The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus Volume 6 | Issue 1 | Article ID 2631 | Jan 01, 2008

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The Contested Heritage of Koguryo/Gaogouli and China-KoreaConflict

Yonson Ahn

T h e C o n t e s t e d H e r i t a g e o fKoguryo/Gaogouli and China-KoreaConflict

Yonson Ahn

Preservation of the Koguryo heritage

The ancient kingdom, Koguryo/Gaogouli (37BC– 668AD) encompassed an area from centralManchuria to Primorsky Krai (the extremeSoutheastern region of Russia) to the centralpart of the Korean peninsular at the height ofits power, around the fifth century AD. Koguryoremains, including of walled towns, fortresses,palaces and tombs, as well as wall paintingsand artifacts, have been found on both sides ofthe Chinese-North Korean border as well as inSouth Korea (the ROK). The remains and relicsin the People's Republic of China (PRC) reflectthe history and culture of the early and mid-period Koguryo kingdom; they also showcaseKoguryo's architectural style and pioneeringnew patterns of city construction, in which bothmountain cit ies and plain cit ies weresuccessfully constructed.(1)

Map of Koguryo/Gaogouli sites in the fifth century

Koguryo tombs in Democratic People'sRepublic of Korea (DPRK, or North Korea)represent the later period of the kingdom afterKoguryo moved its capital to Pyongyang in 427AD. So far, approximately 13,000 ancient tombsof the Koguryo/Gaogouli kingdom have beenidentified in China and Korea. Among these, 90tombs discovered near Ji’an in China’s JilinProvince (the former capital of Koguryo andhome to a large collection of Koguryo era

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tombs), and in the vicinity of Pyongyang andNamp’o in North Korea contain wall paintingsdating from around AD 500.

The Koguryo tombs demonstrate ingeniousengineering solutions, an important example ofburial typology and special burial customs.(2)These tomb complexes exemplify remarkablenatural and man-made features important inboth archaeology and art history, includingdifferent typologies of tomb structure andceiling construction and varied iconography.The tombs can be divided into two groupsaccording to the materials used. The stonepyramid type, which include those from anearlier period and are found in the Amnok/Yaluriver area, and the later earth mound type,found both on the Amnok/Yalu river and to thesouth, usually containing murals.

A stone-pile tomb, Changgunch’ong Tomb, (General’sTomb), Ji’an, China

Tokhung-ri Tomb built in 408, Namp’o, North Korea

Mural tombs have decorative paintings insidethe burial chambers. The mural paintingsconstitute their chief claim to glory. The muralsare rich in content including the family life ofnoble lords, feasting, dancing, drama-playingand outings. Representative pictorial motifs ofthe wall paintings include the following:

daily life scenes, such as farming,hunting, banquets and entertainment,wives and household retinue, stables,kitchens and storehouses

Hunting mural, Muyongch’ong Tomb (fifth century),Ji’an, China

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Depiction of a kitchen, meat store and carriage shed,Anak Tomb No.3 built in 357, Hwanghae province,

North Korea

scenes of official duties and/or theordering of socio-political status andmilitary activities

Thirteen government officials congratulating thetomb-owner, Jin, on his appointment to an importantpost, Tokhung-ri Tomb built in 408, Namp’o, North

Korea

celestial, cosmological,or immortalascent scenes and figures, such as theblue dragon and white tiger, thetortoise and the snakes, and the redphoenix, and scenes of filial piety andmorality

The star constellations in Tokhung-ri Tomb built in408, Namp’o, North Korea

Red phoenix (one of the Four Guardian Deities,defenders of the four directions on each wall toguard the soul of the deceased against demons),

Kangso Middle Tomb built between the second halfof sixth century and the first half seventh century AD,

Namp’o, North Korea

scenes of deities

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Sun and moon deities, Ohoe Tomb No. 4 builtbetween in the late sixth century and the early

seventh century AD, Ji’an, China

Fire deity, T’onggu Sasinch’ong Tomb built in thesixth century, Ji’an, China

scenes of augury and politicallycharged miracles (3)

Among these motifs, daily life scenes arenumerous. Popular decorative motifs includethe spiral pattern, the “king” letter pattern,lotus-petals, clouds, intertwined dragons andhoneysuckle. The contents of the muralpaintings provide important information onKoguryo life, customs and beliefs; for example,the lotus-petal that appears in so many muralsis indicative of the spread of Buddhism duringthe fifth and sixth centuries. Furthermore,these walls bear an exceptional and earlywitness to a culture, painting tradition andarchaeology in East Asia, especially during theso-called “Northern and Southern Dynastiesperiod” which falls between the Han and Tang

periods, for which there was little informationuntil the past decade.(4)

