The Current Status and Development of Japanese Studies in

JRCA Vol. 20, No. 2 (2019), pp.145-161

The Current Status and Development of Japanese Studies in Taiwan:

From a Folklore-Centred Perspective

Cheng Wei Lin Taipei National University of Arts

IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn ‘Japanese studies’ has quite a history of development in Taiwanese academia. While it has accumulated a number of results, it still has not been recognized as an academic discipline. It stands only as a subfield of Asia-Pacific studies with an expertise on Japan. Primary developments in Japanese studies focus on Japanese language and literature; it is not yet fully prepared to form active connections with other contemporary academic disciplines for academic integration. Taking the current author’s areas of interest, folklore and cultural history, as examples, research related to ‘Japanese studies’ can be roughly divided into the following aspects: 1) investigations of Japanese culture, art, and political economy from past to present, such as Zhu Shun Shui and the Spread of East Asian Culture by Shyu Shing-Ching, Japan’s Political Transformation and Diplomatic Policies by Huang Sung-Hsien, and Flower of Faith: The Guide of Japanese Festival by the current author; and 2) studies that focus on ‘Japanese’ elements introduced to Taiwan during the colonial rule before the war, including elements about political economy, society, religion, and customs. This type of research can be further divided based on aspects of Japanese, Han Chinese, and aborigine, or discussed from the perspective of the ruler and the ruled. Some representative works

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RReesseeaarrcchh oonn SShhiinnttoo HHeerriittaaggee ffrroomm tthhee JJaappaanneessee CCoolloonniiaall PPeerriioodd SShhiinnttoo rreelliiggiioonn aanndd sshhrriinneess iinn TTaaiiwwaann bbeeffoorree tthhee wwaarr Japanese religious objects such as shrines, torii (bird abode), and komainu (lion dogs) remain scattered all over Taiwan to this present day. Whether they became cultural assets, literature and history enthusiasts’ collectibles, or rebuilt and damaged remains, these worldly existences are records of the presence of Shinto in Taiwan’s history. Taiwan was Japan’s first overseas colony in modern history. Over the period of the half a century of Japanese colonial rule, Japanese culture affected Taiwan at full scale through jurisdiction implementation, population flow, business exchange, and spread of religion. Among the Japanese religions, Shinto was introduced to Taiwan on a large scale while under Japanese rule. The successive introduction of Jinsha Shinto, State Shinto, Sect Shinto, and folk religions made Shinto the most influential foreign religion in Taiwan before the mid-20th century. According to statistics by the Association of Shinto Shrines, there were over 200 shrines in Taiwan then. That number could exceed 400 if other smaller Shinto-related facilities are taken into consideration. For example, there were over 50 shrines that worshipped the deity Inari. During the Japanese colonial period, not only were Shinto shrines built all over Taiwan, but Shinto-related cultural traditions such as sacrificial offerings to a deity as well as religious practice and festivals were also introduced. The ways of disseminating and developing Shinto in Taiwan could be divided into the creation of shrines under State Shinto and the non-political, education-oriented folk Shinto, which were mostly established by Japanese immigrants in Taiwan. The former approach could be represented by the Taiwan Grand

The Current Status and Development of Japanese Studies in Taiwan

include The Different Intentions behind the Semblance of ‘Douka’: The Language Policy, Modernization and Identity in Taiwan During the Japan-Ruling Period by Chen Pei-Feng, The Colonial and Post-Colonial Study of Buddhism in Taiwan by Kan Cheng-Tsung, and The Empires on Taiwan: Time, Space, Knowledge, and Sentiment of Colonial Taiwan edited by Li Cheng-Chi and Lee Yu-Lin; and 3) Studies on Japanese in Taiwan before the war. This type of research is lacking in both quality and quantity. In addition to being limited by insufficient basic research information, issues such as previous political ideology, and time and space barriers are also contributing factors. Some representative works include Folk Customs in Taiwan and the Japanese by Chen Yan-Hong, Unfinished Colonization: Japanese Immigrant Villages in Taiwan by Chang Su-Bing, and Religious Styles and Cultural Heritage: The Folk Religion of Japanese in Taiwan during the Japanese Colonial Period by the current author. The types of research approaches described above respectively reflect the diverse and abundant aspects of Japanese studies in Taiwan. However, parallel links between these three types of research are currently missing. By effectively integrating these three study approaches based on Taiwan as a standpoint respective to the history of Japan, and by inspecting the Japanese elements in Taiwan before Japanese colonization and after the war, the current author has the confidence to break through existing frameworks on ‘Japanese studies’ and deepen the level of understanding about the overall culture. This article will use studies on folk Shinto (the way of the Gods), folk Buddhism, and costume culture as examples for exploring new directions for ‘Japanese studies’ under multiple aspects.

