The Cretan War 1645-1669

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Ottoman-VenetianWars2

The Cretan War

1645-1669

From Wikipedia 2011

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Kingdom of Candia (1205-1669)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Venetiansestieri of Crete in the 13th century: 1. Santi Apostoli (Holy Apostles), 2. San Marco (St Mark), 3. Santa Croce(Holy Cross), 4. Castello, 5. San Polo (St Paul), 6.Dorsoduro

Capital Candia

Religion Roman Catholicism (official) Greek Orthodoxy (popular)

Government Principality

Duke of Candia

- 12121216 Giacomo Tiepolo (first)

- 1667 Girolamo Battagia (last)

Historical era Middle Ages

- Dissolution ofByzantine Empire (Fourth Crusade) 1204

- Cession to Venice 1205

- Revolt of St. Titus August 1363 1368

- Ottoman conquest of Cyprus 1571

- Ottoman conquest of Crete 1669

- Ottoman conquest of remaining Cretan isles 1715

The Kingdom of Candia (Italian: Regno di Candia) orDuchy of Candia (Italian: Ducato di Candia) was the official name ofCrete during the island's period as an overseas colony of the Republic of Venice, from the initial Venetian conquest in 12051212to its fall to the Ottoman Empire during the Cretan War (16451669). The island was at the time and up to the early modern eracommonly known as Candia after its capital, Candia or Chandax (modern Heraklion). The island of Crete had formed part of theByzantine Empire until 1204, when the Fourth Crusade dissolved the empire and divided its territories amongst the crusaderleaders (see Frankokratia). Crete was initially allotted to Boniface of Montferrat, but, unable to enforce his control over the island,

he soon sold his rights to Venice. Venetian troops first occupied the island in 1205, but it took until 1212 for it to be secured,especially against the opposition of Venice's rival Genoa. Thereafter, the new colony took shape: the island was divided into sixprovinces (sestieri) named after the divisions of the city of Venice itself, while the capital Candia was directly subjected to theCommune Veneciarum. The islands ofTinos and Cythera, also under Venetian control, came under the kingdom's purview. In theearly fourteenth century, this division was replaced by four provinces, almost identical to the four modern prefectures. During the

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first two centuries of Venetian rule, revolts by the native Orthodox Greek population against the Roman Catholic Venetians werefrequent, often supported by the Empire of Nicaea. Fourteen revolts are counted between 1207 and the last major uprising, theRevolt of St. Titus in the 1360s, which united the Greeks and the Venetian coloni against the financial exactions of the metropolis.Thereafter, and despite occasional revolts and Turkish raids, the island largely prospered, and Venetian rule opened up a windowinto the ongoing Italian Renaissance. As a consequence, an artistic and literary revival unparalleled elsewhere in the Greek worldtook place: the Cretan School of painting, which culminated in the works ofEl Greco, united Italian and Byzantine forms, and awidespread literature using the local idiom emerged, culminating with the early 17th-century romances Erotokritos and Erophile.After the Ottoman conquest ofCyprus in 1571, Crete was Venice's last major overseas possession. The Republic's relative militaryweakness, coupled with the island's wealth and its strategic location controlling the waterways of the Eastern Mediterraneanattracted the attention of the Ottoman Empire. In the long and devastating Cretan War (16451669), the two states fought over the

possession of Crete: the Ottomans quickly overran most of the island, but failed to take Candia, which held out, aided by Venetiannaval superiority and Ottoman distractions elsewhere, until 1669. Only the three island fortresses of Souda, Gramvousa andSpinalonga remained in Venetian hands. Attempts to recover Candia during the Morean War failed, and these last Venetianoutposts were finally taken by the Turks in 1715, during the last OttomanVenetian War.References David Abulafia: Enrico conte di Malta e la sua Vita nel Mediterraneo: 1203-1230, in In Italia, Sicilia e nelMediterraneo: 1100-1400, 1987.

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The Cretan War

16451669(Fifth OttomanVenetian War)


Date 16451669Location Dalmatia, Crete and Aegean SeaResult Ottoman victory

Territorial changes Crete conquered by the Ottoman Empire, Venetian gains in DalmatiaBelligerents

Republic of Venice Knights of Malta PapalStates France Maniots

Ottoman Empire Barbary States

Commanders and leaders

Andrea Corner Niccol Ludovisi TommasoMorosini Giovanni Battista Grimani Giacomo daRiva Alvise Mocenigo Leonardo Foscolo LorenzoMarcello Lazzaro Mocenigo Francesco Morosini

Almerigo d'Este Franois, Duke of Beaufort

Silahdar Yusuf Pasha Kara MusaPasha Gazi Deli Hseyin Pasha

Voinok Ahmed Pasha Kara MuradPasha Kprl Mehmed Pasha

Kprl Fazl Ahmed PashaThe Cretan War (Greek: ) or War of Candia (Italian: Guerra di Candia), as the Fifth OttomanVenetianWar is better known, was a conflict between the Republic of Venice and her allies (chief among them the Knights of Malta, thePapal States and France) against the Ottoman Empire and the Barbary States, fought over the island ofCrete, Venice's largest andrichest overseas possession. The war lasted from 1645 to 1669 and was fought in Crete and in numerous naval engagements andraids around the Aegean Sea, with Dalmatia providing a secondary theater of operations. Although most of Crete was conquered bythe Ottomans in the first few years of the war, the fortress of Candia (modern Heraklion), the capital of Crete, resisted successfully.Its prolonged siege, "Troy's rival" as Lord Byron called it,[1] forced both sides to focus their attention on the supply of theirrespective forces on the island. For the Venetians in particular, their only hope for victory over the larger Ottoman army in Cretelay in successfully starving it of supplies and reinforcements. Hence the war turned into a series of naval encounters between thetwo navies and their allies. Venice was aided by various Western European nations, who, exhorted by the Pope and in a revival ofcrusading spirit, sent men, ships and supplies "to defend Christendom". Throughout the war, Venice maintained overall navalsuperiority, winning most naval engagements, but the efforts to blockade the Dardanelles were only partially successful, and the

Republic never had enough ships to fully cut off the flow of supplies and reinforcements to Crete. The Ottomans were hampered intheir efforts by domestic turmoil, as well as by the diversion of their forces north towards Transylvania and the HabsburgMonarchy. The prolonged conflict exhausted the economy of the Republic, which relied on the lucrative trade with the OttomanEmpire. By the 1660s, despite increased aid from other Christian nations, war-weariness had set in. The Ottomans on the otherhand, having managed to sustain their forces on Crete and reinvigorated under the capable leadership of the Kprl family, sent afinal great expedition in 1666 under the direct supervision of the Grand Vizier. This began the final and bloodiest stage of the Siegeof Candia, which lasted for more than two years. It ended with the negotiated surrender of the fortress, sealing the fate of the islandand ending the war in an Ottoman victory. In the final peace treaty, Venice retained a few isolated island fortresses off Crete, andmade some territorial gains in Dalmatia. The Venetian desire for a revanche would lead, barely 15 years later, to a renewed war,from which Venice would emerge victorious. Crete however was lost to the Serenissima; it would remain under Ottoman controluntil united with Greece in 1913.BackgroundAfter the loss ofCyprus to the Ottomans in the fifth OttomanVenetian War (15701573), the island of Crete (the"Kingdom of Candia") was the last major overseas possession of Venice.[2] Its important strategic position made it an obvioustarget for future Ottoman expansion,[3] while its size and fertile ground, together with the bad state of its fortresses, made it a moretempting prize than Malta.[4] On the Venetian side, the Serenissima, with its weak military and great dependence on uninterruptedtrade, was anxious not to provoke the Ottomans. Hence Venice scrupulously observed the terms of its treaty with the Ottomans,securing over sixty years of peaceful relations.[5] By the early 17th century moreover, Venetian power had declined considerably.Its economy, which had once prospered because of its control over the Eastern spice trade, had suffered as a result of the openingof the new Atlantic trade routes, and from the loss of the important German market because of the Thirty Years' War.[2] In addition,the Republic had become embroiled in a series of wars in northern Italy like the Mantuan Warand was further weakened by anoutbreak of the plague in 16291631.[6]The potential for conflict between the Ottomans and Venice was still present, as evidencedin 1638, when a Venetian fleet attacked and destroyed a fleet of Barbary pirates that had sought protection in the Ottoman port ofValona, bombarding the city in the process.[7] Sultan Murad IV was enraged: he threatened to execute all Venetians in the Empire,and put an embargo on Venetian trade.[8] Eventually, and given that the Ottomans were still engaged in a warwith the Persians, thesituation was defused with the Republic paying the Ottomans an indemnity of 250,000 sequins.[5][9]A similar episode however in1644 had an entirely different outcome: on 28 September, the Knights of Malta attacked an Ottoman convoy on its way fromConstantinople to Alexandria, aboard which were a number ofpilgrims bound forMecca, including the exiled Kzlar Aa (ChiefBlack Eunuch) Snbl Aa, the kadi of Cairo and the nurse of the future sultan Mehmed IV. During the fight, Snbl Aa andmost of the important pilgrims were slain, while 350 men and 30 women were taken to be sold as slaves. [10] The Knights loadedtheir loot on a ship, which then docked at a small harbor on the southern coast of Crete for a few days, where it disembarked anumber of sailors and slaves.[11] The Ottomans were enraged at the incident, and the Porte accused the Venetians of deliberate

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collusion with the Knights, something the Venetians vehemently denied. With the hawkish party being then dominant in theOttoman court,[12] the incident was seen as a perfect pretext for war with a weakened Venice.[13] Despite a long period ofnegotiations, which lasted until well into 1645, and against the objections of the Grand VizierSultanzade Mehmed Pasha,[14] warwas decided upon. An expedition was quickly assembled with over 50,000 troops and reputedly 416 vessels, underKapudan PashaSilahdar Yusuf Pasha, the Sultan's son-in-law. The Ottoman armada sailed from the Dardanelles on 30 April, heading towards theharbor ofNavarino in the Peloponnese, where it remained for three weeks.[15] The fleet's target was not announced, but theOttomans, to allay Venetian fears, implied that it would be Malta.[13]Early operations in Crete The Venetians were indeed fooled by the Ottoman subterfuge and were taken by surprise at the arrivalof the Ottoman fleet at Crete on 23 June 1645.[15] Despite the efforts of the recently appointed provveditore generale, AndreaCorner, the Venetian defenses were still in a bad state.[16] The island's fortifications were substantial, but they had been long

neglected, and much effort was put into repairing them.

