The Death and Life of American Cities (1961) Jane Jacob’s attack on Modernist Planning

The Death and Life of The Death and Life of American Cities (1961)American Cities (1961)

Jane Jacob’s attack on Jane Jacob’s attack on Modernist PlanningModernist Planning

The Death and Life of American The Death and Life of American CitiesCities

Jacobs observes wholesale renewal / Jacobs observes wholesale renewal / redevelopment – “the sacking of cities”redevelopment – “the sacking of cities”

1950’s & 60’s response to 1950’s & 60’s response to surburbanization and central city decay – surburbanization and central city decay – – Urban RenewalUrban Renewal– New HighwaysNew Highways– Modernist Public HousingModernist Public Housing


Morningside Heights (NYC)Morningside Heights (NYC)

– Parks, Open SpacesParks, Open Spaces– No Industry (Euclidian Zoning)No Industry (Euclidian Zoning)– Slum RemovalSlum Removal– Public Housing Public Housing


Goals of Modernist City Rebuilding: Goals of Modernist City Rebuilding: ““Need to get people off of the street”. Need to get people off of the street”.

Standard Redlining by Banks – East End Standard Redlining by Banks – East End of Boston. of Boston.

Jacob’s Conclusion – Mondernist View of Jacob’s Conclusion – Mondernist View of City Rebuilding & poor neighborhoods out City Rebuilding & poor neighborhoods out of touch with reality. of touch with reality.


Jacob’s Ideal CityJacob’s Ideal City

– Cities need an intricate and close grained Cities need an intricate and close grained diversity of uses to give each other mutual diversity of uses to give each other mutual support “Organic / Holistic city”support “Organic / Holistic city”

– Cities should be dynamic places with intrinsic Cities should be dynamic places with intrinsic vitalityvitality

– ““Fertile ground for the plans of thousands”Fertile ground for the plans of thousands”

Jacob’s Three Prong Attack Jacob’s Three Prong Attack

(1) Ebenezer Howard – “Garden Cities of (1) Ebenezer Howard – “Garden Cities of Tomorrow”(circa 1898)Tomorrow”(circa 1898)– City perceived as evilCity perceived as evil– Accommodate growth through self sufficient Accommodate growth through self sufficient

garden citiesgarden cities– Population capped at 30,000Population capped at 30,000– Paternalistic & uniform society. Paternalistic & uniform society.


Garden Cities in AmericaGarden Cities in America– Clarence Stein, Lewis Mumford, Catherine Clarence Stein, Lewis Mumford, Catherine

Bauer – cities a “chaotic accident”Bauer – cities a “chaotic accident”New Suburbia: New Suburbia: – houses face away from streets houses face away from streets – SuperblocksSuperblocks– Consolidate number of streetsConsolidate number of streets– Commerce & residences separatedCommerce & residences separated– Radburn / “New TownsRadburn / “New Towns


(2) Le Corbusier(2) Le Corbusier

– 1920’s Radiant City (skyscraper within the 1920’s Radiant City (skyscraper within the park)park)

– Vertical, High Density CityVertical, High Density City– Open Space 95 %, Skyscrapers 5%Open Space 95 %, Skyscrapers 5%– Elevated Motor TracksElevated Motor Tracks– ““Vertical Garden City”Vertical Garden City”


(3) City Beautiful(3) City Beautiful– Burnham, Columbian ExpositionBurnham, Columbian Exposition– ““Monument Planning”Monument Planning”– Center Monumental – Classical Monuments, Center Monumental – Classical Monuments,

Baroque Boulevards, ParksBaroque Boulevards, Parks– Separated from city, self contained units. Separated from city, self contained units.