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RReesseeaarrcchh oonn SShhiinnttoo HHeerriittaaggee ffrroomm tthhee JJaappaanneessee CCoolloonniiaall PPeerriioodd SShhiinnttoo rreelliiggiioonn aanndd sshhrriinneess iinn TTaaiiwwaann bbeeffoorree tthhee wwaarr Japanese religious objects such as shrines, torii (bird abode), and komainu (lion dogs) remain scattered all over Taiwan to this present day. Whether they became cultural assets, literature and history enthusiasts’ collectibles, or rebuilt and damaged remains, these worldly existences are records of the presence of Shinto in Taiwan’s history. Taiwan was Japan’s first overseas colony in modern history. Over the period of the half a century of Japanese colonial rule, Japanese culture affected Taiwan at full scale through jurisdiction implementation, population flow, business exchange, and spread of religion. Among the Japanese religions, Shinto was introduced to Taiwan on a large scale while under Japanese rule. The successive introduction of Jinsha Shinto, State Shinto, Sect Shinto, and folk religions made Shinto the most influential foreign religion in Taiwan before the mid-20th century. According to statistics by the Association of Shinto Shrines, there were over 200 shrines in Taiwan then. That number could exceed 400 if other smaller Shinto-related facilities are taken into consideration. For example, there were over 50 shrines that worshipped the deity Inari. During the Japanese colonial period, not only were Shinto shrines built all over Taiwan, but Shinto-related cultural traditions such as sacrificial offerings to a deity as well as religious practice and festivals were also introduced. The ways of disseminating and developing Shinto in Taiwan could be divided into the creation of shrines under State Shinto and the non-political, education-oriented folk Shinto, which were mostly established by Japanese immigrants in Taiwan. The former approach could be represented by the Taiwan Grand

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demolished or rebuilt because the government at the time considered them as the remains of the Japanese empire’s colonial invasion. It was not until recent years that a new awareness emerged to view former historical remains from a historical, cultural, and artistic perspective. This led to the protection of religious heritage and cultural assets, as well as a gradual increase in the reuse of the remaining shrines. For example, the New Taipei City Government Gold Museum in Jinguashi studied, displayed, and published the harmonious history of coexistence between Shinto and local religions such as Guan Gong and Mazu at Jinguashi Mine in the past century. By reproducing the mine’s Mountain God Festival and hosting special shrine exhibitions at the city monument of Jinguashi Shrine, the lost glory of Jinguashi Mine was brought back to life. Located at a Japanese immigrants’ village in eastern Taiwan, the Luye Shrine managed to give rebirth to the long barren historical site with a budget infusion from the East Rift Valley National Scenic Area and local government. Under the name of building tourist attractions, a revitalization project is underway to rebuild the shrine. In southern Taiwan, there is also a shrine inside Yanshui Elementary School, formerly the Yanshui branch of Chiayi Japanese Language Training Institute (kokugo denshujo). This school shrine was built in 1940; it was modified into a Confucius temple after the war with a part of the remaining structure still preserved. As one of the three remaining school shrines in Tainan City, it was recognized by the city government as a ‘historical architecture’ for repair and restoration in 2005, owing to its value in cultural asset preservation. After much discussion, it was decided to restore the shrine’s appearance while keeping the architectural image of a Confucius temple. The restoration of this historical site was completed in 2008. As a result of their cultural values, economic benefits, and historical memories,


Shrine, completed in 1901, as an example. Around 1935, State Shinto launched the strategy of setting ‘a shrine a street’ under the Office of the Taiwan Governor-General’s policies such as remaking folk customs and the Kominka movement. Over the course of a few years, shrines were built all over Taiwan as they became the locations for Kominka and spiritual education. As an example the municipal historic site of Taoyuan Shinto Shrine, which was a product of State Shinto during this time, was the most well-preserved Shinto architecture outside Japan. An example of a shrine established by the general public for their religion is the Jinguashi Shrine built in 1898; it was the first shrine ever founded in northern Taiwan and has become a municipal historic site. HHiissttoorriiccaall sshhrriinneess aanndd rreessttoorreedd SShhiinnttoo aarrcchhiitteeccttuurree After the war, shrines that were established for different purposes at different times during the Japanese colonial period gradually lost their original religious functions as the regime changed and believers left. On one hand, the promulgation of regulations such as ‘The Administrative Order for Municipal Governments to Demolish Japanese and Traitor Architectures, Towers, and Monuments’ by Taiwan Provincial Administrative Executive Office in 1946 and ‘The Guidelines to Remove Historical Sites from Colonization by Japanese Imperialism’ by the Ministry of the Interior in 1974 made these shrines and Shinto-related facilities primary targets for demolition. Nonetheless, some of the shrines serendipitously survived and were handed down to this present day. Such examples include the well-preserved Taoyuan Shinto Shrine, and the structural remains of the Jinguashi, Tongxiao, and Kagi Shrines. These have become important historical remains for the colonial memory of Shinto development in Taiwan. Between 1950 and 1980, these shrines were