[17]

Anxious about Ottoman preparations, the Republic reinforced Crete inlate 1644 with 2,500 troops and provisions, and began arming its fleet, while assistance was promised in the event of war by thePope and Tuscany.[18] However, the local Greek population was not well-disposed towards the Venetians, something that wouldprove to be of critical importance. Not only were the Ottomans thus able to quickly establish control over the countryside, but inlater years, when the Ottoman forces in the island were practically cut off from seaborne supplies, only the local produce, providedby the Greek population, sustained them.[12][19]The Ottomans first landed 15 miles west of Canea (Chania), where the local militiafled before them.[15] They then attacked the small island fortress of St. Todero, the commander of which, the Istrian Blasio Zulian,blew himself, the fortress and its garrison up rather than let it fall to the Ottomans. The Ottoman army next advanced to the city ofCanea itself, which fell on 22 August, after a siege that lasted for 56 days.[20] At the same time, however, the Venetians werestrengthened, as the promised help started to arrive in the form of galleys from the Papal States, Tuscany, Malta and Naples. InSeptember, the Ottoman fleet was in disarray, but the allied Christian fleet, under the cautious command ofNiccol Ludovisi, thePope's nephew, failed to exploit the opportunity for a decisive strike.[21] When the Christian forces finally moved to retake Caneaon 1 October, with a fleet of about 90 ships, the stout Turkish defense and the Allies' lack of cooperation doomed the attack. Soon

thereafter, the Venetian allies returned to their bases.

[21]

In November, Silahdar Yusuf Pasha left behind a strong garrison andreturned to Constantinople for the winter. There however, he fell foul of the Sultan and was executed. [22] Nevertheless, Ottomanpreparations continued in order to renew and expand the war, while the Venetians were frantically trying to raise money and men,and attempting to induce other European powers to join them against the Ottomans. However, as most of Europe was locked intothe fierce antagonisms of the Thirty Years' War, their pleas fell mostly on deaf ears. [23] The Venetians were hard pressed by thefinancial demands of the war: besides placing taxes on the Italian mainland possessions (the Terraferma), they resorted to the saleof nobility titles and state offices to fill their war coffer. [24] To lead the effort against the Ottomans, the Senate initially appointedthe 80 year-old dogeFrancesco Erizzo, but after his death in early 1646, he was replaced by Giovanni Cappello (73 years old) asCaptain General of the Sea.[25]Cappello's performance in 1646 was distinctly lackluster: he failed to interdict the arrival of Ottomanreinforcements under Kara Musa Pasha in June (seebelow),[26] and an attack on the Turkish fleet at Chania Bay in August failed, asdid his attempt to break the Ottoman blockade of Rettimo (Rethymno). As a result, the city fell on 20 October, while the citadelheld out until 13 November.[27] During the winter of 1646-1647, both sides suffered from an outbreak ofplague, and throughout thespring of 1647, operations did not make much headway. In mid-June however, a small Ottoman force routed a larger body of

Venetian mercenaries. This Ottoman success paved the way for Gazi Hseyin Pasha, the local commander, to conquer the easternhalf of the island, except for the fortress ofSiteia.[28] The Venetians and the local population suffered some grievous losses: it isestimated that by 1648, almost 40% of the Cretan population had perished of disease or warfare, [29] and in 1677, the island's pre-war population of ca. 260,000 had dropped to about 80,000. [30] By the beginning of 1648, all of Crete, except Candia and a fewstrongholds like the island ofGramvousa, was in Ottoman hands.[22]Siege of Candia beginsFor more details on this topic, see Siege of Candia. The siege began in May 1648. The Turks spent threemonths investing the city, which included cutting off the water supply. Eventually, it would last until 1669, the second longestsiege in history after the siege ofCeuta by the Moors underMoulay Ismail (16941727).[31] The Ottoman besiegers were adverselyaffected by the bad supply situation caused by the activity of the Christian fleets in the Aegean, who intercepted Ottoman convoyscarrying supplies and reinforcements to the island.[32] In addition, the overall Ottoman war effort was severely hampered byincreased domestic instability caused by Sultan Ibrahim's erratic policies and his summary execution of leading state officials. Itultimately led to his deposition in favor of his son Mehmed IV, ushering in a further period of confusion within the Ottomangovernment.[33]The lack of supplies had forced the Ottoman commanderGazi Hseyin Pasha to lift the siege in early 1649, but it

was renewed for a short period of two months after the arrival of the Ottoman fleet in June.[34]

The Ottomans assailed thefortifications, exploding over 70 mines, but the defenders held firm. The Turks lost over 1,000 men, and the subsequent withdrawalof 1,500 Janissaries and the lack of any further reinforcements over the course of 1650 left Hseyin Pasha with little option but tocontinue maintaining as tight a blockade as possible.[34] The Ottomans strengthened their positions with the construction of threeforts in the Canea area, and the arrival of reinforcements in late 1650 allowed them to keep up their tight blockade. [35] Despite theVenetian blockade of the Dardanelles and the political turmoil at the Ottoman court, the Ottoman forces were kept well suppliedenough to sustain themselves, although too weak to engage in offensive actions against Candia itself. In 1653, the Ottomans tookthe island fortress of Selino in Suda Bay, and San Todero, captured a few years previously, was refortified. [36] The Venetian navalsuccesses over the next few years further reduced the offensive ability of the Ottoman army in Crete, but the blockade of Candiacontinued, and the Ottomans retained possession of their other conquests on the island, until the arrival of a new Ottomanexpeditionary force in 1666.Naval warFor a complete list of naval engagements, seeNaval battles of the Cretan WarEarly clashes, 16451654 Venice couldnot directly confront the large Ottoman expeditionary force on Crete, but it did possess a fine navy, that could intervene and cut the

Ottoman supply routes.[37]

In 1645, the Venetians and their allies possessed a fleet of 6070 galleys, 4 galleasses and about 36galleons.[38] The Venetians were also superior in their use of a mixed fleet of both galleys and sailing ships, while initially, theOttoman navy relied almost exclusively on galleys.[39] In order to bolster their forces, both opponents hired armed merchantmenfrom the Netherlands, and later from England (especially the Ottomans), to augment their forces.[40]The first Venetian operationwas an attempt to blockade the Dardanelles in 1646. To interdict the supplies headed to the Ottoman forces in Crete, a force of 23Venetian ships under Tommaso Morosini scoured the Aegean for Ottoman shipping, and attempted to capture the strategically

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important island ofTenedos at the entrance of the Dardanelles. The Kapudan Pasha Kara Musa led a fleet of 80 warships againstthe Venetians, but his fleet was driven back into the Dardanelles on 26 May.[41] However, the blockading fleet was unable to stopthe next exit of the Ottoman fleet on 4 June, when the lack of wind enabled the Ottoman galleys to evade the Venetian sailingships. The Ottomans were thus able to land new troops and supplies on Crete unopposed. [42] The efforts of the Venetian fleet tocounter the Ottoman land operations in Crete likewise failed, through a combination of timidity on behalf of their commanders, thedelays in payment for the crews, and the effects of a widespread plague.[43] On 27 January 1647, the Venetians lost TommasoMorosini, when his ship was forced to face the entire Ottoman fleet of 45 galleys. In the ensuing fight, Morosini was killed, butmanaged to cause significant casualties to the Ottomans, including Kara Musa Pasha himself. The ship itself was rescued by thetimely arrival of the Venetian fleet under the new Captain General, Giovanni Battista Grimani. This stand-off, where a single shiphad caused such damage and casualties to the entire Ottoman fleet, was a major blow to Ottoman morale.[44] Despite some

successes like a raid in eme, the remainder of the year was a failure for the Venetians, as several attempts to blockade Turkishharbors failed to stem the flow of supplies and reinforcements to Crete.[45] The Venetians returned to the Dardanelles in 1648.Despite losing many ships and admiral Grimani himself in a storm in mid-March,[46] reinforcements under Giacomo da Rivabrought the Venetian fleet back up to strength (some 65 vessels), and allowed them to successfully blockade the Straits for a wholeyear.[32] The Ottomans countered this in part by building a new fleet at eme, forcing the Venetians to divide their forces, [32] andin 1649, a strengthened Ottoman fleet under Kapudan Pasha Voinok Ahmed broke the blockade. [22] Despite scoring a victory overthe Ottoman fleet in its anchorage at Phocaea on 12 May 1649, capturing or destroying several ships, da Riva was not able to prevent the Ottoman armada from eventually reaching Crete.[47] This highlighted the weakness of the Venetian position:maintaining long blockades with galleys was an inherently difficult task, and the Republic did not have enough ships to controlboth the Dardanelles and the passage ofChios at the same time.[37]For most of 1650, a Venetian fleet of 41 vessels maintained theblockade of the Dardanelles, prohibiting Haideragazade Mehmed Pasha from sailing for Crete. He was replaced late in the year byHozamzade Ali Pasha, governor of Rhodes, who used a clever ploy to get through the blockade: waiting until winter, when theVenetians withdrew their forces, he assembled a small number of ships and embarked several thousand troops with many

provisions on them, and sailed unmolested to Crete.