Jacob’s Summary – Jacob’s Summary –

Radiant Garden City Beautiful Radiant Garden City Beautiful

(Lincoln Center, NYC)(Lincoln Center, NYC)

Between Modernity & PostmodernityBetween Modernity & Postmodernity Robert Beauregard (1989)Robert Beauregard (1989)

Modernist Approaches: Modernist Approaches: – Reason / DemocracyReason / Democracy– Technical RationalityTechnical Rationality– Coordinated & Functional CityCoordinated & Functional City– Middle Class SocietyMiddle Class Society

Between Modernity & PostmodernityBetween Modernity & Postmodernity

Structure of ArticleStructure of Article

– History of Modernist PlanningHistory of Modernist Planning– Deconstruction of Modernist Planning Deconstruction of Modernist Planning

(postmodernism)(postmodernism)– How to encompass both modern and How to encompass both modern and

postmodern approaches within planningpostmodern approaches within planning


History of Modern PlanningHistory of Modern Planning

– Counter the “chaos” of the city. Counter the “chaos” of the city. – ““Organized and physically coherent cities Organized and physically coherent cities

grounded in good functional and aesthetic grounded in good functional and aesthetic principles” principles”

– Master Plan and Master PlanningMaster Plan and Master Planning


Early Planning PractitionersEarly Planning Practitioners

– Housing ReformHousing Reform– Responding to Social Needs, challenges of Responding to Social Needs, challenges of

planning practice. planning practice. – Common senseCommon sense


The Emergence of Planning TheoryThe Emergence of Planning Theory

– Post WWII, University of ChicagoPost WWII, University of Chicago– Shift away from “learning by doing” Shift away from “learning by doing” – Less Problem Solving, more textbooksLess Problem Solving, more textbooks– Schools train “teachers” & not “planners”Schools train “teachers” & not “planners”– Emergence of abstract “theorizing” distanced Emergence of abstract “theorizing” distanced

from demands of practitioners. from demands of practitioners.


The Dominant Theoretical Planning Paradigm: The Dominant Theoretical Planning Paradigm: Comprehensive / Rational Model of Problem Solving Comprehensive / Rational Model of Problem Solving

- Scientific & Objective LogicScientific & Objective Logic- European rationalism / American PragmatismEuropean rationalism / American Pragmatism- Sense of “detachment” and unaffected objectivitySense of “detachment” and unaffected objectivity- UnpoliticalUnpolitical- Transportation infrastructure / circulation of commoditiesTransportation infrastructure / circulation of commodities- Rise of Middle Class “all enjoy the good life”Rise of Middle Class “all enjoy the good life”


Modernist Planning BesiegedModernist Planning Besieged

– Question the unpolitical “objectivity” of Question the unpolitical “objectivity” of PlannersPlanners

– Mixing of Economic and Political interestsMixing of Economic and Political interests– Planners less involved in “master planning” Planners less involved in “master planning” – Now “public – private partnerships”Now “public – private partnerships”– Planners cannot conduct business outside the Planners cannot conduct business outside the

realm of public scrutiny & debate. realm of public scrutiny & debate.

Between Modernity & Between Modernity & PostmodernityPostmodernity

Overall, planning theory remains rooted Overall, planning theory remains rooted within internal intellectualizing and within internal intellectualizing and detached from the real social context of detached from the real social context of planning practice. While practice has lost planning practice. While practice has lost its "neutral" meditative position, planning its "neutral" meditative position, planning theory remains rooted in critical theory remains rooted in critical detachment. detachment.


Three suggestions from Beauregard to Three suggestions from Beauregard to reconstruct planning theory to accept the reconstruct planning theory to accept the reality of postmodernism while maintaining reality of postmodernism while maintaining a basic modernist sensibility and approach a basic modernist sensibility and approach to problem solving:to problem solving:


(1) Planners must reevaluate how they view and (1) Planners must reevaluate how they view and understand the built environment, understand the built environment, comprehending how city building is linked to comprehending how city building is linked to political, economic and cultural phenomena. political, economic and cultural phenomena. (2) Planners must abandon "apolitical" (2) Planners must abandon "apolitical" detachment and become more involved within detachment and become more involved within the communities they represent, specifically the communities they represent, specifically acting as a countervailing power to "capital". acting as a countervailing power to "capital". (3) Open the theoretical paradigm to (3) Open the theoretical paradigm to multiculturalism, accepting different methods of multiculturalism, accepting different methods of approaching and understanding urban society approaching and understanding urban society and the built environment. and the built environment.