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demolished or rebuilt because the government at the time considered them as the remains of the Japanese empire’s colonial invasion. It was not until recent years that a new awareness emerged to view former historical remains from a historical, cultural, and artistic perspective. This led to the protection of religious heritage and cultural assets, as well as a gradual increase in the reuse of the remaining shrines. For example, the New Taipei City Government Gold Museum in Jinguashi studied, displayed, and published the harmonious history of coexistence between Shinto and local religions such as Guan Gong and Mazu at Jinguashi Mine in the past century. By reproducing the mine’s Mountain God Festival and hosting special shrine exhibitions at the city monument of Jinguashi Shrine, the lost glory of Jinguashi Mine was brought back to life. Located at a Japanese immigrants’ village in eastern Taiwan, the Luye Shrine managed to give rebirth to the long barren historical site with a budget infusion from the East Rift Valley National Scenic Area and local government. Under the name of building tourist attractions, a revitalization project is underway to rebuild the shrine. In southern Taiwan, there is also a shrine inside Yanshui Elementary School, formerly the Yanshui branch of Chiayi Japanese Language Training Institute (kokugo denshujo). This school shrine was built in 1940; it was modified into a Confucius temple after the war with a part of the remaining structure still preserved. As one of the three remaining school shrines in Tainan City, it was recognized by the city government as a ‘historical architecture’ for repair and restoration in 2005, owing to its value in cultural asset preservation. After much discussion, it was decided to restore the shrine’s appearance while keeping the architectural image of a Confucius temple. The restoration of this historical site was completed in 2008. As a result of their cultural values, economic benefits, and historical memories,

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channels during the Japanese colonial period. The establishment of stone Buddhas was based on folk religion. Created by the common people, the stone Buddhas were situated among roads, cemeteries, temples, and mountains to comfort people’s inner worries, uneasiness, and desires for the most faithful protection. This style of religion offers spiritual support to the general public, and most of these Buddhas cannot be simply classified as Buddhist or Shinto. As a result of the religion’s strong folk characteristics, only a limited number of related written records remain in existence. The development of Japanese stone Buddhas in Taiwan can be traced back to July 1905. It was launched by Isahaya Ejun and Sanyutei Yorozuasa, who were supervisors at the Mihashicho Funeral Home. The six Dizang stone Buddhas at the entrance of Mihashicho Cemetery was the first Japanese stone Buddha ever set up in Taiwan according to current literature information and field examination results. The Rokujizo stone Buddha is a unique form of the Dizang religion in Japanese Buddhism. The six Dizang statues symbolize the rescue of all beings from samsara suffering. These statues were often set up at the entrance of a cemetery or on the side of a road, which was exactly the case for the six Dizang stone Buddhas positioned next to the Japanese Cemetery in Taipei during the Japanese colonial period in September of the same year, a Guanyin stone statue was built in Beitou by Japanese residents there, including Hirata Gengo, the owner of Tiangouan, a Beitou hot springs hotel, and Murakami Shoichi, a manager at the Railway Department of Transportation. This was done for the purpose of promoting the Beitou hot springs and praying for Beitou’s Japanese residents to develop prosperity. They hired masons to build the stone statue as a guardian of Beitou, with the name of Tang Shou Guanyin. The story about this Guanyin statue is documented in detail in Retrospectives of Hotsprings in Beitou,


these historical shrines still continue to be passed down 70 years after the war. Their existence and subsequent activation and application reflect the wisdom of contemporary Taiwanese in the face of history. TThhee LLeeggaaccyy aanndd SSttyyllee ooff FFoollkk BBuuddddhhiissmm iinn TTaaiiwwaann TThhee hheerriittaaggee ooff JJaappaanneessee ssttoonnee BBuuddddhhaass iinn TTaaiiwwaann When Japan ruled Taiwan in 1895, Japanese Buddhist missionary activities and the religions of Japanese immigrants introduced Japanese Buddhism to Taiwan, adding to the legacy of Qing dynasty Buddhism. At the time, different Buddhist sects came to establish temples and preaching facilities in Taiwan. Japanese Buddhist architecture was distinct from that of Chinese Buddhism, and related items such as Buddha statues, stonework, and religious paintings were also introduced to Taiwan. Not only did Japanese rule bring political, economic, and social changes to Taiwan, but the folk religion that accompanied Japanese immigrants also endowed Taiwanese society with a different culture. Among these influences, the introduction of Japanese stone Buddhas is worthy of special attention. As an important symbol of Japanese folk religion, stone Buddhas were distributed over different parts of Taiwan by the efforts and construction of religious Japanese in Taiwan. From the six Dizang stone Buddha statues that were set up in front of cemeteries as a symbol of the enlightenment of the six classes of beings, to the memory and transfer of stone Buddhas from Japanese sacred sites such as the Saigoku Kannon Pilgrimage and Shikoku Pilgrimage, and the Acala stone Buddhas that were worshipped to ease people’s minds, these examples demonstrate a different kind of religious culture that reflected Japanese folk religion in society other than the Buddhas that were introduced through different Buddhist sects and missionary