[35]

On 10 July 1651, the first significant naval battle of the war was foughtsouth ofNaxos, a three-day engagement in which the Venetians with 58 ships under Alvise Mocenigo were victorious over thetwice as large Ottoman fleet.[48] The remainders of the Ottoman fleet withdrew to Rhodes, from where they were however able toreach Candia. Mocenigo was replaced soon after by Leonardo Foscolo, but both sides did not accomplish much in the next twoyears, although the Ottomans did succeed in supplying their forces on Crete while keeping their fleet intact.[49]Battles of the Dardanelles, 16541657 For 1654, the Ottomans marshaled their strength: the Arsenal (Tersane-i Amire) in theGolden Horn produced new warships, and squadrons from Tripolitania and Tunis arrived to strengthen the Ottoman fleet. [50] Thestrengthened Ottoman fleet that sailed forth from the Dardanelles in early May numbered 79 ships (40 sailing ships, 33 galleys and6 galleasses), and further 22 galleys from around the Aegean and 14 ships from Barbary stood by to reinforce it off the Straits.[51]This force considerably outnumbered the 26 ships of the Venetian blockade fleet under Giuseppe Dolfin. [52] Although thebattlethat followed resulted in an Ottoman victory, for the Venetians, given the successful escape of their fleet from the superiorOttoman force, coupled with reports of large Ottomans casualties and the great bravery displayed by the Venetian crews, it countedas a moral victory.[53] The Ottoman fleet, now reinforced by the Aegean and Barbary squadrons, plundered the Venetian island of

Tinos, but retreated after only a brief skirmish with the Venetians under Alvise Mocenigo on 21 June. Kara Murad Pashasucceeded in evading the Venetians for the remainder of the year, with both fleets sailing back and forth in the Aegean, beforereturning to the Dardanelles in September due to agitation among the fleet's Janissaries. [54] The final months of 1654 were markedby a significant change in the Venetian leadership: Mocenigo died at Candia, and was succeeded as acting Captain General of theSea by Francesco Morosini, who had distinguished himself in the previous battles.[55]Morosini initiated a more energetic approachin the Venetian pursuit of the war: in the spring of 1655, he raided the Ottoman supply depot at Aigina and razed the port town ofVolos in a night attack on 23 March. In early June, Morosini sailed to the Dardanelles, awaiting the sally of the Ottoman fleet,which was however delayed because of political upheaval in the Ottoman government.[55] Leaving Lazzaro Mocenigo with half thefleet (36 ships) to keep watch at the Straits, Morosini returned to the Cyclades.[56] A week after his departure however, on 21 June,the Ottoman fleet, numbering 143 ships under Mustapha Pasha, appeared.[57] The resulting battle was a clear Venetian victory. TheOttoman fleet avoided action for the remainder of the year, before it withdrew to winter quarters, leaving Morosini free toundertake an ultimately unsuccessful siege of the strategically important island fortress of Malvasia (Monemvasia) off the south-eastern coast of the Peloponnese.[58] In September, Morosini was posted as the new provveditore of Crete, with Lorenzo Marcello

as the new Captain General of the Sea.[59]

Although in the previous years the Venetians had generally held the upper hand againstthe Ottomans, largely controlling the Aegean and able to extract tribute and recruits from its islands, [60] they had been unable totransform this superiority into concrete results. Despite their defeats, the Ottomans were still free to roam the Aegean and resupplytheir forces in Crete,[61] in particular through the use of supply fleets from places like Alexandria, Rhodes, Chios or Monemvasia inthe Peloponnese.[62] In June 1656 however, a combined VenetianMaltese fleet of 67 ships under Marcello inflicted on theOttomans, with 108 ships under Kenan Pasha, their "worst naval defeat since Lepanto":[59][63] Sixty Ottoman ships were destroyedand 24 captured and 5,000 Christian galley slaves set free, although the Venetians and Maltese suffered some casualties too,including the loss of Captain General Marcello.[64] Although in the aftermath of this victory the Maltese contingent departed, thescale of their success enabled the Venetians under Barbado Doer to seize Tenedos on 8 July and Lemnos on 20 August.[65] Usingthe two islands, strategically located near the entrance of the Straits, as forward bases, the Venetian blockade became much moreeffective. As a result, the resupply of Crete was effectively cut off, and Constantinople itself suffered a shortage of food during thefollowing winter.[66] In 1657, the Ottomans reversed the situation. A new and energetic Grand Vizier, Kprl Mehmed Pasha,armed with almost dictatorial authority, had been appointed in September 1656, and reinvigorated the Ottoman war effort. [67][68]

The fleet was strengthened under the new Kapudan Pasha, Topal Mehmed,[67]

and in March, the Ottomans succeeded in evadingthe Venetian blockade of the Straits and sailed towards Tenedos. They did not attack the island however, because the Venetiangarrison was too strong.[69] In May, the Venetians under Lazzaro Mocenigo achieved some minor victories, on 3 May and twoweeks later at Suazich. Reinforced by Papal and Maltese ships, Mocenigo sailed to the Dardanelles, awaiting the renewed sally ofthe Ottoman fleet, which came on 17 July. Due to disagreements among the Christian commanders, the allied battle line had notbeen completely formed, and the Ottoman fleet was able to exit the Narrows beforebattle was joined.[70] The battle consisted of a

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series of actions over three days, with both fleets drifting south and west out of the Dardanelles into the Aegean. The battle endedin the evening of 19 July, when an explosion destroyed the Venetian flagship and killed Mocenigo, forcing the allied fleet towithdraw. In this battle, the Venetians had inflicted heavier casualties on the Ottomans than they had suffered, but the Ottomanshad achieved their goal: the blockade was broken.[71] Under the personal direction of the Grand Vizier and strengthened by menand ships from the Barbary states,[72] the Ottoman fleet proceeded to recover Lemnos, on 31 August, and Tenedos, on 12November, thus removing any hope the Venetians may have had of re-establishing the blockade as firmly as before.[73][74]Stalemate, 16581666 In 1658, Ottoman power was redirected north in a campaign against George II Rkczi, Prince ofTransylvania, which evolved into a long conflict with the Habsburgs.[74] For the next few years, the Venetian fleet, again under thecommand of Morosini, unsuccessfully attempted to maintain the blockade of the Straits of the Dardanelles. Morosini also resumedhis tactic of attacking Ottoman strongholds: a siege of the island of Santa Maura (Lefkada) in August 1658 failed, but in 1659, the

Venetians, aided by the Maniots, sacked Kalamata in the Peloponnese, followed by Torone in the Chalcidice, Karystos in Euboea,and eme. However, since Venice could not spare forces to occupy these places, these raids gained the Republic nothing ofsubstance.[73] On the Ottoman side, Kprl Mehmed ordered the construction of two new forts, Sedd el Bahr ("Rampart of theSea") and Kilid Bahr ("Key of the Sea"), at the European shore of the entrance of the Dardanelles, to prohibit the Venetians fromentering the Straits again.[75]In the meantime, war-weariness had set in among the Venetians, who suffered from the disruption intrade. Peace feelers were sent to the Ottomans, but their demand for the full concession of Crete as a condition for peace wasunacceptable to the Republic.[74][76] With the end of the warbetween France and Spain however, the Venetians became encouraged,hoping to receive increased assistance in money and men, especially from the French, whose traditionally good relations with thePorte had soured of late.[73] This support did indeed soon develop, when individuals or whole companies of men from acrossWestern Europe volunteered for the Republic's army, while Christian rulers also felt obliged to provide men, supplies andships.[62][77] The first French contingent of 4,200 men under Prince Almerigo d'Este arrived in April 1660, along with furthercontingents of German mercenaries, troops from Savoy, and Maltese, Tuscan and French ships.[68] Despite this increase in strength,Morosini's operations in 1660 were a failure: an assault on Canea in August succeeded in taking the outlying fortifications but

failed to retake the city itself; similarly, an attack against the Ottoman siege lines at Candia in September achieved some success,but did not break the Ottoman siege.[68] Following the death of Prince d'Este atNaxos shortly after, the French contingent returnedhome, followed soon after by a disheartened Morosini, who was succeeded by his kinsman Giorgio.[78] In 1661, Giorgio Morosiniscored a few minor successes: he broke an Ottoman blockade of Tinos, and, pursuing the Ottoman fleet, defeated it offMilos. Thenext few years however were relatively idle. Although the Ottomans were heavily engaged with the Austrians in Hungary, and thattheir fleet rarely sallied forth, the Venetians failed to make use of this opportunity, and, except for the intercept of a supply convoyfrom Alexandria offKos in 1662, there was little action.[79]Final phase of the war, 16661669 If the Venetians were idle, the Ottomans were not: with the signing of the Peace of Vasvrin1664, they were able to focus their strength against Crete. Grand Vizier Kprl Fazl Ahmed initiated large preparations in thewinter of 1665/66, and dispatched 9,000 men to bolster the Ottoman forces in Crete.[80] An Ottoman peace proposal, which wouldhave allowed Venice to keep Candia against an annual payment of tribute was rejected,[81] and in May 1666, the Ottoman army,under the personal leadership of the Grand Vizier, departed from Thrace for southern Greece, whence it would embark for Creteduring the winter. In February 1667, the Venetians received significant reinforcements from France and Savoy, totaling 21

warships and some 6,000 men, but, as in past years, disagreements among the leaders of the various contingents over precedence(France, the Papal States, Malta, Naples, Sicily contributed ships and men) hampered operations.[82] Francesco Morosini, nowagain Captain General, sought to engage the Ottomans, but they avoided battle, and using their superior resources and bases, theysteadily kept their forces on Crete supplied. The only allied success in 1667 was the repulsion of an Ottoman raid on Cerigo(Kythera).[83]On 8 March 1668, the Venetians were victorious in a hard-fought night battle off the island of St Pelagia, where 2,000Ottoman troops and 12 galleys attempted to seize a small Venetian galley squadron. Forewarned of their intentions Morosinireinforced it, and won a costly victory, which was to be Venice's last victory at sea in this war.[84] Reinforced again with Papal andHospitaller ships, the Venetians maintained a blockade of Canea, the Ottomans' main supply base, during summer. To secure theiranchorage off St Todero island, the allied forces seized the fortress island of St Marina,[85] a minor success which did not in the endprevent the Kapudan pasha's fleet, bearing fresh troops and supplies, from reaching Canea in September, after the MaltesePapalsquadron had departed.[86]Fall of Candia The new Ottoman army arrived on the island during the winter of 1666/1667, and in May, the final phase of thesiege, overseen by the Grand Vizier himself, began. It would last for 28 months and cost the lives of 70,000 Turks, 38,000 Cretans

and slaves who labored in the siege works and 29,088 of the city's Christian defenders.[38]

Faced with the renewed Ottoman assaultand a struggling economy, despite the prospect of considerable reinforcements from Western Europe, in 1668 the Signoria hopedto end the war by striking a peace settlement with the Ottomans. [87] Indeed, the Venetians hoped to use the imminent arrival ofreinforcements to secure concessions from the Ottomans.[88] Admiral Andrea Valier was at first appointed as envoy, but fell ill andwas quickly replaced by the elderly nobleman Alvise da Molin. [89] Molin and his embassy traveled to Larissa, where the Ottomancourt resided during one of the Sultan's hunting expeditions. [90] The Ottomans proposed that Venice keep one half of Crete, but theSignoria, emboldened by further pledges of reinforcements, especially from France, and renewed turmoil at the Ottoman court andwithin the Empire, refused the offer.[91] Molin, in the meantime transported by the Ottomans to Canea in Crete, was ordered tocontinue negotiations and to continue observing the Ottomans' strength and intentions, but not commit himself or the Republic.[92]