Lotus flower and heavenly world, Ssangyongch’ongTomb built in the late fifth century, Namp’o, North

Korea

The first image of a Buddhist monk of the Koguryoperiod, Ssangyongch’ong Tomb built in the late fifth

century, Namp’o, North Korea

China and the two Koreas are now activelytaking the initiative to preserve the heritagesites. The contemporary political striving toclaim the Koguryo/Gaogouli heritage can beseen in projects for excavation, reconstructionand/or preservation of the remains and relics.Attempts to preserve and claim the nationalheritage take the form of a competition not onlybetween China and Korea, but also within

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China — “Relics protection prizes” were offeredby the central government in Beijing inDecember 2003. Prizes were awarded to 31national level cultural relics authorities forefforts to protect historical treasures. Ji’an Cityin Jilin Province, where Gaogouli archaeologicalremains are located, was one of the awardwinners, boasting numerous cultural relicsfrom the ancient ruins. (5)

Ji’an near the North Korean border

Mass support, stimulated by the competition, isprobably related to recent developments of“nationalism from below” in China. As LotharVon Falkenhausen notes of the recent“paradigm shi f t to regional ism fromcentral ism” in Chinese archaeology,regionalism encourages voluntary integrationrather than coercing unity from the centre.(6)The result is to assist the central government ingaining popular support in the form of culturalpatriotism, and to help local people gain officialsupport and legitimation. Furthermore, a planwas made to launch a historical heritageprotection project in Liaoning province in 2004,in order to effectively preserve its historicalsites and cultural relics, including the plannedinvestment of 20 million yuan (about 2.4 millionUS dollars) to protect a number of historicalsites. This project includes monitoring criminalcases concerning looting cultural relics.Increasing efforts in preserving culturalheritage are announced in the Chinese Ministry

of Finance’s annual allocation of 250 millionyuan every year beginning in 2005.(7)

The Chinese attempt to preserve and claim thesite is overwhelming in comparison with whatNorth Korea can accomplish with its limitedresources. Efforts for the preservation of theKoguryo tombs and mural paintings have beenmade in North Korea as well. But, at the sametime, concerns about heavy reconstruction withno systemat ic moni tor ing methods ,programmes of research or implementation ofsuitable procedures for the preservation shownin the Mausoleum of King Tongmyong in NorthKorea, were raised by members of theUNESCO (United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organisation) expertmission during a 2000 visit to North KoreanHeritage sites. Hirayama Ikuo, a Japanesepainter and honorary UNESCO ambassador,called for substantial efforts to preserve themural paintings after his trip to North Korea toinvestigate Koguryo sites in 1997.(8)

Mausoleum of King Tongmyong, North Korea

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Hirayama Ikuo’s official inspection four to NorthKorea in 1997

International governmental and non-governmental organisations such as UNESCO,ICCROM (International Centre for the Study ofthe Preservation and Restoration of CulturalProperty), ICOMOS (International Council onMonuments and Sites), and the HirayamaFoundation, have supported preservationefforts in North Korea. Notably, in 2000, theUNESCO/Republic of Korea (ROK) Funds-in-Trust was established, focusing mainly on thePreservation of the Yaksu-ri tomb and provisionof basic equipment to start the project,allowing UNESCO to provide North Korea withmore systematic concrete assistance, such asproviding equipment and training.(9) Thefinancial and technical assistance providedthrough this Trust, which operated from 2001to 2006, contributed to preparation forapplying for UNESCO World Heritage statusfor the ancient relics, and to preserve andadminister them in the aftermath, at a timewhen North Korea could not afford to do in theface of famine.