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channels during the Japanese colonial period. The establishment of stone Buddhas was based on folk religion. Created by the common people, the stone Buddhas were situated among roads, cemeteries, temples, and mountains to comfort people’s inner worries, uneasiness, and desires for the most faithful protection. This style of religion offers spiritual support to the general public, and most of these Buddhas cannot be simply classified as Buddhist or Shinto. As a result of the religion’s strong folk characteristics, only a limited number of related written records remain in existence. The development of Japanese stone Buddhas in Taiwan can be traced back to July 1905. It was launched by Isahaya Ejun and Sanyutei Yorozuasa, who were supervisors at the Mihashicho Funeral Home. The six Dizang stone Buddhas at the entrance of Mihashicho Cemetery was the first Japanese stone Buddha ever set up in Taiwan according to current literature information and field examination results. The Rokujizo stone Buddha is a unique form of the Dizang religion in Japanese Buddhism. The six Dizang statues symbolize the rescue of all beings from samsara suffering. These statues were often set up at the entrance of a cemetery or on the side of a road, which was exactly the case for the six Dizang stone Buddhas positioned next to the Japanese Cemetery in Taipei during the Japanese colonial period in September of the same year, a Guanyin stone statue was built in Beitou by Japanese residents there, including Hirata Gengo, the owner of Tiangouan, a Beitou hot springs hotel, and Murakami Shoichi, a manager at the Railway Department of Transportation. This was done for the purpose of promoting the Beitou hot springs and praying for Beitou’s Japanese residents to develop prosperity. They hired masons to build the stone statue as a guardian of Beitou, with the name of Tang Shou Guanyin. The story about this Guanyin statue is documented in detail in Retrospectives of Hotsprings in Beitou,

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Guanyin, during the first decade of the Japanese colonial period. Other types of stone Buddhas that had not previously appeared in Taiwan, such as Vairocana Buddha, Vanity Hidden Bodhisattva, and Vaisravana Maharaja, were also successively introduced to Taiwan during the Shikoku Temple Pilgrimage. In fact, the traditional establishment of single stone Buddhas continued to develop at the same time as groups of several stone Buddhas. For example, the owner of Beitou’s Hoshinoyu Hotel Sano Shotaro dug a cave in the Beitou mountains and worshipped Acalanatha to pray for success in business. When Japanese religions left Taiwan with political alternation after the war, a part of those Japanese stone Buddhas that had been introduced to Taiwan before the war was perceived as statues remaining from the Japanese colonial period and their worship continued. However, they were modified in appearance and location to demonstrate different religious cultures and believers’ perception of gods. Other than that, an analysis on the time and space of stone Buddha creation also examined the establishment of the New Shikoku 88 Temple Pilgrimage across Taiwan. In addition to the efforts and contribution of several religious Japanese in Taiwan, the establishment of such religious sites and the introduction of these religious events also reflected the close connections between temple pilgrimage and social background as well as public life expectations at the time. TThhee DDeevveellooppmmeenntt ooff CCoossttuummee PPaarraaddee iinn TTaaiiwwaann TThhee ccoossttuummee ccuullttuurree aanndd TTaaiiwwaann Dressing up is an important part of human civilization development. It is done by applying materials and colours to the body through clothes, make-up, and outfits in terms of body