On 19 June, the first part of the long-awaited French contingent (in total some 6,000 soldiers and 31 ships), under the command ofFranois, Duke of Beaufort, arrived at Candia. The second part, comprising the galley fleet, would arrive on 3 July. [93] TheOttomans had been making steady progress over the past years, having reached the outer bastions of the fortress; the defenderswere in dire straits, while most of the city of Candia lay ruined.[94] The French staged their first sally on 25 June. Caught by

surprise, the Ottomans were quickly routed, but the French became disorganized among the siege trenches, and an Ottomancounter-attack drove them back. The attack thus ended in disaster, costing the French some 800 dead, including the Duke ofBeaufort himself, who was hit by a bullet and left on the field.[95] The arrival of the second half of the French expeditionary forcerevived the defenders' morale, and a combined attack was agreed upon, involving bombardment of the Ottoman siege lines by thepowerful allied fleet. The attack was launched on 25 July, in an impressive display of firepower: up to 15,000 cannon balls weresaid to have been fired by the fleet alone.[96] The Ottomans however were well-protected by their deep earthworks, and suffered

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comparatively little damage, while things went awry for the Christian fleet, as an accident caused the explosion of the French shipThrse, which in turn caused significant casualties among the surrounding French and Venetian ships.[96] This failure, coupledwith the disaster of the previous month, further soured the relations between the French and the Venetians. Cooperation wasdistinctly lacking in the few operations attempted during the next few weeks, while the bad supply situation, the spread of sicknessamong their troops and the continuous attrition of their forces in the everyday fighting at Candia made the French commandersespecially keen to depart.[97] The French contingent eventually departed on 20 August. Two Ottoman assaults on the 25th wererepulsed, but to Morosini, it was clear that the city could no longer be held. [98] After a council of war on 27 August, but withoutfirst consulting Venice, it was decided to capitulate. On 5 September 1669, the city was surrendered to the Ottomans, while thesurvivors of the garrison, the citizens and their treasures were evacuated.[99][100] On his own initiative, Morosini concluded apermanent peace agreement with the Ottomans, which, under the circumstances, was relatively generous: Venice would retain the

Aegean islands ofTinos and Kythera and the isolated island fortresses ofSpinalonga, Gramvousa and Souda off the Cretan coast,as well as the gains made in Dalmatia.[60][99]War in Dalmatia The Dalmatian front was a separate theater of operations, which was involved in the early phase of the war. Theconditions there were almost reverse to those in Crete: for the Ottomans, it was too far away and relatively insignificant, while theVenetians operated near their own bases of supply and had undisputed control of the sea, being thus able to easily reinforce theircoastal strongholds.[101] In addition, and again unlike Crete, the Venetians enjoyed the support of much of the local population,particularly the Morlacchi.[60] The Ottomans launched a large-scale attack in 1646, and made some significant gains, including thecapture of the islands of Krk, Pag and Cres,[102] and most importantly, the supposedly impregnable fortress of Novigrad, whichsurrendered on 4 July, after only two days of bombardment. [103] The Turks were now able to threaten the two main Venetianstrongholds in Dalmatia, Zadar and Split.[104] In the next year however, the tide turned, as the Venetian commander LeonardoFoscolo seized several forts, retook Novigrad, temporarily captured the fortress of Knin and tookKlis,[22][29] while a month-longsiege of the fortress ofibenikby the Ottomans in August and September failed.[46] During the next few years, military operationsstalled because of an outbreak of famine and plague amongst the Venetians at Zadar, while both sides focused their resources in the

Aegean area.

[105]

As other fronts took priority for the Ottomans, no further operations occurred in the Dalmatian theater.

[75]

Peace in1669 found the Republic of Venice with significant gains in Dalmatia, its territory tripled, and its control of the Adriatic thussecured.[60]Aftermath The surrender of Candia ended the four and a half centuries ofVenetian rule in Crete, and brought the Ottoman Empireto its temporary territorial zenith.[106] At the same time however, the cost and casualties incurred during this prolonged warcontributed greatly to the decline of the Ottoman state during the latter 17th century.[40] On the other hand, Venice had lost itsgreatest and most prosperous colony, its pre-eminent trading position in the Mediterranean had diminished,[107] and its treasury wasexhausted, having spent some 4,253,000 ducats on the defense of Candia alone. [30] To all this, the Dalmatian gains wereinsufficient compensation. Upon his return to Venice in 1670, Morosini was tried on charges of insubordination and treason, butwas acquitted. Fifteen years later, he would lead the Venetian forces in the Morean War, where the Republic attempted, for the lasttime, to reverse its losses and reestablish itself as one of the major powers of the Eastern Mediterranean. [38][108] During that war, in1692, a Venetian fleet attempted to retake Candia, but failed. The last Venetian strongholds off Crete fell in the last TurkishVenetian Warin 1715.[30] Crete would remain under Ottoman control until 1897, when it became an autonomous state. The island

continued under Ottoman suzerainty until the Balkan Wars. In their aftermath, on 1 December 1913 it was formally united toGreece.References1. ^Lord Byron, Childe Harold, Canto IV.142. ^ ab Faroqhi (2006), p. 513. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 1071084. ^ Greene (2000), p. 175. ^ ab Finkel (2006), p. 2226. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 1041067. ^ Lane (1973), p. 4088. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 1081099. ^ Parry & Cook (1976), p. 15210. ^ Setton (1991), p. 11111. ^ Finkel (2006), p. 22512. ^ ab Finkel (2006), p. 22613. ^ ab Finlay (1856), p. 12814. ^ Setton (1991), p. 12415. ^ abc Setton (1991), p. 12616. ^ Setton (1991), p. 12017. ^ Setton (1991), p. 10718. ^ Setton (1991), p. 12119. ^ Finlay (1856), p. 13020. ^ Setton (1991), p. 12721. ^ ab Setton (1991), pp. 12812922. ^ abcdFinkel (2006), p. 22723. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 13113224. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 131,13713825. ^ Setton (1991), p. 12926. ^ Setton (1991), p. 14027. ^ Setton (1991), p. 14128. ^ Setton (1991), p. 14729. ^ ab Setton (1991), p. 148

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30. ^ abc Miller, p. 19631. ^ The Siege of Candia is often cited as "the longest siege on record", e.g. by the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.Nevertheless, the blockade and siege of Ceuta, variously given as lasting until 1720 oruntil Moulay's death in 1727, was longer.32. ^ abc Setton (1991), p. 15033. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 15115334. ^ ab Setton (1991), p. 15835. ^ ab Setton (1991), p. 15936. ^ Setton (1991), p. 16737. ^ ab Turnbull, p. 8538. ^ abcThe War for Candia, VENIVA consortium, 1996, http://www.msc.gr/veniva/uk/main/p2.htm, retrieved 27November 200839. ^ Cooper (1979), p. 23140. ^ ab Holt, Lambton & Lewis (1978), p. 63141. ^ Setton (1991), p. 13942. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 13914043. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 14014144. ^ Setton (1991), p. 14645. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 14714846. ^ ab Setton (1991), p. 14947. ^ Setton (1991), p. 15548. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 16316449. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 16416950. ^ Setton (1991), p. 17051.

^ Setton (1991), p. 17252. ^ Setton (1991), p. 173

53. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 17417754. ^ Setton (1991), p. 17855. ^ ab Setton (1991), p. 17956. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 17918057. ^ Setton (1991), p. 18058. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 18118259. ^ ab Setton (1991), p. 18260. ^ abcdLane (1973), p. 40961. ^ Finkel (2006), p. 24762. ^ ab Lane (1973), p. 41063. ^ Finkel (2006), p. 24864.

^ Setton (1991), p. 18365. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 183184

66. ^ Finkel (2006), pp. 25125267. ^ ab Shaw (1976), p. 20968. ^ abc Setton (1991), p. 19069. ^ Setton (1991), p. 18570. ^ Setton (1991), p. 18671. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 18618872. ^ Shaw (1976), p. 21073. ^ abc Setton (1991), p. 18974. ^ abc Finkel (2006), p. 25675. ^ ab Duffy (1979), pp. 19619776. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 18818977. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 21421678. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 19019179. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 19219380. ^ Setton (1991), p. 19381. ^ Finkel (2006), p. 27082. ^ Setton (1991), p. 19483. ^ Setton (1991), p. 19584. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 19619785. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 19920086. ^ Setton (1991), p. 20587. ^ Setton (1991), p. 20688. ^ Setton (1991), p. 21489. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 20620990. ^ Setton (1991), p. 21291. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 21621892. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 21721993. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 22322494. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 22422595. ^ Setton (1991), p. 225

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96. ^ ab Setton (1991), p. 22697. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 22622798. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 22722899. ^ ab Finkel (2006), p. 271100. ^ Finlay (1856), p. 132101. ^ Nicolle (1989), p. 40102. ^ Setton (1991), p. 143103. ^ Setton (1991), p. 142104. ^ Setton (1991), p. 144105. ^ Setton (1991), p. 162106.

^ Faroqhi (2006), p. 22107. ^ Cooper (1979), p. 232

108. ^ Faroqhi (2006), pp. 58, 115Sources Cooper, J. P. (1979), The New Cambridge Modern History, Volume IV: The Decline of Spain and the Thirty Years War,160948/59, CUP Archive, ISBN0521297134 Duffy, Christopher (1979), Siege Warfare, Routledge, ISBN978-0-710088710 Faroqhi, Suraiya (2006), The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It, I.B.Tauris, ISBN9781845111229 Finkel, Caroline (2006), Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 13001923, London: John Murray, ISBN978-0-7195-6112-2 Finlay, George (1856), The History of Greece under Othoman and Venetian Domination, London: William Blackwoodand Sons Fleet, Kate; Faroqhi, Suraiya; Kasaba, Reat (2006), The Cambridge history of Turkey: the later Ottoman Empire, 1603-1839, Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-521620956, http://books.google.com/?id=g9UfRAnZzU4C Greene, Molly (2000), A Shared World: Christians and Muslims in the Early Modern Mediterranean, PrincetonUniversity Press, ISBN978-0691008981 Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (1978), The Central Islamic Lands from Pre-Islamic Times to the FirstWorld War, Cambridge University Press, ISBN9780521291354 Lane, Frederic Chapin (1973), Venice, a Maritime Republic, JHU Press, ISBN 9780801814600,http://books.google.com/?id=PQpU2JGJCMwC Miller, William, Essays on the Latin Orient, Cambridge University Press Archive,http://books.google.com/?id=Wcw7AAAAIAAJ Murphey, Rhoads; Black, Jeremy (1999), Ottoman warfare, 15001700, Routledge, ISBN978-1857283891 Nicolle, David (1989), The Venetian Empire, 12001670, Osprey Publishing, ISBN9780850458992 Parry, Vernon J.; Cook, M. A. (1976),A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730: Chapters from the Cambridge History ofIslam and the New Cambridge Modern History, CUP Archive, ISBN9780521099912 Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1991), Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the Seventeenth Century, DIANE Publishing, ISBN0871691922 Shaw, Stanford Jay; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1976),History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Empire of the Gazis -The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 12801808, Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0521291637 Turnbull, Stephen (2003), The Ottoman Empire 13261699, Routledge, ISBN978-0415969130 (Greek) Tzompanaki, Chrysoula (2008). 16451669: [The Cretan War 16451669: The Great Siege and Epopee of Chandax]. Heraklion. ISBN978-960-92052-4-5. (Greek) Vakalopoulos, Apostolos E. (1968). , : 14531669 [History ofmodern Hellenism, Volume III: Turkish rule 14531669]. Thessaloniki: Emm. Sfakianakis & Sons.External links