North Korea did not initially actively protestChina’s claim to the ancient kingdom and itsartistic and cultural legacy, probably becauseof their dependency on China. However, NorthKorea actively sought to register the relics onthe North Korean side as a UNESCO WorldHeritage Site, applying for this earlier than

China. Having the Koguryo relics inscribed onthe UNESCO World Heritage List, a status thatNorth Korea previously lacked, could counterimages of a nuclear weapon-producing roguestate, a missile producer, famine, drugs,refugees and indifference to human rights. (10)Both North Korea and China applied toUNESCO separately to have the disputedremains registered as World Heritage sites oftheir own nations. North Korea initiallysubmitted the nomination dossier in 2002, twoyears before China, which proposed theKoguryo/Gaogouli heritage site in 2004. Theproblem of registration of the Kyoguryoheritage of North Korea alone was discussed atthe general assembly of the 27th WorldHeritage Committee meeting held in Paris inJune 2003. But the nomination was “deferred”pending further steps by the State Party,meaning that registration was not approved.The nomination was discussed again at the28th World Heritage Committee meeting inSuzhou, China, in 2004 at the time when thenomination dossier by China was submitted aswell. The Koguryo Heritages in North Koreaand China were inscribed on the UNESCOWorld Heritage List in July 2004 during the28th session of the World Heritage Committee.Probably, UNESCO sought to include bothsides of the Koguryo heritage on the WorldHeritage list at the same time, in order to avoidcreating political tensions. The inscription ofthe Koguryo relics on the UNESCO list was oneof the most sensitive and highly politicizedprocesses the organisation confronted.

Known as the “Complex of Koguryo Tombs,” 63tombs from five areas, including the KangsoThree Tombs, Royal Tomb of King Tongmyongand 16 tombs containing mural paintings inNorth Korea, were incorporated in a WorldHeritage site in July 2004.

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Kangso Great Tomb, Namp’o, North Korea

Portrait of the tomb owner’s wife: Anak Tomb No.3,Hwanghae province, North Korea

This became the first World Heritage site forNorth Korea, which ratified “the ConventionConcerning the Protection of the WorldCultural Natural Heritage” (which is to protectcultural and natural relics in the world ascommon heritage of the human race) in 1998.The same session of the World HeritageCommittee inscribed the “Capital Cities andTombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom”,presented by China, on the UNESCO WorldHeritage List as a serial nomination of sites,

including archaeological remains of threecapital cities (Wunu Mountain City, Guonei Cityand Wandu Mountain City) and 40 tombs (26noble tombs, 14 royal tombs), along with theStone Monument of King Kwanggaet’o/Haotaiwang, on the same day.(11) City wallbuilding and stone material processing in thecapital cities represent a unique form ofmountain city. The Koguryo heritage is the 30thcultural and natural World Heritage site forChina, which became a party to the conventionin 1985.

Wunu Mountain on the summit of which WunuMountain City is located, Liaoning, China

The nomination was submitted individually bytwo state parties, not one proposing a trans-border site. There were two separatelysubmitted nomination dossiers concerned theher i tage f rom the same c iv i l i sat ion(Koguryo/Gaogouli). North Korea and Chinanominated different cultural properties, eachlocated in its own territory.

Koguryo for the two Koreas and China

Koguryo/Gaogouli heritage and/or history hadattracted little attention in Korea and Chinaprior to the year 2000 when the conflict flared.Although Koguryo history is one of the proudestand most significant chapters of nationalhistory of North Korea, North Korea has limited

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financial and outreach resources to investigate,preserve and lay claim to the remains andrelics it views as its ancient patrimony. Studiesof ancient history in South Korea have focusedon Silla (57 BC – 935 AD) rather than Koguryo,since Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms thateventually formed Korea, was located in theSouth. Moreover, it has not been easy for SouthKorean or international researchers to gainaccess to Koguryo heritage sites, most of whichare located in northeast China and in NorthKorea, particularly before South Korea andChina agreed to establish diplomatic relationsin 1992. Since the mid-1990's, there has been aproliferation of research and exhibitions onKoguryo history, art and cultural heritage.

Even though archaeology in China'snortheastern provinces had been particularlywell developed during the Japanese occupationof Manchuria, historical remains and relics inChina's peripheral areas including the remotenortheast were more or less neglected prior tothe 1980's. However, from the late 1970's, theunified archaeological picture of NeolithicChina originating in the Yellow River Valleyfaced increasing challenges as new evidencefrom outlying archaeological culturesemerged.(12)

Gaogouli relics unearthed from the ruins of GuoneiCity, Ji’an, China

Recently, the political and cultural significanceof Gaogouli increased, leading to active effortsto claim, investigate and display its sites, relicsand history. The Chinese state has interpretedKorea’s historical claims to the region and itsartistic legacy as posing the threat ofirredentism. Chinese central and localgovernments have paid attention and supportedresearch on the history and relics of the regionand, for excavation, preservation, andprotection from looting Gaogouli relics,examples of which occurred even during thelast decade. Most strikingly in 2002, Chinalaunched the “Northeast Project” (its full nameis the Northeast Borderland History and theChain of Events Research Project), a five-yearstate-funded project, which dealt with variousproblems related to history, geography andethnicity in China’s Northeastern provinces,Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning. The projectstimulated a Koguryo “boom” in practicinghistory, including art history, and a flurry ofmedia activity, including TV series on Koguryohistory in South Korea.