written by one of the founders, Hirata Gengo. TThhee NNeeww SShhiikkookkuu 8888 TTeemmppllee PPiillggrriimmaaggee iinn TTaaiippeeii Returning to the development process of Japanese stone Buddhas in Taiwan. Ever since the late Meiji Period with the appearance of the six Dizang stone Buddhas at the Mihashicho Cemetery in Taipei, all the subsequent stone statues were single ones set up inside temples or on the side of a road for the purposes of prayer, offerings, and worship. However in 1925, a new religious facility – the New Shikoku 88 Temple Pilgrimage – was established in Taipei’s suburbs by Ogino Yoshino, Hirao Isaburo, and Okami Hisayoshi. This was the establishment of the first religious facility for stone Buddha pilgrimage in Taiwan, with 88 stone statues as the subjects for the Shikoku Pilgrimage. The approach of using stone Buddhas as the subjects for pilgrimage soon became quite popular. Before the New Shikoku 88 Temple Pilgrimage in Taipei celebrated its one-year anniversary, the New Saigoku 33 Temple Pilgrimage was immediately established at the foot of Mount Guanyin. The 33 stone Guanyin statues transferred the culture of Japanese Saigoku Guanyin Pilgrimage to Taiwan. Around 1928 and 1929, the ‘New Saigoku 33 Temple Pilgrimage’ was also successively established in Yilan, Hsinchu, and Keelung. These three pilgrimage sites also used stone Buddhas as the subjects of worship, which was a typical approach by local pilgrimage sites in Japan. As Shikoku and Saigoku temple pilgrimage became replicated at different locations, the number of Japanese stone Buddhas in Taiwan not only increased dramatically, but the styles also expanded from Dizang, Guanyin, and Kobo Daishi in Taipei, Hualien, and Hsinchu to six secret Guanyins at Saigoku 33 Temple Pilgrimage, such as Ekādaśamukha Avalokiteśvara, Cintamanicakra, and Hayagriva

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Guanyin, during the first decade of the Japanese colonial period. Other types of stone Buddhas that had not previously appeared in Taiwan, such as Vairocana Buddha, Vanity Hidden Bodhisattva, and Vaisravana Maharaja, were also successively introduced to Taiwan during the Shikoku Temple Pilgrimage. In fact, the traditional establishment of single stone Buddhas continued to develop at the same time as groups of several stone Buddhas. For example, the owner of Beitou’s Hoshinoyu Hotel Sano Shotaro dug a cave in the Beitou mountains and worshipped Acalanatha to pray for success in business. When Japanese religions left Taiwan with political alternation after the war, a part of those Japanese stone Buddhas that had been introduced to Taiwan before the war was perceived as statues remaining from the Japanese colonial period and their worship continued. However, they were modified in appearance and location to demonstrate different religious cultures and believers’ perception of gods. Other than that, an analysis on the time and space of stone Buddha creation also examined the establishment of the New Shikoku 88 Temple Pilgrimage across Taiwan. In addition to the efforts and contribution of several religious Japanese in Taiwan, the establishment of such religious sites and the introduction of these religious events also reflected the close connections between temple pilgrimage and social background as well as public life expectations at the time. TThhee DDeevveellooppmmeenntt ooff CCoossttuummee PPaarraaddee iinn TTaaiiwwaann TThhee ccoossttuummee ccuullttuurree aanndd TTaaiiwwaann Dressing up is an important part of human civilization development. It is done by applying materials and colours to the body through clothes, make-up, and outfits in terms of body

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intended to attend the Xiahai City God Temple Festival during the late Qing dynasty. The residents travelled to Fuzhou to order the costumes for General Xie and General Fan that year, for the purpose of welcoming the spirit. Such a phenomenon of travelling to Fuzhou to order holy general costumes persisted throughout the Japanese colonial period. For example, the holy General Xie and General Fan at Xinzhuang Dizang An were purchased by Gu Xian-Rong in 1911 from Fuzhou as a votive offering. In addition, followers of the Yilan City God Temple also travelled to Fuzhou to place custom orders for General Xie and General Fan’s costumes in 1914. In 1924, Dalongdong De Le Xuan also purchased General Yang and General Li from China and gave them to Dalongdong Bao’An Temple, as the guardian holy generals for Baosheng Dadi’s pilgrimage. Other than the examples described above, much research literature has demonstrated the prevalence of assembling holy generals to go on pilgrimage during festivals while worshipping them in temples at ordinary times. This was a fairly common religious practice in Taiwan. The cultural expression of fitting performers inside giant costumes and having them walk swaying to meet religious requirements can be described as the most extensive spread of costume culture in Taiwan since the Qing dynasty. Other than this, there is another type of costume culture that similarly dresses up performers as holy generals through face painting, by wearing holy robes and holding religious props. Some representative examples of this type of culture include the Eight Generals and Lead Generals. Of course, other folk customs such as the aquatic animal array, aboriginal music and dance, and celestial drama are also a part of such a culture. TThhee iinnttrroodduuccttiioonn ooff tthhee ccoossttuummee ppaarraaddee ffrroomm JJaappaann ‘Costume culture’ refers to a group performance that resembles