Media related to Cretan Warat Wikimedia Commons Municipality of Heraklion: The Cretan War Venice and the Sea, by the VENIVA consortium (in English, Greek, Italian). Venice Republic: Renaissance, 164569During the Candian War (16451669), Leonardo Foscolo seized several forts, retookNovigrad, temporarily captured the KninFortress, and managed to compel the garrison ofKlis Fortress to surrender.[1][2]

Lorenzo Marcello (Venice, 1603 - Dardanelles, 26 June 1656) was a Venetian admiral. He fought against the Papal navy in 1642-1644 and subsequently participated in the new Turkish-Venetian War. In September 1655, he succeeded Francesco Morosini as theCaptain General of the Sea. From this position he led the combined Venetian-Maltese fleet inbattle in the Dardanelles in June1656. Although he himself lost his life during the battle, it resulted in the greatest Venetian victory since the Battle of Lepanto. ThenameLorenzo Marcello has been given to two Italian ships: a liner (1,413 grt, 234 ft. long) built in the 1920s and sunk in 1943, anda Marcello-class submarine, launched on 20 November 1937 and sunk on 22 February 1941.

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1651 map depicting the Venetian Lion of St Mark standing guard over theRegno di Candia. By that time however, all of the

island, except for the capital Candia, was under Ottoman control. Il regno tutto di Candia, M. Boschini, 1651

Plan

von Canea (heute Chania) auf Kreta. Aus: Marco Boschini: Il regno tvtto di Candia. Delineato a parte. Venezia 1651

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Map of the Dardanelles and vicinity

TheFourth Battle of the Dardanelles, by Pieter Casteleyn, 1657.

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AMaltese galley. Although being gradually replaced by sailing ships, galleys formed still a large part of the Mediterranean navies

during the 17th century.Battle of the Venetian fleet against the Turks at Phocaea (Focchies) in 1649. Painting by Abraham Beerstraten, 1656.

Grand Vizier Kprl Fazl Ahmed Pasha

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German map of the final phase of the Siege of Candia. It clearly illustrates the city's trace italienne fortifications, and the proximityof the characteristic Ottoman siege trenches, especially in the northwestern sector (bottom right), to the walls.

During the Candian War, the Venetians in Dalmatia with the support of the local population managed to compel the Ottomangarrison ofKlis Fortress to surrender. Festung Clissa (heute Klis) in Dalmatien. Aus: Alphonsi Lasor A Varea (Pseud. v. RaffaelloSavonarola ): Universus Terrarum Orbis Scriptorum Calamo Delineatus: Hoc Est Auctorum Fere Omnium, Qui de Europae, Asiae,Africae et Americae Regnis, Provinciis, Populis, Civitatibus, Oppidis, Arcibus, Maribus, Insulis, Montibus, Fluminibus, Fodinis,

Balneis, publicis Hortis, et de Aliis tam super, quam subtus Terram Locis ... Scripserunt ... Padua 1713

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Schematics detailing the Turkish trenches and mines and the Venetian counter-mines at Candia, by Johann Bernhard Scheither,1672. Christopher Duffy: The Fortress in the Age of Vauban and Frederick the Great 1660-1789; Siege Warfare Vol. II; London,Boston, Melbourne and Henley: 1985 First published in Scheither:Novissima praxis militaris, Brunswick: 1672Johann Bernhard

Scheither, military engineer from Brunswick and veteran of the siege of Candia, date of birth unknown, died after 1677Some illustrations of the Siege of Candia. The detail pictures show the Sant' Andrea and Panigra Bastions of the fortress: No. 22, upper left: Turkish batteries and approaches (the grid-like lines are trenches) No. 23, upper right: Plan of defenders countermines No. 23, lower left: Underground combat, note the stock of gunpowder charges in the lower right corner which will blow

up the mine No 21, lower right: Plan of the bastions

A Venetian map of Crete.

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Action of 28 September 1644


The Action of 28 September 1644 refers to a battle that took place on 28 September 1644 about 70 miles (110 km) from Rhodes,when 6 Maltese galleys under Boisbaudran defeated an Ottoman convoy of sailing ships.The battle The Maltese San Lorenzo, Santa Maria andVittoria overhauled and attacked a Turkish galleon, while San Giuseppeand San Giovanni captured a smaller sailing ship and the "capitana" chased a vessel which turned out to be Greek, before

returning to fight the galleon. After 7 hours, she was captured, with 220 of the 600 or more on board dead. Boisbaudran waskilled, and the senior captain, Cotoner, of the San Lorenzo , took over command. Maltese casualties were 82 killed and 170wounded, exclusively from among the rowing crews. On the voyage home, there were several storms, and eventually the galleon

was abandoned near Malta, and ended up wrecked on the Calabrian coast.Repercussions The Turkish convoy had been heading from Constantinople to Alexandria, and carried a number ofpilgrims boundforMecca, as well as one of the Sultan's wives and her young son, and the exiled former Chief Black Eunuch, Snbl Aga. On thevoyage home, the Maltese vessel carrying the loot stopped at Crete, then a Venetian dominion, where it took on board supplies andunloaded part of the treasure there. The Ottomans, already enraged at the loss of the ships, considered this act a breach of Venetianneutrality, and soon declared waron the Republic.Ships involvedKnights of Malta

? ("capitana" of Boisbaudran)San Lorenzo

Santa MariaVittoriaSan GiuseppeSan Giovanni

Ottomans

galleon - Captured, wrecked latersmaller ship - Capturedseveral others

ReferencesNaval wars in the Levant 1559-1853 - R. C. AndersonISBN 1-57898-538-2

Siege of Candia


Date 1 May 1648 27 September 1669Location Heraklion, CreteResult Ottoman victoryTerritorial changes Crete ceded to Ottomans

Belligerents

Ottoman Empire Republic of Venice Knights of Malta


Kprl Fazl Ahmed

Francesco Morosini

Strength

60,000 soldiers 20,000 workers and miners 10,000 European allies men 12,000 Greek & Venetians Citizens

The Siege of Candia (modern Heraklion, Crete) was a military conflict in which Ottoman forces besieged the Venetian-ruled cityand were ultimately victorious. Lasting from 1648 to 1669, it was the longest siege in history.Background In the 17th century, Venice's power in the Mediterranean was waning, as Ottoman power grew. The VenetianRepublic believed that the Ottomans would use any excuse to pursue further hostilities. In 1644, the Knights of Malta attacked anOttoman convoy on its way from Alexandria to Constantinople. They landed at Candia with the loot, which included part of theSultan's harem, returning from a pilgrimage to Mecca. In response, 60,000 Ottoman troops led by Yussuf Pasha disembarked onVenetian Crete and occupied La Canea (modern Chania) and Rettimo (modern Rethimno). Both of these cities took two monthseach to conquer. Between 1645 and 1648, the Turks occupied the rest of the island and prepared to take the capital, Candia.Siege The siege of Candia began in May 1648. The Turks spent three months investing the city, cutting off the water supply, anddisrupting Venice's sea lanes to the city. For the next 16 years, they would bombard the city to little effect. The Venetians, in turn,sought toblockade the Ottoman-held Dardanelles to prevent the resupply of the Ottoman expeditionary force on Crete. This effortled to a series of naval actions. On 21 June 1655 and 26 August 1656, the Venetians were victorious, although the Venetiancommander, Lorenzo Marcello, was killed in the latter engagement. However on 1719 July 1657, the Ottoman navy soundlydefeated the Venetians and the Venetian captain, Lazzaro Mocenigo, was killed by a falling mast. Venice received more aid from

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other western European states after the 7 November 1659 Treaty of the Pyrenees and the consequent peace between France andSpain. However, the Peace of Vasvr(August 1664) released additional Ottoman forces for action against the Venetians in Candia.In 1666, a Venetian attempt to recapture La Canea failed. The following year, Colonel Andrea Barozzi, a Venetian militaryengineer, defected to the Turks and gave them information on weak spots in Candia's fortifications. In 1669, a French land/seaexpedition underMocenigo not only failed to lift the siege, but also lost on 24 July the fleet's vice-flagship, La Thrse a 900-tonFrench warship armed with 58 cannons, to an accidental explosion. This dual disaster was devastating to the morale of the city'sdefenders. Apparently chastened by their failed relief effort and the loss of so valuable a warship, the French abandoned Candia inAugust 1669 leaving Captain General Francesco Morosini, the commander of Venetian forces, with only 3,600 fit men and scantsupplies to defend the fortress. He, therefore, accepted terms and surrendered to Ahmed Kprl, the Grand VizierofAlbanianorigin of the Ottoman Empire of on 27 September 1669. However, his surrender without first receiving authorization to do so from

the Venetian Senate made Morosini a controversial figure in Venice for some years afterward. As part of the surrender terms, allChristians were allowed to leave Candia with whatever they could carry while Venice retained possession ofGramvousa, Soudaand Spinalonga, fortified islands that shielded natural harbors where Venetian ships could stop during their voyages to the easternMediterranean. After Candia's fall, the Venetians somewhat offset their defeat by expanding their holdings in Dalmatia. It is saidthat when news of Candia's fall reached Pope Clement IX in October he immediately fell ill and, two months later, died.Other participants Knights of Malta fought at the Siege of Candia (in Crete) in 1668. In fact, by raiding an Ottoman convoy en route from

Alexandria to Constantinople in 1644 and capturing part of the sultan's harem, they could be said to have precipitated thecrisis.

Francois de Beaufort, who died there. Philippe de Montault-Bnac, marshal under the duke of Beaufort. Philippe de Vendme, the nephew of the duke of Beaufort Vincenzo Rospigliosi, admiral of the fleet and Pope Clement's nephew. Charles de Svign. In fiction The Siege of Candia is an important part of the background to the historical novel " An Instance of the Fingerpost",

where a major protagonist is a Venetian veteran of that siege and several plot developments become clear through extensiveflashbacks to the Candia events.