Planning Theory’s Emerging Paradigm: Planning Theory’s Emerging Paradigm: Communicative Action and Interactive PracticeCommunicative Action and Interactive Practice

Judith InnesJudith Innes

New planning theorists are emerging.New planning theorists are emerging.– See planning as an interactive, See planning as an interactive,

communicative activity and depict planners as communicative activity and depict planners as deeply embedded in the fabric of community, deeply embedded in the fabric of community, politics, and public decision-making.politics, and public decision-making.

– They document what planners do and reflect They document what planners do and reflect critically on that practice.critically on that practice.

– Different than “systematic” planning theory – Different than “systematic” planning theory – studying impacts and planning at the studying impacts and planning at the incremental level.incremental level.


Communicative Action TheoristsCommunicative Action Theorists– Address planning issues differently than Address planning issues differently than

“systematic” or instrumental rationality “systematic” or instrumental rationality theorists.theorists.

– By simple numbers, the planning theory base By simple numbers, the planning theory base is changing – which changes the type of is changing – which changes the type of communication that takes place – evolution.communication that takes place – evolution.


Systematic TheoristsSystematic Theorists– Seldom reported first hand experience.Seldom reported first hand experience.– Based much of it’s focus on tacit assumption.Based much of it’s focus on tacit assumption.– Not part of politicsNot part of politics– Were tired of in uncertainty and could never Were tired of in uncertainty and could never

tie down a solution as problems evolved or tie down a solution as problems evolved or changed.changed.


Communicative Action TheoristsCommunicative Action Theorists– Find out what planners do – there is no “tacit” Find out what planners do – there is no “tacit”

impression.impression.– See planners as actors rather than observers See planners as actors rather than observers

and experts.and experts.– Rely on qualitative interpretive inquiry rather Rely on qualitative interpretive inquiry rather

than logical deductive analysis.than logical deductive analysis.


The Study of PracticeThe Study of Practice– Information that influences is information that is Information that influences is information that is

socially constructed in the community where it is socially constructed in the community where it is used.used.

– Learning, deciding and acting may not be Learning, deciding and acting may not be distinguished in successful community development.distinguished in successful community development.

– This is not to say that what becomes “common” in This is not to say that what becomes “common” in practice is always correct. Continued analysis is practice is always correct. Continued analysis is required of what may be considered “common required of what may be considered “common knowledge” information.knowledge” information.


Building the FrameworkBuilding the Framework– Accepting instrumental rationality and the Accepting instrumental rationality and the

scientific method, but focus attention on scientific method, but focus attention on critical “pathways of knowing” that are critical “pathways of knowing” that are designed to get past the embedded power designed to get past the embedded power relations in a society.relations in a society.

– Pathways of knowing are found in self Pathways of knowing are found in self reflection, discourse, and praxis.reflection, discourse, and praxis.


Further DirectionFurther Direction– Institutional design - cannot be followed – new Institutional design - cannot be followed – new

pathways of thought and practice are being pathways of thought and practice are being created.created.

– Ethics – change with the institutions that Ethics – change with the institutions that implement them. This goes beyond implement them. This goes beyond professional ethics and encompasses professional ethics and encompasses substantive and procedural ethics.substantive and procedural ethics.

Advocacy & Pluralism in PlanningAdvocacy & Pluralism in Planning Paul Davidoff 1965Paul Davidoff 1965

The prospect for future planning is that of The prospect for future planning is that of a practice openly inviting political and a practice openly inviting political and social values to be examined and debated.social values to be examined and debated.

Appropriate planning cannot be prescribed Appropriate planning cannot be prescribed from a position of value neutrality, for from a position of value neutrality, for prescriptions are based on desired prescriptions are based on desired objectives.objectives.