accessories and colourful graphic depictions or can take a human form in installation and performance. The underlying intentions of such dress up and costume behaviours are none other than the pursuit of beauty and demonstration of status, but they are also closely related to religions. This can be observed from the religious rituals and festive celebrations in different countries. Some examples include Taiwan’s traditional and widely popular representations of God and holy generals such as General Xie and General Fan, Qianliyan (Clairvoyant), Santaizi (the Third Prince), Ba Jia Jiang (the Eight Generals) played by performers, and Lead Generals. In fact, a different kind of costume parade was introduced to Taiwan from Japan during the Japanese colonial period, whereby performers would dress up for costume performances at specific festivals. While there were slight differences between holy generals and costume parades in terms of characters and styles of expression, their common approach of dressing up in costumes gave Taiwanese festivals a unique look during the Japanese colonial period. TThhee lleeggaaccyy ooff ccoossttuummee iinn TTaaiiwwaann’’ss HHaann ssoocciieettyy When holy generals march forward with beating gongs and drums during temple fairs, their enormous bodies and slightly exaggerated movements often make them the centre of attention. Performers are instantly transformed into the awe-inspiring General Xie and General Fan when they suit up as holy generals. The tradition of holy generals at folk festivals and parade formation directly played by performers is widely prevalent in Taiwan. The development of holy generals in the history of Taiwan can be traced back to the Qing dynasty, as confirmed by the time of the establishment of Ling An She, the most historical performance troupe in northern Taiwan. Located in Taipei, Ling An She was founded in 1871 by Dadaocheng residents who

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intended to attend the Xiahai City God Temple Festival during the late Qing dynasty. The residents travelled to Fuzhou to order the costumes for General Xie and General Fan that year, for the purpose of welcoming the spirit. Such a phenomenon of travelling to Fuzhou to order holy general costumes persisted throughout the Japanese colonial period. For example, the holy General Xie and General Fan at Xinzhuang Dizang An were purchased by Gu Xian-Rong in 1911 from Fuzhou as a votive offering. In addition, followers of the Yilan City God Temple also travelled to Fuzhou to place custom orders for General Xie and General Fan’s costumes in 1914. In 1924, Dalongdong De Le Xuan also purchased General Yang and General Li from China and gave them to Dalongdong Bao’An Temple, as the guardian holy generals for Baosheng Dadi’s pilgrimage. Other than the examples described above, much research literature has demonstrated the prevalence of assembling holy generals to go on pilgrimage during festivals while worshipping them in temples at ordinary times. This was a fairly common religious practice in Taiwan. The cultural expression of fitting performers inside giant costumes and having them walk swaying to meet religious requirements can be described as the most extensive spread of costume culture in Taiwan since the Qing dynasty. Other than this, there is another type of costume culture that similarly dresses up performers as holy generals through face painting, by wearing holy robes and holding religious props. Some representative examples of this type of culture include the Eight Generals and Lead Generals. Of course, other folk customs such as the aquatic animal array, aboriginal music and dance, and celestial drama are also a part of such a culture. TThhee iinnttrroodduuccttiioonn ooff tthhee ccoossttuummee ppaarraaddee ffrroomm JJaappaann ‘Costume culture’ refers to a group performance that resembles

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celebration events were held in Taipei City for the enthronement of Emperor Taisho. The celebration was especially lively as it featured costume performances such as the Warrior Parade and Seven Lucky Gods Parade, as well as the Taiwanese gong and drum performance and Yi Dan centipede parade. A game of ‘finding the disguised’ was derived from the performances. Similar to a cat and mouse chase, the game was made especially fun making use of changes in costume for general players to find the disguised person. In the 1920s and 30s, the development of costume parade in Taiwan adopted the same approach from the early days of the Japanese colonial period. People could be seen dressed up as impressive soldiers, warriors, and cavalry on official anniversaries. The themes of costume parades were especially interesting during shrine festivals. Some examples included foreigners, aborigines, nurses, monks, and traditional Japanese festive characters like the Seven Lucky Gods, Daruma dolls, Urashima Taro, and Momotaro. The competition reward system also became an important motivation for costume parade development. Everybody applied their creative imaginations to build the most unique and impressive design. This became a major feature of costume parades during the Japanese colonial period, and such a social atmosphere also gradually attracted Taiwanese to participate in costume parades. For example, Wanhua residents organized a committee in 1925 to develop costume parades in Taipei; they used 50 horses to form a costume parade with the theme of Records of the Three Kingdoms. In addition, fish suppliers in Ximen Market also released costumes for Urashima Taro and Ryuuguu Otohime. Festivals and celebrations are an indispensable part of folk culture in civil society regardless of whether they occurred during the Japanese colonial period a century ago or in modern day Taiwan.