In reexamining the ancient history of theregion, project researchers conclude that theGaogouli kingdom, which Korean nationalistsconsider an ancestral state of Korea, was anethnic regime which constitutes a part ofChina’s national history.(13) Wei Cuncheng, aChinese professor of Jilin University and anexpert on the Koguryo issue, also considersKoguryo a regime established by ethnic groupsin northern China, representing an importantpart of Chinese culture.(14) These claims havegiven rise to political tensions between Koreaand China. For China, Gaogouli became asymbol of national integrity and stability in thenortheastern border region where a flood ofNorth Korean refugees and territorial boundarydisputes pose a threat of instability. China’sconcern for its northeastern border centers onhow the issues might play out in the aftermathof Korean reunification, underlining thedetermination to secure the borderlandtogether with its history and relics along the

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Yalu River between North Korea and China.The Gaogouli remains in China are correlatedwith buttressing mass support through culturalpatriotism emphasising the historical andcultural integrity of the borderlands, therebyreinforcing national myths of unity.

Koguryo has always been treated as anancestral state within the Korean historicaltradition which both nurtures and unites peopleunder one national identity. The Koguryo issuehas led to an escalation in the debate over sitesof “ethnic origins” and national continuity inKorea. With the eruption of the controversy, itb e c a m e a c e n t r a l s y m b o l b o t h f o rdistinguishing Korea from China and forconsolidating or uniting North and SouthKorea. In order to claim the Koreanness of theKoguryo heritage and history, North and SouthKorean historians emphasise distinctiveness ofKoguryo culture. For example, in the work of RiKi Ung in North Korea and Kim Il-Gwon inSouth Korea, rather than acknowledginginfluences and interaction across the regionand particularly across contemporary bordersbetween China and Korea.(15)

China’s claims over the ancient kingdom and itsheritage have had an effect on North and Southrelations. In confronting to the China’s claims,the two Koreas actively cooperated in theinterest of claiming the nation’s commonheritages and shared national ancestry. Ri UiHa, head of the North Korean delegation, in aremark made at the UNESCO meeting shortlyafter the 2004 decision to register Koguryorelics as a World Heritage, highlighted thiscommonness: He said, “Koguryo culture is theKorean nation’s common heritage, which unitesour national blood vessels.” Furthermore,North-South cooperation on the relics andremains has been deemed symbolic ofreconciliation in the Korean peninsula. It iseven viewed as “a spiritual and cultural basis ofthe reunification” by both North and SouthKorea.(16)

Lake Ch’onji/Tianchi (Heavenly Lake) at thePaekdu/Changbai peak

Since 2006, moreover, friction has flaredbetween China and the two Koreas over MountChangbai/Paekdu located at the heart of theancient Koguryo kingdom, which straddles theborder between North Korea and China. As thePaekdu range is located in the territory ofKoguryo and, furthermore, Koguryo alsoconsidered the mountain sacred, theChangbai/Paekdu issue closely relates to theongoing Koguryo dispute. South Korea’s DongaDaily criticised China’s recent move to developthe Changbai/Paekdu area for tourism, callingit the “Mt. Paekdu Project” and viewing it as abid to retrospectively incorporate Koguryo intoChinese history and territory.(17) In short,South Korean nationalists view the recent“Paekdu Project” as integral to the above-ment ioned Northeas t Pro jec t . Th isPaekdu/Changbai dispute involves not onlyterritorial issues, but also heritage issues whichcontinue to the present day. Thus, war overheritage and history between China and Koreais far from over. Unity, continuity, antiquity,and coherence are claimed in Korea and Chinathrough invoking the history and heritage ofKoguryo/Gaogouli.

