. & Obst, F.J. (1998): ”Neue Schildkröten aus Südostasien. Teil I. Platysternidae und Bataguridae (Cuora)”, Sauria, Berlin 1998, 20 (4), 9-22. 77

Fritz, U. & Obst, F.J. (1999): ”Neue Schildkröten aus Südost-asien. Teil II. Bataguridae (Cyclemys, Heosemys, Mauremys, Ocadia, Pyxidea, Sacalia) and Trionychidae”, Sauria, Berlin 1999, 21 (1), 11-26. 78

Monet Overseas Trading (1999): Indonesian Reptiles. Internet-price list at www.monet.nl, 3rd April 1999. 79

Bringsoe, H. (1991): “Indtryk fra et besog i Hong Kong og pa et skildpaddemarket i Guangzhou, sydlige Kina.” Nordisk Herpetolo-gisk Forening, No.8, 154-162. 80

Anonymous (1999): „Schildkröten als Hausgenossen – urtüm-lich und geheimnisvoll“. Unsere Tiere Daheim (German pet maga-zine), 1/99, 34 ff.. 81

IUCN/SSC/TFTSG (1991): ”Tortoises and Freshwater Turtles – An Action Plan for their Conservation”. IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, second edition – 1991. 82

Nietzke, G. (1998): „Die Terrarientiere – Band 2: Schildkröten, Brückenechsen und Echsen“, Ulmer-Verlag, Stuttgart. 83

Smart, A.C. & Bride, I. (1993): “The UK Trade in live reptiles and amphibians”. Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, University of Kent. 84 Whitaker, R. & Andrews, H.V.: “Captive Breeding of Indian Turtles and Tortoises at the Centre for Herpetology/Madras Crocodile Bank”, in Proceedings: Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles - An International Confer-ence, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, 166 ff.. 85

Kaesuk Yoon, C. (1999): “Turtles vanish in black hole: soup pots and pans of China”, New York Times, 4th May 1999. 86

US Fish & Wildlife Service (1999): “Species assessment for Cuora trifasciata”. Information provided to the German CITES Scientific Authority (March 1999). 87

Behler, J.L. (1997): “Troubled times for turtles”. In Proceedings: Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles - An International Conference, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, xviii ff.. 88

Choudhury, B.C.; Sharma, D.K. & Sengupta, S. (1999): Diversity and Distribution of Kachuga in Kamrum District, Assam. Tigerpaper 26 (1), 27 ff.. 89

Ahsan, M.F. (1997): “The Bostami or Black Softshell Turtle, Aspideretes nigricans: Problems and Proposed Conservation Measures,” In Proceedings: Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles - An International Conference, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, 287 ff.. 90

CoP 11 Doc. 11.35.: “Trade in Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises to and in Southeast Asia”. 91

CoP 11 Prop. 11.36.: “Inclusion of all species of the genus Cuora s.l. in Appendix II”. 92

Artner, H. (1998): „Die Schildkrötengattung Cuora unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von Cuora pani“. Presentation at the Annual Meeting of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Herpetologie und Terrarienkunde, 2nd - 6th September 1998. 94

Le Thuy, T. (2000) : “Mock Turtles – or a whole new genus ?”, The Vietnam Investment Review, 10th January 2000.

Documents

THE DECLINE OF ASIAN TURTLES - Pro Wildlife · The Decline of Asian Turtles Pro Wildlife 3 1. Summary Southeast-Asia holds the richest diversity of terrestrial turtles in the world,