parade formation, whereby performers are dressed up through costumes, make-up, and gadgets for festive, religious activities. This culture was introduced to Taiwan by Japan from at least 1905. As reported in ‘Taiwan Jih Jih Shin Pao’ that year, performers wore armour in a costume parade to celebrate Japan’s victory in naval battles. At the end of that same year, big celebration events with costume parades and fireworks were held in Taiwan to welcome the Governor-General Kodama Gentaro’s return from his position as the Manchurian Army’s Chief of General Staff during the Russo-Japanese War. This type of costume parade was widely popular in army memorial events, such as the 1907 Army Commemoration Day when soldiers were divided into different groups to give costume parade performances. Another example is the Soldiers’ Festival (Gunkisai) held in Tainan during the same year. This festival was celebrated by costume parades with officers and civilians, in combination with Taiwan traditional performing arts, fireworks, sumo, horse racing, and Geisha’s hand dance. The costume parade performance then was not limited to being a celebration entertainment for government agencies and armies. In celebration of the 1907 Taiwan Grand Shrine Festival, some Japanese people dressed up as Taiwanese locals to attend the festival. In the 1911 Lantern Parade organized by Tainan Products Exhibition, the costume parade was the most outstanding performance. At another charity performance in Taichung during the same year, the local gentry dressed up in costumes and gave a joint performance with Chinese flute (dong xiao and qin xiao), Chinese lute (pipa), sword dance, and ballad at Taichung Theater. On the other hand, the costume parade became one of the means of commercial advertisement at that time. Music bands and costume parades teamed up on the streets in Tainan to promote sales events. In 1915, many

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celebration events were held in Taipei City for the enthronement of Emperor Taisho. The celebration was especially lively as it featured costume performances such as the Warrior Parade and Seven Lucky Gods Parade, as well as the Taiwanese gong and drum performance and Yi Dan centipede parade. A game of ‘finding the disguised’ was derived from the performances. Similar to a cat and mouse chase, the game was made especially fun making use of changes in costume for general players to find the disguised person. In the 1920s and 30s, the development of costume parade in Taiwan adopted the same approach from the early days of the Japanese colonial period. People could be seen dressed up as impressive soldiers, warriors, and cavalry on official anniversaries. The themes of costume parades were especially interesting during shrine festivals. Some examples included foreigners, aborigines, nurses, monks, and traditional Japanese festive characters like the Seven Lucky Gods, Daruma dolls, Urashima Taro, and Momotaro. The competition reward system also became an important motivation for costume parade development. Everybody applied their creative imaginations to build the most unique and impressive design. This became a major feature of costume parades during the Japanese colonial period, and such a social atmosphere also gradually attracted Taiwanese to participate in costume parades. For example, Wanhua residents organized a committee in 1925 to develop costume parades in Taipei; they used 50 horses to form a costume parade with the theme of Records of the Three Kingdoms. In addition, fish suppliers in Ximen Market also released costumes for Urashima Taro and Ryuuguu Otohime. Festivals and celebrations are an indispensable part of folk culture in civil society regardless of whether they occurred during the Japanese colonial period a century ago or in modern day Taiwan.

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Cheng Wei Lin

Japanese studies. By using the current author’s recent research on folk Shinto, folk Buddhism, and costume culture as examples, this article explored and integrated the possibility of the expansion of Japanese studies from different perspectives. Based on the current status of three cultural expressions in Japan – Shinto religion, Japanese Buddhism, and folk culture – this article examined the development and status of Japanese culture introduced to Taiwan before the war, including Japanese immigrants’ cultural performance, as well as the parts that influenced Taiwanese social culture. The approach is to begin by having an idea of the original culture, followed by an understanding of cultural mobility and its influences under 50 years of Japanese colonization. Finally, the findings can be used to study Taiwan and Japan during the post-colonial era, in terms of the understanding, interpretation, and application of pre-war culture. In particular, the concept of cultural wealth and cultural heritage preservation has become a common value for many countries. The discussion on pre-war Shinto development and its post-war legacy in this article, as well as the current status and significance of stone Buddhas – a representative of Japan’s folk Buddhism in Taiwan – are findings that rarely appear in Japanese studies by other countries. Costume culture is a common mode of cultural performance among humans. Nevertheless, Japan’s unique costume culture appears to have formed connections with the lively festivals in Taiwanese folk society during its development in Taiwan a century ago. This type of cultural exchange, influence, and collusion offers potential research values for Japanese studies in Taiwan. The premise lies in fully understanding the sample of Japanese culture and using it as background knowledge to interpret different approaches and initiate new studies. In the past, research was often limited by subject division, language, environment, and academic tradition. The