Koguryo as “sites of memory”

Various attempts have been made to promote

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Koguryo/Gaogouli’s “sites of memory” wherecultural memory crystallises and secretes itself.Since the mid 1990s, “sites of memory” forKoguryo/Gaogouli in both China and Koreahave been actively promoted such as byestablishing museums, and holding exhibitionson Koguryo history, art or cultural heritage.Gaogouli Relics Park was established in one ofthe Gaogouli capital cities, Guonei City/Kungnaesong, Ji’an. Gaogouli historical relicsare exhibited in museums such as in the Ji’anmunicipal museum in northeast China. Thesemuseums are considered important repositoriesfor education in patriotism. Calls have beenissued to increase financial support forupgrading or maintaining museums “as a keyway for the Chinese to know more about theircountry's 5,000-year history, of which they areproud,”.(18)

Gaogouli Relics Park in former Guonei City/Kungnaesong, Ji’an, China

Promoting “sites of memory” to cherish andtake pride in the ancient kingdom can bewitnessed in both North and South Korea.Several Koguryo exhibitions have been held ineach. Among them, a photo exhibition of theKoguryo tomb mural paintings and artifactswas opened at the Korean Central HistoryMuseum in Pyongyang, North Korea under theco-sponsorship of Yonhap News of South Koreaand Kyodo News of Japan, on October 11, 2007.

At the opening ceremony, the Koguryo tombmural paintings were hailed as precioustreasures associated with the soul andresourcefulness of the Korean nation andcultural heritage.(19)

“Black warrior”, a combination of snake and turtle inone body, Kangso Great Tomb, Namp’o, North Korea

In South Korea, the Gwangjin District Office inSeoul has launched the “Koguryo Project” topreserve the Ach’a Fortress, which isconsidered an important Koguryo relic, and toestablish a Koguyro museum. Guri City inKyonggi Province has been active in creatingKoguryo sites of memory, such as by organisingthe Kwanggaet’o Festival, erecting the statueof King Kwanggaet’o, planning to erect a copyof the Kwangaet’o stele, and launching adonation campaign to build a Koguryo HistoryMemorial.(20) Koguryo postage stamps werealso issued in both North and South Korea. Asrecently as July 2007, there was an exhibitionin Seoul of Koguryo postal stamps which havebeen issued since 2005. All these attempts todisseminate memory of Koguryo/Gaogoulithrough museums and exhibitions playimportant roles in the construction andglorification of the Koguryo national heritageand commemoration of the nation’s ancientpast for China and Korea.

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Koguryo postage stamps issued in North Korea in2000 with wall paintings from Koguryo Tombs

Series of Koguryo stamps issued in South Korea in2005

Who “owns” the Koguryo/Gaogouliheritage?

Koguryo/Gaogouli relics and remains arepivotal in the contestation between China andKorea. The 2004 co-registration on theUNESCO World Heritage list as the heritage ofboth China and North Korea fuelled debateregarding “rightful” ownership of the relics.Both North Korea and China assert ownershipof the Koguryo/Gaogouli heritage sites on anethnic basis, and each lays archaeological andhistorical claim to the region and its heritageas the historical patrimony of its people. Thus,in both countries, ownership of nationalheritages and historic relics is deemedimperative in establishing hegemony orlegitimacy in the border region, and inasserting sovereignty over the past. Exclusiveclaims to sovereignty over the contested past inthe form of a heritage associated with theancient kingdom of Koguryo/Gaogouli havebeen intensified by two Koreas and China. Theancient cultural legacy is held to show thedistinctiveness of a national past linked to thepresent.

For example, the Koguryo murals have beenhailed as illustrative of the early formation ofan advanced culture in East Asia. A consistentaspect of distinctiveness and uniqueness of therelics, especially in the tomb structure and thepictorial motifs of the murals, is oftenemphasised by South Korean art historianssuch as Pak Arim and Kang Hyun-sook. Kangclaims that the Koguryo tombs “reveal highstatus as a powerful cultural center— not asmere imitations of their Chinese counterpartsbut as distinctive.”(21) She concludes that theinfluence of Koguryo cultural forms in Japanand the Korean peninsula demonstrates itsprominent position as a powerful regional state(Kang 2004: 106-107). The Koguryo heritagesand archaeological remains thus are presentedas the legacy of a hegemonic regional culture.Sarah Nelson’s point that archaeology servespresent agendas is quite relevant in theKoguryo case as well. She argues that Koreanarchaeology has been adversely affected by thecontemporary political desire to see the Korean

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culture past and the present as distinctive andhomogeneous. (22) While hardly unique toKorea, we note below the ways in which Koreannationalist archaeology and art history havepursued evidence of the uniqueness andhomogeneity of Korean identity throughKoguryo relics.