See also Naval battles of the Cretan Wars History of the Republic of Venice Ottoman Navy Ottoman wars in EuropeReferences A Very Brief History of Crete, Stelios Jackson Crete: History and culture, Turkish Occupation (16691898) The War for Candia, by the VENIVA consortium. Venice Republic: Renaissance, 1645-69 The war of Candia, by Marco Antonio Bragadin. Knights of Malta - Order of St John.

Naval Battles of the Cretan War (1645-69) 1644 September 28 - Maltese galleys defeat Turkish sailing ships near Rhodes; their subsequent stay in

Venetian-held Crete provoked the outbreak of war(details) 1645 September 28 or 29 - Combined Christian fleet tries and fails to retake Canea (Chania) in Crete, from the

Ottomanso October 1 - Christians vs Turks near Canea, Crete 1646 May 26 - Venetians defeat Turkish attempt to break their blockade of the Dardanelles. (details)o August 14 - Inconclusive fight between Christians and the Ottoman fleet anchored at Chania Bay,

Crete 1647 January 27 - The Ottoman fleet of 45 galleys attacks the ship of the Venetian admiral Tommaso

Morosini. Both Morosini and the Ottoman admiral, Kara Musa Pasha, are killed. After suffering significantcasualties, the Turks are driven off by the arrival of the remaining Venetian fleet.

o August 25 - Inconclusive skirmish between Christians and Turkso September 9 - Inconclusive skirmish between Christians and Turks 1649 May 6 - Minor battle between Venetians and Turkso May 12 Focchies - Venetians defeat large Turkish fleet near western Turkeyo July 15 - Venetians vs Turks near Candia, Crete (details)o July 18 - Venetians defeat Turks near Candia (details) 1651 July 8 and 10 - Venetians under Mocenigo defeat Turks (details) 1654 April - Maltese privateers defeat Turks near Rhodeso May 16 - Turks under Murad defeat Venetians underGiuseppe Delfino in Dardanelles (details)o June 21 - Turks retreat after skirmish with Venetians west of Milos 1655 June 21 - Venetians underLazaro Mocenigo defeat Turks under Mustapha in Dardanelles (details) 1656 June 26 and 27 - Venetians and Maltese under Lorenzo Marcello defeat Turks under Chinam Pasha in

Dardanelles (details)

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1657 May 3 - Venetians defeat Algerines (details)o May 18 - Venetians under Lazaro Mocenigo defeat Turks and Algerines at Suazich (details)o July 1719 - Venetians, Maltese and Papal forces under Lazaro Mocenigo defeat Turks in Dardanelles

(details) 1658 May 19 - Venetians underContarini defeat Turks between Imbros and the Dardanelles 1659 August 26 (or 27?) - Venetians under Contarini vs Turks (details) 1660 between May 26 and June 12 - Slight skirmish between Venetians and Turks 1661 March (end) - Venetians defeat Turks in minor skirmisho May 18 - Venetians defeat Turks in minor skirmisho

August 27 - Venetians and Maltese defeat Turks near Milos, Greece (details) 1662 September 29 - Venetians defeat Turkish "Alexandria Caravan" between Kos and Kalymnos, Greece(details)

1665 March - French under the Duc de Beaufort defeat Algerines near La Goulette, Tunisia (details)o August - French under the Duc de Beaufort defeat Algerines at Cherchell, Algeriao - French under d'Escrainville defeat Turks 1667 February 25 and 26 - Venetians underMolin defeat Turks and Tunisians north of Crete (details) 1668 March 8 and 9 - Venetians defeat Turks near Pelagia, Greece (details)o May 2 - French defeat Turks (details)o about September - Barbary "Turks" defeat Venetians south of Crete (details) 1669 June - Privateers defeat "Alexandria Caravan" escort near Rhodes (details)

Action of 26 May 1646


This battle took place on 26 May 1646 at the mouth of the Dardanelles Strait[1]. The Ottoman fleet underKapudan PashaKaraMusa Pasha, tried to defeat the Venetian fleet, underTommaso Morosini, that was blockading the Dardanelles. After seven hours,the Ottoman fleet withdrew back into the Strait. Several Turkish ships were damaged, but none lost.Venice 7 sailing ships

Turkey 5 galleasses 75 galleys

1. ^ Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1991), Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the Seventeenth Century, DIANE Publishing,ISBN 0871691922, p139

Battle of Focchies 1649


Battle of the combined Venetian and Malta fleets against the Turks, with the Madonna della Vigna on the left. (AbrahamBeerstraten, 1656

Date 12 May 1649

Location Focchies, nearSmyrna in western TurkeyResult Venetian victory

Belligerents

Ottoman Empire Republic of Venice Knights of Malta


Giacomo Riva

11 sailing ships 10 galleasses 72 galleys 19 sailing ships

Casualties and losses

9 sailing ships lost 3 galleasses burnt 2 galleys burnt 105 casualties

The naval Battle of Focchies took place on 12 May 1649, during the Cretan War, offFocchies, nearSmyrna in western Turkey,when a Venetian fleet of 19 ships, under Giacomo Riva, defeated an Ottoman fleet of 11 ships, 10 galleasses (mahons) and 72galleys.Prelude A Venetian fleet had been blockading the Dardanelles Straits since about April 1648. On 19 November, most of the fleetwithdrew, leaving 13 sailing ships, under Riva. In Spring 1649 he was joined by Bertucci Civrano with seven more, making 19 as

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he had lost one. Early in May, the Ottoman fleet appeared from Istanbul. Only two of Riva's ships attacked them, and the Turksmade it out of the Strait and headed south. Riva followed and caught them at the port of Focchies, on the mainland. Many of theVenetian ships were hired Dutch orEnglish vessels, and Riva had to promise to compensate their captains for any damage.Battle When it became apparent that the Venetians were going to attack, the 10 galleasses covered the entrance to the port, with thegalleys further in. One Ottoman sailing ship was captured by Mercante Diletto and Jupiter, one galleass by James (Captain GeorgeScot), which was so damaged it sank ten days later, and one galley was brought off by her own slaves. Nine sailing ships, threegalleasses and two galleys were burnt before the wind changed, preventing the fire from spreading to other Ottoman ships andcausing the Venetians to withdraw as the burning ships were blown toward them. Three Venetian ships didn't fight: Esperienzawhich kept out to sea, and Francese and San Bartolamio (Captain Alardi), which were abandoned by their crews. San Bartolamiowas recovered by Tre Re but Francese ran ashore and was burnt by the Turks. The Venetians suffered 105 casualties. The Turks

lost nine ships, three galleasses and two galleys burnt, while one of each type was captured.Venice (Giacomo Riva) Many were hired English or Dutch vesselsRotta Fortuna (flag)Croce DorataTre ReMercante Diletto (English Merchant's Delight?)Principessa (flag 2?)James (English?/Scottish?) - Sank 22 MaySan FelippeCarita (DutchLieffde)EsperienzaGiudizio di Salomon (Dutch Salomons Gerecht)Madonna della Vigna (Dutch)

Jupiter(Dutch)Profeta SamuelAmburgenseSacrificio d'Abram (DutchAbrahams Offerand)Fregata ContariniOrca NegroSan Bartolamio (French?)Francese (French?) - Abandoned, aground and burntOttoman Empire

11 sailing ships - 9 burnt, 1 captured . 10 galleasses - 3 burnt, 1 captured. 72 galleys - 2 burnt, 1 capturedReferencesNaval wars in the Levant 1559-1853 - R. C. Anderson ISBN 1-57898-538-2

Action of 10 July 1651From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This battle was fought on 10 July1651, with some minor fighting on 8 July, south ofNaxos in the Greek Islands, betweenVenetian and Turkish sailing ship/galley forces. It was a Venetian victory.

BackgroundThe Venetian fleet, under Alvise Mocenigo, sailed from Cerigo to Euboea at the end of June 1651. It consisted oftwenty eight sailing ships (under Luca Francesco Barbarigo, with Dolfin and Girolamo Battaglia), six galleasses (FrancescoMorosini) and twenty fourgalleys (Mocenigo, with Molin). There on 2 July he learned that the Turkish fleet under kapudanpasha Hosambegzade ALi Pasha had left Chios for Patmos on 29 June, and sailed south to Santorin, hoping to intercept itbefore it reached Crete. He arrived on 5 July, and on 7 July the Turkish fleet appeared from the east, sailing to the south ofSantorini, but it turned north when it spotted some Venetian stragglers, and Mocenigo tried to support them. Nineteen sailingships under Battaglia formed a line abreast, but darkness prevented any action from happening that day.

The battle On 8 July, the Venetians were somewhat scattered, with five sailing ships, under Battaglia, close to the Turks. He wasunsupported against them until Barbarigo with six sailing ships engaged the Turkish rowing vessels. The Turks retired north,towing some of their sailing ships, toward the channel between Naxos and Paros. On 9 July, the Venetians were morescattered, with only one sailing ship supporting their galleys, and Mocenigo had to join them with the rest. The Turks were tothe north, steering between Paros and Naxos. On 10 July, two galleasses, under Tomaso and Lazaro Mocenigo, brokeformation and attacked some Turkish galleys which were still watering at Paros. They ended up fighting the Kapudan Pashahimself, with six galleasses and some galleys, and Tomaso was killed. Francesco Morosini arrived with the Venetian galleys,and later the Venetian Right and Center joined and the Turkish galleys fled, leacving their sailing ships unsupported. Thesefled north or east of Naxos, but they were overhauled by the Venetian rowing vessels, which captured, forced them ashore orburnt them. The Turks lost ten or eleven sailing ships and one galleass captured, and five (sailing ships?) burnt, as well as 965prisoners. Afterward, Mocenigo sailed to Heraklion, and the Turks to Rhodes.