However, a lack of comprehensive understanding about life contexts under Japanese rule in the past often led people to perceive a specific history with stereotypes of foreign rule, colonial homogenization, and discriminatory oppression. During the Japanese colonial period, festivals and celebrations in Taiwan appeared diverse and abundant. Holy generals and costume parades sometimes developed in parallel while at other times being presented collectively. Ever since the war, mikoshi lifted by people wearing Japanese festival clothing, and performers dancing to traditional Japanese music in the ‘Sulan parade’ can still be seen at different festivals in Taiwan. From the coexisting costume culture in earlier times to the traditional Japanese parade that remains popular in festivals, the legacy of these Japanese elements in Taiwanese festivals offers another possibility to understanding Taiwanese culture and traditions. CCoonncclluussiioonn Compared to other foreign countries, Taiwan has a deeper connection with Japan as a result of half a century of Japanese colonization. This sense of connection or bond continued after the war, making Japan a very familiar country to Taiwan in terms of geographic location and social structure. Such a background has also placed higher expectations on Taiwan’s Japanese studies to search for more possibilities. Japanese language and literature research is undoubtedly a very important topic for understanding Japan. The expansion of Japan-related knowledge and a grasp of the Japanese colonial period before the early 20th century will enrich and deepen Taiwan’s Japanese studies to a level unlike any other country. On the contrary, the distinctiveness of Taiwan’s Japanese studies will also be highlighted, as Japan acknowledges the critical influence of foreign

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Cheng Wei Lin

Japanese studies. By using the current author’s recent research on folk Shinto, folk Buddhism, and costume culture as examples, this article explored and integrated the possibility of the expansion of Japanese studies from different perspectives. Based on the current status of three cultural expressions in Japan – Shinto religion, Japanese Buddhism, and folk culture – this article examined the development and status of Japanese culture introduced to Taiwan before the war, including Japanese immigrants’ cultural performance, as well as the parts that influenced Taiwanese social culture. The approach is to begin by having an idea of the original culture, followed by an understanding of cultural mobility and its influences under 50 years of Japanese colonization. Finally, the findings can be used to study Taiwan and Japan during the post-colonial era, in terms of the understanding, interpretation, and application of pre-war culture. In particular, the concept of cultural wealth and cultural heritage preservation has become a common value for many countries. The discussion on pre-war Shinto development and its post-war legacy in this article, as well as the current status and significance of stone Buddhas – a representative of Japan’s folk Buddhism in Taiwan – are findings that rarely appear in Japanese studies by other countries. Costume culture is a common mode of cultural performance among humans. Nevertheless, Japan’s unique costume culture appears to have formed connections with the lively festivals in Taiwanese folk society during its development in Taiwan a century ago. This type of cultural exchange, influence, and collusion offers potential research values for Japanese studies in Taiwan. The premise lies in fully understanding the sample of Japanese culture and using it as background knowledge to interpret different approaches and initiate new studies. In the past, research was often limited by subject division, language, environment, and academic tradition. The

158 159

Cheng Wei Lin

2018 Keywords of Japanese Religious History Beyond Modernism. Keio University Press.


modern academic research environment has improved tremendously in terms of information acquisition. As cross-disciplinary collaborations and innovative research models gradually mature, Japanese studies in Taiwan are expected to take on a new path in the next decade. References Shyu Shing-Ching 1999 ‘Japanese Studies in Contemporary Taiwan’. Bulletin of Tenri University

190. Li Shih-Hui, 2013 ‘Japanese Studies in Contemporary Taiwan: Current Status and

Challenges’. Keio SFC Journal 13(1). Huang Chih-Huei 2009 ‘The Crossing of Japan’s View of Taiwan: From the Perspective of

Group and History’. Japanese Folklore 259. Ishi Kiyoteru 2018 ‘The Sociological Problems in the Memory of Japanese Residents in

Colonial Taiwan: Using the Life-History Approach’. Studies of Regional Policy 20(4).

Tanaka Senichi 2011 Dedication. God, People, Nature First Issue. Taiwan Jih Jih Shin Pao Lin Cheng Wei 2012 Religious Styles and Cultural Heritage: The Folk Religion of Japanese in

Taiwan during the Japanese Colonial Period. Artist Publishing. Lin Cheng Wei 2017 Flower of Faith: The Guide of Japanese Festival. Walkers Publishing. Lin Cheng Wei 2018 The Construction of Taiwanese Folklore: Heritage of Behaviors, Religion,

and Cultural Assets. TIPI. Otani Eiichi, Kikuchi Akira, and Nagaoka Takashi, eds.

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Cheng Wei Lin

2018 Keywords of Japanese Religious History Beyond Modernism. Keio University Press.

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The Current Status and Development of Japanese Studies in