China, for its part, stresses Han dynastyinfluence on Gaogouli. According to WangMianhou, the three capital cities of Gaogouli,(Guonei City, Wandu Mountain City and WunuMountain City) in contemporary China and thecapital Pyongyang in North Korea present theclearest evidence of Han cultural influence onGaogouli institutions.(23) As another example,the Haotaiwang/Kwanggaet’o stele, dedicatedto King Haotaiwang/Kwanggaet’o, who reigned391-413 AD, was erected in 414 and has 1,775Chinese characters inscribed, is deemed toshow the impact of Chinese culture on theKoguryo, who did not develop their ownwriting. (24)

Kwanggaet’o stele

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Inscription in Chinese on the Kwanggaet’o stele

Only a few archaeologists and historians inChina and South Korea view Koguryo/Gaogoulias a separate site apart from Korea or China, interms of history and the evolution of tombstructures. The “history wars”, which glorifythe heritage, history and territoriality ofKoguryo/Gaogouli in forming or reinforcingethnic or national identity, are at the centre ofthis conflict. In this process, art history andarchaeology have played a critical role in thebattle over the “cultural capital” of the past andin the competitive desire to monopolise the“national sites”. Gaogouli/Koguryo heritage isrepresented, glorified, and mobilised to claimownership of its heritage by both China andKorea.

The conflict has important implications for theuses and perceptions of national history andnational heritage. At the centre of the disputeover Koguryo is the fact that boundaries ofnational heritage and history are drawndifferently in China and Korea. Chinese history,heritage and culture are defined from theperspective of present-day territories andborders over which the state c la ims

sovereignty. It is assumed that heritage,culture, and history are inscribed ontoterritory, which means contemporary nationalboundaries. Moreover, it is assumed thatcontemporary claims are reinforced by ancientcultural achievements. Accordingly, the historyand heritage of Gaogouli are claimed as part ofa greater Chinese state. On the other hand,Korean national heritage and history aredefined by the area where people whose originis considered Korean settled beyond itscontemporaneous territory. This difference incriteria by which the rigid boundary of nationalheritage and national history is determinedcontributes to contemporary debates onKoguryo heritage and history.

The present academic and political debate overwhich state “owns” the historical heritage ofKoguryo unfolding between China and Korea isfar from over. Self-concepts highlightingabsolute difference rather than a sharedcultural heritage between Chinese and Koreanappear to “nationalise” the Koguryo/Gaogouliheritage and history, and to exclude shareddimensions that took shape long ago in theinterstitial areas of borderlands. Heritage andits historical representation are constructed inthe nation-centred discourses of contemporarynation-states. As a consequence, variousattempts have been made by contemporarynation-states to appropriate Koguryo/Gaogouliheritage. However, the very question of whoowns the historical relics of Koguryo/Gaogouliis the unfortunate legacy of the rigidboundaries of modern nation-states. Thenation-state framework in the present constructthrough the lens of nationalism cloudsunderstanding of the ancient kingdomKoguryo/Gaogouli as a shared cultural legacy,one which encompasses and expresses thevariety and permeability of political andcultural boundaries. Actually, the recentfriction over Koguryo shows that one isconstructed by others even while attempting todistance oneself from those others throughasserting one’s uniqueness. In fact, although

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North Korea and China nominated differentcultural properties of Koguryo as UNESCOWorld Heritage, the heritage is that of acommon history of Koguryo. Furthermore,Koguryo’s contribution to the development of aregional culture can be extended from theKorean Peninsula to the Japanese Archipelago.This dimension of Koguryo culture suggests theneed to recognise the position of the Koguryolegacy in a broader historical and geographicalcontext, so that it can show cultural interactionin the region of East Asia. Focus needs to beplaced on the multiple relationships and mutualobservations that transcend national, cultural,soc ia l and pol i t ica l borders . Such atransnational approach makes it possible toposit the Koguryo/Gaogouli heritage in cross-continental relations and influences as aheritage of East Asia that is not the exclusiveproperty of a single nation, but which spreadacross a wide area eventually leaving itsimprint on realms that include contemporaryNortheast China, North Korea, South Koreaand beyond to Japan.