Ships involvedMany of the Venetian ships were hired Dutch or EnglishVenice (Alvise Mocenigo)

Leoncorno BiancoGiovanni BattistaAquila NegraGiovanni BattistaArma di Venezia

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Profeta DanielSan GiobbeSan Zorzi (Giorgio)Maria ElizabetaPrincipe piccoloMargaritaSan PietroSan ZorziMadonna della VignaAquila d'Oro

DragonSacrificio d'AbramDifesaRotta FortunaCroce d'OroDamianTomaso FrancescoFregata GrimaniSan Marco grandeSan Marco piccoloBeneditioneProfeta Samuel6 galleasses

24 galleysTurkey 55 sailing ships - 10 or 11 captured. 6 galleasses - 1 captured. 53 galleysReferences Anderson, R. C. (2005).Naval wars in the Levant 1559-1853. Mansfield Center, Connecticut: Martino Pub. ISBN 1-

57898-538-2. Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1991). Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the Seventeenth Century. DIANE Publishing. pp. 163

164. ISBN0-87169-192-2.

Battle of the Dardanelles (1654)


This battle, which took place on 16 May 1654, was the first of a series of tough battles just inside the mouth of the DardanellesStrait, as Venice and sometimes the other Christian forces attempted to hold the Turks back from their invasion of Crete byattacking them early. Venetian commanderGiuseppe Delfino reached the mouth of the Dardanelles on 19 April after a voyage inwhich he lost 3 ships. His fleet of 16 sailing ships, 2 galleasses and 8 galleys was not large enough or adequately prepared. Murad,the Kapudan Pasha (admiral) left Istanbul with 30 sailing ships, 6 galleasses (known in Turkey as mahons), and 40 galleys on 10May and reached the Narrows, just above the mouth of the Dardanelles, on 15 May. His fleet was formed into 3 lines: sailing shipsfirst, then galleasses, then galleys. The next day Delfino attacked. His plan was for his ships to remain at anchor until the Turkspassed and then to attack the rear. However most Venetian ships sailed too soon, leaving Delfinos ship, San Giorgio grande, that ofhis second, Daniele Morosini, Aquila d'Oro, along with Orsola Bonaventura (Sebastiano Molino), Margarita, 2 galleasses and 2galleys without support.Aquila d'Oro was attacked first, by a large Ottoman ship which she managed to capture, before 5 Turkishvessels came to its rescue. The Ottoman vessel ended up being burnt, leading to the burning ofAquila d'Oro too. Morosini wastaken prisoner as he tried to flee in a boat. The action became more general, and when it was over the Venetians had lost 2 shipsand 1 galley burnt, 1 galley captured, as well as the leader of the galleys, Francesco Morosini, killed, and Daniele Morosini

captured. Total casualties were 30 killed and about 40 wounded, although one account had higher figures. Ottoman losses were 2sailing ships burnt, and perhaps 1 galleass and 1 galley lost.Venice (Giuseppe Delfino) Many were hired Dutch or English shipsSan Giorgio grande (flag)Aquila d'Oro (Dutch Gouden Arend) - BurntConcordia (DutchEendracht)Casa di Nassau (DutchHuys van Nassau)San Zorzi (Giorgio) piccolo (DutchKleene Sint Joris)Aquila Coronato (DutchKronede Arend)Orsola Bonaventura (English Ursula Bonaventure) - BurntAnna Bonaventura (EnglishAnne Bonaventure)San MichielSpirito SantoApolloMargaritaSan GiovanniConte Sdrin/Conte DesdrinGenovese grande

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Pinco Tremartino2 galleasses8 galleys - flag galley of Francesco Morosini burnt, 1 other capturedTurkey (Kara Murat Pasha)30 sailing ships - 2 burnt. 6 galleasses - 1 sunk?. 40 galleys - 1 sunk?. Reserve fleet guarding retreat of 14 sailing ships and 22galleysReferencesNaval wars in the Levant 1559-1853 (1952) - R. C. Anderson ISBN 1-57898-538-2



This battle took place on 21 June 1655 inside the mouth of the Dardanelles Strait. It was a clear victory for Venice over theOttoman Empire. The Venetians, under Lazzaro Mocenigo, continued their strategy ofblockading the Dardanelles, to prevent theOttomans from resupplying their forces in the Aegean Sea. The orders were the same as for the previous year - remain at anchoruntil the Ottoman fleet passed, then attack the rear - and this time the plan worked. The previous Kapudan Pasha, Kara Murad, hadbeen promoted to Grand Vizier and his replacement, Mustapha, had 36 sailing ships, 8 galleasses and 60 galleys, as well as perhapsseveral galleys from outside the Dardanelles. Once again, the Ottomans were arranged in 3 lines abreast: Sailing ships, thengalleasses, then galleys. The Venetians had 26 sailing ships, 4 galleasses and 6 galleys. As the Ottomans advanced, one galleasswas sunk and one galley burnt and the rowing vessels retreated, after which the Venetians attacked the Ottoman sailing ships,resulting in 9 being burnt and 2 wrecked. The only Venetian loss was David Golia, which was burnt. Venetian casualties exclusiveof the sunken ship were 126 killed and 180 wounded. 358 Ottomans were taken prisoner.

Venice (Lazzaro Mocenigo) (most were hired from theNetherlands, Britain and France)? ("capitana")Aquila CoronataConcordiaProfeta SamuelTomaso FrancescoCampo d'OchePrincipessa grandeTre ReCroce d'OroSacrificio d'AbramoLepre RossoPrincipessa piccola

CoronaGallo d'OroErcole grandeRe DavidIsabella MariaDavid Golia (sunk)Pesce Triglio Ercole piccoloArma di NassauLionessaArma di LechSant' Antonio di PadovaLeon Negro

6 galleys4 galleassesOttomans (Mustapha)36 sailing ships - 9 burnt, 2 wrecked. 8 galleasses - 1 sunk. 60 galleys - 1 burntReferencesNaval wars in the Levant 1559-1853 - R. C. Anderson ISBN 1-57898-538-2



Date 26 June 1656

Location Dardanelles StraitsResult Venetian victory

Republic of Venice Knights of Malta Ottoman Empire

Lorenzo Marcello Pietro Bembo Barbado Badoer Gregorio Carafa Kenan or Chinam Pasha

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BackgroundSince 1645, Venice and the Ottoman Empire had been at war over the possession of the island of Crete. Ottomanforces had captured most of the island in the early years of the war, but where unable to seize its capital, the heavily fortified city ofCandia (modern Heraklion). The Venetians, superior at sea, endeavoured to cut off the supplies and reinforcements to the Ottomanarmy, and attempted several times to blockade the Straits of the Dardanelles, through which the Ottoman fleet had to sail to reachthe Aegean Sea from its base around Constantinople.Preface Marcello reached the island ofImbros, outside the Dardanelles Strait, on 23 May 1656 with 13 sailing ships, 6 galleassesand 24 galleys as well as some more vessels under Pietro Bembo. On 11 June, 7 Maltese galleys under Gregorio Carafa arrived,making a total of 29 sailing ships, 7 galleasses and 31 galleys.[1][2] On 23 June the Ottomans, under Kenan or Chinam Pasha, aRussian convert, appeared in the Strait with 28 sailing ships, 9 galleasses and 61 galleys. On 24 June Turkish land batteries oneither side of the Straits tried to drive the Venetians off but failed.[1][2]

Battle In the morning of 26 June the wind was from the north, and the Ottomans made good progress, the Venetian galleys beingunable to assist their sailing ships. Then the wind backed, turning to the SE, trapping the Ottomans against the Asian side of theStrait just below the Narrows, and a mle ensued, the result of which was never in doubt. Kenan Pasha got back past the Narrowswith 14 galleys but the rest were either captured, sunk or burnt. [1] Sultan/San Marco was the most advanced Venetian ship and didthe most to prevent the Ottoman retreat, but she ran aground under the Ottoman guns and was abandoned. During the course of thebattle, the Venetian Captain General Marcello was killed by a direct cannon hit, but his death kept a secret from all but his second,the provedditore of the fleet Barbaro Badoer. Some small-scale fighting happened the next day, and at the end of it, the Ottomanfleet had lost 4 large sailing ships, 2 pinks, 5 galleasses and 13 galleys captured, and 22 sailing ships, 4 galleasses and 34 galleyssunk or burnt. Only 2 Ottoman sailing ships and 14 galleys escaped. Of the captured ships, Malta received 2 galleasses, 8 galleysand 1 "super galley" (or galleass?). The Venetians lost 3 sailing ships burnt and their casualties were 207 killed, 260 wounded and94 missing. Maltese casualties were 40 killed and 100 or more wounded. Some 5,000 Christian slaves employed in the Ottomanfleet were freed.[3]Aftermath It was the heaviest naval defeat the Ottomans had suffered since the Battle of Lepanto,[3][4] and enabled the Venetians to

occupy the strategically important islands ofTenedos and Lemnos, thus establishing a tight blockade of the Straits.

[5]

As a result,the resupply of Crete was effectively cut off, and Constantinople itself suffered a shortage of food during the winter.[6] In a three-day battle in July 1657 however, the blockade would be broken again.[7]Christian fleet

Venice (Lorenzo Marcello, with Pietro Bembo)

Fregata Contarini Tomaso Francesco Principessa grande Tre Re Croce d'Oro Principessa piccola Gallo d'Oro Sacrificio d'Abram Aquila Coronata (Kronede Arend) Profeta Samuel Arma di Nassau - Burnt Lionessa Arma di Lech Leon Negro Madonna del Carmine Santa Caterina Profeta Elia San Bartolamio Fama Volante Ercole Rosa Bianca Speranza (orSan Nicola) Principe di Colognia San Pietro (hired Dutch) - Burnt Sultana/San Marco (ex-Ottoman) - Aground, abandoned and burnt Santa Margarita Paramor ? ? 7 galleasses 24 galleysMalta (Gregorio Carafa)

7 galleysOttoman Empire (Kenan Pasha) 4 large sailing ships - Captured 24 other sailing ships - 22 sunk/burnt 2 pinks - Captured

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9 galleasses - 5 captured, 4 sunk/burnt 61 galleys - 13 captured, 34 sunk/burntReferences

1. ^ abc Setton (1991), p. 1822. ^ ab Anderson (1956), p. 1593. ^ ab Setton (1991), p. 1834. ^ Finkel (2006), p. 2485. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 183-1856. ^ Finkel (2006), pp. 251-2527. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 186-188

Sources Anderson, Roger Charles (1952).Naval wars in the Levant 1559-1853 . University of Michigan Press. ISBN1-57898-538-

2. Finkel, Caroline (2006). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300-1923. London: John Murray. ISBN978-

0-7195-6112-2. Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1991). Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the Seventeenth Century. DIANE Publishing. ISBN

0871691922.

Battle of the Dardanelles, by Pieter Casteleyn, 1657.


The Action of 3 May 1657 was a battle that took place on 3 May 1657 and was a victory forVenice overAlgeria. Venetiancasualties were 117 killed and 346 wounded. Few details are known.