Advocacy & Pluralism in PlanningAdvocacy & Pluralism in Planning

Planners must and should engage in the Planners must and should engage in the political process as advocates of the political process as advocates of the interests both of government and of such interests both of government and of such other groups, organizations or individuals other groups, organizations or individuals who are concerned with proposing policies who are concerned with proposing policies for the future development of the for the future development of the community.community.


The welfare of all and the welfare of The welfare of all and the welfare of minorities are both deserving of support: minorities are both deserving of support: planning must be so structured and so planning must be so structured and so practiced as to account for this practiced as to account for this unavoidable bifurcation of the public unavoidable bifurcation of the public interest.interest.The idealized political process serves the The idealized political process serves the search for truth in much the same manner search for truth in much the same manner as due process in law.as due process in law.


The advocacy of alternative plans The advocacy of alternative plans improves planning by:improves planning by:– 1) serving as a means of better informing the 1) serving as a means of better informing the

public of the alternative choices open.public of the alternative choices open.– 2) forcing the public agency to compete with 2) forcing the public agency to compete with

other planning groups to wing political other planning groups to wing political support.support.

– 3) forcing those who are critical of the 3) forcing those who are critical of the “establishment” plans to produce superior “establishment” plans to produce superior plans.plans.


Planner as AdvocatePlanner as Advocate– Acts as the “devil’s advocate” to the client, but Acts as the “devil’s advocate” to the client, but

for the purpose of finding creative solutions.for the purpose of finding creative solutions.– Find techniques for evaluating alternative Find techniques for evaluating alternative

plans.plans.– Be a researcher and educator about the Be a researcher and educator about the

pertinent issues.pertinent issues.– Be a voice for the client.Be a voice for the client.– Shepard the client through the planning Shepard the client through the planning

process.process.


The Structure of PlanningThe Structure of Planning– Citizen participation are more often reacting to Citizen participation are more often reacting to

agency programs than proposing their agency programs than proposing their concepts of appropriate goals and future concepts of appropriate goals and future action.action.

Political Organizations, special interest groups and Political Organizations, special interest groups and ad-hoc protest associations don’t propose plans – ad-hoc protest associations don’t propose plans – but react to them. but react to them.

Creation of plans will only likely be initiated at the Creation of plans will only likely be initiated at the neighborhood level.neighborhood level.


The Public Planning AgencyThe Public Planning Agency– Effective, democratic planning is hindered by Effective, democratic planning is hindered by

the Planning Commissionthe Planning CommissionThe PC:The PC:

– is not responsible to any contingency, is not responsible to any contingency, – is not “professional planners”, is not “professional planners”, – reduces the possibility of enlightened political debate, reduces the possibility of enlightened political debate, – is yet another board that distances itself from community is yet another board that distances itself from community

by focusing on land-use planning rather than embodying by focusing on land-use planning rather than embodying social, economic and political value alternatives to social, economic and political value alternatives to develop a community.develop a community.


An Inclusive DefinitionAn Inclusive Definition– City planning is not just organizing the “built” City planning is not just organizing the “built”

environment. Types of building take on value environment. Types of building take on value by those who use it, not by the structure itself.by those who use it, not by the structure itself.

– As such, planners have been blamed for As such, planners have been blamed for perpetuating social and economic problems perpetuating social and economic problems through either not addressing them or through either not addressing them or addressing them inappropriately.addressing them inappropriately.


– Solutions (by Davidoff) include:Solutions (by Davidoff) include:Legislation should be amended to permit planning Legislation should be amended to permit planning department to study and to prepare plans related department to study and to prepare plans related to any are of public concern.to any are of public concern.

Planning education must be redirected so as to Planning education must be redirected so as to provide channels of specialization in different parts provide channels of specialization in different parts of public planning and a core focused upon the of public planning and a core focused upon the planning process.planning process.

Professional planning should enlarge its scope so Professional planning should enlarge its scope so as not to exclude city planners not specializing in as not to exclude city planners not specializing in physical planning.physical planning.

Documents

The Death and Life of American Cities (1961) Jane Jacob’s attack on Modernist Planning