Yonson AHN is a former research fellow at theEast Asian Institute, the University of Leipzig,Germany. She is conducting research onKorean “comfort women” and Japanese soldiersduring the Asia-Pacific War and on historicalcontroversies in East Asia, including debatesover the ancient kingdom Koguryo/Gaogouliand the Paekdu/Changbai Mountains, colonialhistory in Korea and historical revisionism inJapan. See her “Competing Nationalisms: Themobilisation of history and archaeology in theKorea-China wars over Koguryo/Gaogouli(http://japanfocus.org/products/details/1837)”and “China and the Two Koreas Clash OverMount Paekdu/Changbai: Memory WarsThreaten Reg iona l Accommodat ion(http://japanfocus.org/products/details/2483).”She can be contacted at yonson@pamir.de.

This article was written for Japan Focus. Manythanks to Mark Selden for comments on earlierdrafts of this article. Posted at Japan Focus on

January 11, 2008.

Notes

(1) See: “World cultural and natural heritage inC h i n a(http://www.gov.cn/english/2006-02/08/content_182625.htm)”. (accessed September 14,2007).

(2) See: “Complex of Koguryo Tombs(http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1091)”. (accessedSeptember 5, 2007).

(3) Miwha Lee Stevenson, “ConceptualizingIconographic Regimes: Reflections onRelationships Between the Painted Tombs ofEastern Han and Koguryo”, The FirstInternational Conference of KoguryoFoundation, Seoul, September 16, 2004.

(4) Ariane Perrin, “The Nomination Process for"The Complex of the Koguryo tombs located inthe Democratic People's Republic of Korea" asa World Heritage Site”, InternationalConference on Koguryo History and CulturalHeritage, March 26, 2004, Seoul Museum ofHistory.

(5) See: “Relics protection prizes awarded(http://english1.peopledaily.com.cn/200312/27/print20031227_131336.html)”, People’s Daily,December 27, 2003. (accessed June 11, 2004).

(6) Lothar von Falkenhausen, , “The regionalistparadigm in Chinese archaeology” in: Philip L.Kohl and Clare Fawcett (eds.), Nationalism,Politics, and the Practice of Archaeology,Cambridge University Press, 1995: 200, 215.

(7) See: “Liaoning works to protect historicalh e r i t a g e(http://english.people.com.cn/200402/13/eng20040213_134762.shtml)”, People’s Daily,February 13, 2004. (accessed July 11, 2004)and “Chinese government spends 250 millionyuan annua l l y f o r re l i c p ro tec t i on

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(http://english.people.com.cn/200506/14/eng20050614_190102.html)”, People’s Daily, June 14,2005. (accessed November 20, 2005).

(8) See: “UNESCO Envoy RecommendsKoguryo's Murals Be Registered as WorldH e r i t a g e(http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/pk/default.htm)”,The People’s of Korea, November 12, 1997,(accessed October 11, 2007).

( 9 ) S e e : “ C o n s e r v a t i o n W o r k(http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/activity-275-1.pdf)”, Preservation of theKoguryo Kingdom Tombs, UNESCO, 2005:37-38. (accessed December 14, 2007).

(10) See: “Pyongyang Eager to Get KoguryoTomb Murals Registered As World Heritage(http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/pk/default.htm)”,The People’s Korea. (accessed December 21,2007) and “Northeast Asia's intra-mural muralw a r s(http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/EL23Dg01.htm)”, Asia Times, December 23, 2003.(accessed October 21, 2007).

(11) See: “China to put forward 3 historicals i t e s f o r U N E S C O h e r i t a g e l i s t(http://english.people.com.cn/200405/12/eng20040512_143053.html)”, People’s Daily, May 12,2004. (accessed December 22, 2005) and“Chungguknae Koguryo yujok hweson simgak(Serious Problems with Damaged KoguryoH e r i t a g e )(http://www.ikorea.ac.kr/center_news_show_2.asp?mode=update&gotopage=1&block=&idx=1127&search_field=&keyword=)", YonhapNews, December 12, 2005. (accessedDecember 22, 2005).

(12) About Chinese archaeology, see EnzhengTong, “Thirty years of Chinese archeology(1949-1979)” in Philip L. Kohl and ClareFawcett eds., Nationalism, Politic, and thePractice of Archeology, Cambridge UniversityPress, 1995.

(13) For example, see Ma Dazheng ed.,Zhongguo Dongbei bianjiang yanjiu (Studies ofthe Northeast Borderlands in China), Beijing:Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe, 2003.

(14) See: “China's ancient Koguryo Kingdoms i t e a d d e d t o W o r l d H e r i t a g e L i s t(http://english.people.com.cn/200407/01/eng20040701_148209.html)”, People’s Daily, July 2,2004. (accessed December 22, 2005).