Venice (Mocenigo) 6 galleasses? 19 galleys?Algeria

Perla (flag??) - CapturedFontana Rose - CapturedSette Teste - Aground and burntDoi Lioni - Aground and burntLuna Biscaina - Aground and burntMolin de Vento - CapturedTigra - Aground and burntLione? (ex-Venetian Croce d'Oro, captured earlier that year) - Captured

ReferencesNaval wars in the Levant 1559-1853 - R. C. Anderson ISBN 1-57898-538-2

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This battle took place on 18 May 1657 and was a victory forVenice overTurkey and Algeria. Not many details are known.Venice Capitana d'Algeri(ex-AlgerianPerla, captured earlier that year)Arma di MidelborgoPomerlanArma di CologniaTurkey/Algeria 14 saiks - CapturedReferencesNaval wars in the Levant 1559-1853 - R. C. Anderson ISBN 1-57898-538-2



Date 17 -19 July 1657

Location Dardanelles Straits, NE Aegean Sea

Result Ottoman strategic success

Republic of Venice Knights of Malta Papal States Ottoman Empire

Lazzaro Mocenigo Topal Mehmed Pasha

29 sailing ships 7 galeasses 31 galleys 28 sailing ships 9 galleasses 61 galleys

The Fourth Battle of the Dardanelles in the Sixth Ottoman-Venetian Wartook place between 17 and 19 July 1657 outside themouth of the Dardanelles Strait. The Ottomans succeeded in breaking the Venetian blockade over the Straits.Venice and allies Several ships were hired DutchAquila Coronata (DutchKronede Arend)San Giorgio (Zorzi) grande (Dutch Groote Sint Joris)ParamoreProfeta EliaRosa MocenigaZardin d'Olanda (Hollandsche Tuyn)Tamburlano

Principessa RealePrincipe di VeneziaPiccola FortunaPrincipessa grandePrincipessa piccolaGallo d'Oro7 other sailing ships7 galleasses4 galleys - flag galley, under Mocenigo, blew up the next dayOttoman Empire

18 sailing ships - 4 lost, 1 captured10 galleasses - 1 sunk, 1 captured and several burnt about 3 days later30 galleys - 1 captured that day or the next day

many transports and smaller vessels nearbyReferencesNaval wars in the Levant 1559-1853 - R. C. Anderson ISBN 1-57898-538-2

Action of 27 August 1661


Action of 27 August 1661 is a term that describes a battle took place on 27 August 1661 nearMilos, Greece, and was a victory forVenice and Malta over Turkey.Venice (Giorgio Morosini)/Malta (Ruffo) 2 galleasses 20 galleysTurkey 36 galleys - 5 sunk, 4 capturedReferencesNaval wars in the Levant 1559-1853 - R. C. Anderson ISBN 1-57898-538-2

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Action of 29 September 1662


The Action of 29 September 1662 took place between Kos and Kalimnos, Greece, when a Venetian fleet attacked and defeated theregularTurkish cargo fleet and its escort which were on their way to Alexandria.Venice ?

Turkey Tre Naranceri 40 - Burnt Gran Duca - Captured San Carlo/Filippoto - Captured ? (pink) - Captured

13 other ships 5 galleys 36 saiks - 28 sunk or capturedReferencesNaval wars in the Levant 1559-1853 - R. C. Anderson ISBN 1-57898-538-2

Kprl Fazl Ahmed


Kprl Fazl Ahmed Pasha (Albanian: Fazl Ahmed Pash Kypriljoti) Was a member of the renowned Kprl familyoriginated from Albania, that had given three grand viziers to the Ottoman Empire. [1] He served as a Grand Vizierof the Ottoman

Empire from (1661 1635 October 19, 1676). when he inherited the title from his father and founder of the Kprl FamilyMehmed Kprl. He was dubbedFazl, meaning fair-minded, for reducing taxation and promoting education. On the other hand,he was fierce in war. He led the Ottoman Army in the Austro-Turkish War (1663-1664) and captured Candia (present dayHeraklion) in 1669 and signed the Treaty of Zurawno on October 16, 1676.Preceded by Kprl Mehmed Pasha Grand Vizier31 Oct 1661 19 Oct 1676 Succeeded by Kara Mustafa Pasha

Reference ^Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire By Gbor goston, Bruce Alan Masters,[1]See alsoKprl Era

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Austro-Turkish War (16631664)


Date 16631664Location Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Hungary, Slovakia, Croatia)

Result Peace of Vasvr

League of the Rhine: France Holy Roman Empire Saxony

Brandenburg-Prussia Bavaria Baden-Baden SwabiaPiedmont-Savoyet al.

Ottoman Empire CrimeanKhanate Moldavia Wallachia

The Austro-Turkish War (16631664) orfourth Austro-Turkish War was a short war between the Habsburg Monarchy and theOttoman Empire. The Habsburg army underRaimondo Montecuccoli succeeded to halt the Ottoman army on its way to Vienna inthe Battle of Saint Gotthard. Despite this Ottoman defeat, the war ended with the favourable Peace of Vasvr.Prelude The cause of this war was the invasion of Poland in 1658, by Prince George Rkczy II of Transylvania without thepermission of the Porte. Transylvania had after the Battle of Mohcs in 1526 recognized Ottoman suzerainty and paid a tribute tothe Porte and were given political and religious autonomy in return. On hearing about Rkczy's unauthorized war, the Ottomansdeclared war on their vassal. It was not long before Grand VizierKprl Mehmed Pasha (Vizier 1656-1661) defeated Rkczyand conquered Transylvania. The new Transylvanian prince, Jnos Kemny, fled to Vienna, seeking Austrian support. Emperor

Leopold I, not wishing to see Transylvania fall under direct Ottoman control, sent Montecuccoli into Hungary with a small army.Montecuccoli was severely outnumbered by the Ottomans. Meanwhile, the Ban of Croatia, Mikls Zrnyi, was since 1661 doinghis best to start a new Austro-Ottoman conflict by organizing raids into Ottoman territory from his stronghold Zrnyijvr. Theseraids and the presence of Montecuccoli's army made the Ottomans end the status-quo with Vienna, which existed between themsince 1606.1663 campaign In the summer of 1663, an Ottoman army of more than 100.000 strong under Grand VizierKprl Fazl Ahmedentered Habsburg Hungary and in September conquered the town of rsekjvr. The Habsburg commander RaimondoMontecuccoli had only his 12.000 men and the 15.000 Hungarian-Croatian troops of Mikls Zrnyi to oppose the Turks. EmperorLeopold I summoned the Imperial Diet in January 1663, to ask the German and European Kings for help, with success. An army of30.000 Bavarian, Brandenburg and Saxon troops was raised. Even arch-enemy Louis XIV of France sent an Army Corps of 6.000underJean de Coligny-Saligny in support.1664 campaign At the beginning of 1664, the Imperial Army was divided into 3 Corps: In the south 17.000 Hungarian-Croatiantroops under command ofMikls Zrnyi. In the center the main army of Montecuccoli which was 28.500 men strong and in the

north some 8.500 men under general Jean-Louis Raduit de Souches. There were some 12.500 men in reserve to defend thefortresses. This army of 66.500 men was not a unity, as the differences of opinion between the commanders were very strong,especially with Zrinski. As a preparation for campaigns planned for 1664, Zrnyi set out to destroy the strongly fortified Ottomanbridge (the Eszk bridge) which, since 1566, had linked Drda to Eszkacross the Drava and the marshes of Baranya. Destructionof the bridge would cut off the retreat of the Ottoman Army and make any Turkish reinforcement impossible for several months.Re-capturing strong fortresses (Berzence, Babcsa, the town of Pcs, etc.) on his way, Zrnyi advanced 240 kilometers on enemyterritory and destroyed the bridge on February 1, 1664. He didn't succeed in conquering Nagykanizsa, the main objective. Thesiege had to be lifted when in June the main army of Kprl approached. The Turks even conquered Zrnyi's strongholdZrnyijvr, which had to be abandoned when Montecuccoli refused to come to its rescue. Zrnyi would never forgive this, whichwould eventually lead to the Wesselnyi conspiracy.Battle of Saint GotthardMain article: Battle of Saint Gotthard (1664) After the conquest of Zrnyijvr, the Ottoman main armymarched towards Vienna, but was stopped at the Rba riverbetween Mogersdorfand the Szentgotthrd Abbey by Montecuccolisarmy. The Ottomans lost 16.000 to 22.000 of their best troops. In the north of Hungary the army of Souches had won some smaller

victories against Kutschuk Mehmed Pascha. The most important of this victories was the Siege of Lva.Peace of VasvrMain article: Peace of VasvrOnly 9 days later, on August 10, 1664 the Peace of Vasvr was signed, to last 20years. Despite the Austrian victory as Saint Gotthard, Ottoman control of Transylvania and rsekjvr was recognized, as well asthe Austrian Empire becoming obliged to pay war reparations to the Ottoman Empire. Zrnyijvr was to be dismantled. The majorfactor in the Habsburgs' decision, was the French threat to the much more valuable estates in the Netherlands, Germany and Italy.Consequences The Croats and Hungarians were outraged at the loss of their territories and felt the initiative and momentum afterthe victory of Saint Gotthard should have been maintained. This led to the Wesselnyi conspiracy. The peace in fact held for 20years until the Ottomans attacked Vienna for the second time in 1683 and were pushed back from Hungary in the following GreatTurkish War (1683 - 1699).

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Battle of Saint Gotthard (1664)


Date August 1, 1664Location Szentgotthrd, Vas County, along the present-day Austro-Hungarian border

Result Decisive League victory

Raimondo Montecuccoli Margrave von Baden Comte de Coligny PrinceWaldeck

Ahmed Kprl

~26-28,000[1], or 40,000[2]Casualties 2-6,000~ 50,000-60,000 (30,000 remained unengaged ), or~60,000 janissaries, and sipahi 60-90,000 irregular[1]Casualties 16-22,000[1]

The Battle of Saint Gotthard (Hungarian: Szentgotthrd) was fought on August 1, 1664 as part of the Austro-Turkish War (1663-1664),between an Habsburg army led by Raimondo Montecuccoli, Jean de Coligny-Saligny, Wolfgang Julius von Hohenlohe, Prince Leopold of Baden,Georg Friedrich of Waldeckand an Ottoman army under the command ofKprl Fazl Ahmed. The battle took place nearSzentgotthrd andMogersdorfin Western Hungary, near the present-day Austro-Hungarian border and is known as the Battle of Mogersdorf in Austria. The Turkswere militarily defeated but were able to negotiate the Peace of Vasvr, which was highly favorable to them.[4]Preparations Ottoman dominance in Hungary began with the Battle

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The Cretan War 1645-1669