(15) Ri Ki Ung, “The excavation of Koguryos i t e s(http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/activity-275-1.pdf)”, Preservation of theKoguryo Kingdom Tombs, UNESCO, 2005: 36.(accessed December 14, 2007) ; Kim Il-Gwon,“Astronomical and spiritual representations(http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/activity-275-1.pdf)”, Preservation of theKoguryo Kingdom Tombs, UNESCO, 2005: 27.(accessed December 14, 2007).

(16) “Koguryo Heritages registered on WorldH e r i t a g e L i s t(http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/pk/default.htm)”,The People’s Korea, July 17, 2004. (accessedOctober 19, 2005).

(17) “China Seeks U.N. Title to Mt. Baekdu(http://english.donga.com/srv/service.php3?biid=2006073164698)”, Donga Ilbo, July 31, 2006.(accessed May 5, 2007) and “China’s ‘MountPaekdu Project’ – History and CultureDistort ion Has Become Conspicuous(http://www.kinds.or.kr)”, Donga Ilbo,September 4, 2006. (accessed May 5, 2007).

(18) See: “Why Chinese museums on edge ofs u r v i v a l ?(http://english.people.com.cn/200505/20/eng20050520_185962.html)”, People’s Daily, May 20,2005. (assessed October 24, 2006 and "JilinP r o v i n c e t r a v e l g u i d e(http://www.chinaplanner.com/jilin/jli_jian.htm)" (assessed June 24, 2006).

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(19) See: “Yonhap and Kyodo hold joint photoexhibition of ancient murals in North Korea(http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/northkorea/2007/10/18/92/0401000000AEN20071017008400325F.HTML)”, Yonhap News, October 18, 2007.(assessed November 2, 2007) and KFA Forum(http://www.korea-dpr.com/cgi-bin/simpleforum.cgi?fid=02&topic_id=1192163165 ) (assessedNovember 2, 2007).

(20) See: Off ic ial Gwangj in website.(http://www.gwangjin.go.kr/culture/MLC_075.jsp#) (accessed October 22, 2007), official Guriw e b s i t e(http://www.guri.go.kr/korea/06_sub/body02_02. p h p ? c o d e = s u b 0 6 _newsdata&page=3&sopt=&stxt=&ccode=&mode=v&num=419). (accessed October 22, 2007)and “Kwanggaet’o wangbi Kyonggido Gurisi-eso Puwalhanda (Kwanggaet’o Stele will berestored in Guri City in Kyonggi Province)(http://www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/View/at_ p g . a s p x ? C N T N _ C D = A 0 0 0 0 8 0 1 6 7 7 ) " ,OhmyNews, 31 December 2007, (accessed 31December 2007)

(21) Kang Hyun-sook, “Koguryo Tombs: Pastand Present”: in Kim Lena ed. World CulturalHeritage: Koguryo Tomb Murals, Seoul:ICOMOS-Korea: 2004: 105; Pak Arim,“Chungkuk kobun pyokhwaui pikyo yon’gu (Acomparative Study on China’s tomb mural

paint ings and Koguryo’s tomb muralpaintings)", International Conference onKoguryo History and Cultural Heritage, March26, 2004, Seoul Museum of History.

(22) Sarah M. Nelson, “The Politics of ethnicityin prehistoric Korea”, in Philip L. Kohl andClare Fawcett, Nationailsm, Politics, and thePractice of Archaeology, Cambridge Universitypress, 1995.

(23) Wang Mianhou, “The system of walledtowns and the capitals of Gaogouli (Gaogouli dechengyi zhidu yu ducheng)", Liaohai wenwuxuekan, 1997:2, 89-103, 114; Wang Mianhou,Gaogouli gucheng yanjiu (Research on ancientcities of Gaogouli), Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe,2002, cited in “Lips and Teeth: The SharedCultural Heritage of China and Korea”, ChinaHeritage Quarterly, 11, September 2007, clickh e r e(http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/editorial.php?issue=011) for website. (accessedOctober 29, 2007).Built in 37 BC, the Wunu Mountain City locatedin Huanren County of northeast China'sLiaoning Province was the first mountaincapital of the Koguryo Kingdom for defense.

(24) See: “China's ancient Koguryo Kingdomsite added to World Heritage List”, People’sDaily, July 2, 2004. (accessed November 2,2006).