A

COMPIWHENSIW

GUIDE TO

TODAYS

HOUSEHOLD

CHEMICAL

PRODUCTS ~

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TABLE OF CONTENTS t

Introduction Page 1 ~

The Chemistry Around Us The History of Consumer Products

Page 2

Page 4 Governmental Regulation of Consumer Products Testing for Efficacy and Stability Safety Testing Environmental Safety Assessment Poison Prevention Product Labeling Packaging “Home-Made” Products Categories of Consumer Products

Automotive Products Household Products Laundry Product

Page 10 ‘Page 13 Page 15 Page 17 Page 19 Page 22 Page 24 Page 27

Page 29 Page 32 Page 39 Page 41 Page 47

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT The CSMA Consumer Products Handbook was developed by a task force of industry scientists

working under the CSMA Scientific Affairs Committee. People who worked in the drafting and editing of this booklet included Ernie Bernarducci, Jim Bilancieri, Tom Cassin, Bill Chase, Michael Endres, Richard Fisher, Bob Coleman, Betsy Dail, John Demko, Doug Fratz, Bob Hamilton, Larry Hayes, Betsy Kaplan, Celeste Kuta, Maureen Lennon, Marcia Liegey, Jim McCabe, Evelyne McFeaters, Eileen Moyer, Connie Neuman, Ed Roth, Bryan Ruble, Ed Strauch, AI Streit, Julie Spagnoli, Gene Tappan, Peggy Tilka, Phil Uebe, Bob Vashon, John Wood and Dick Zdanowski. Without the dedicated efforts of these people, this booklet could not have been developed.

INTRODUCTION W e are surrounded by chemistry. Naturally- occurring chemicals make apples red, glass clear, chocolate sweet, and cologne fragrant. Whether it be solids, liquids, or the very air we breathe, from the fur- thest planet to the corner grocery store, chemistry ex- plains how things exist and relate to each other.

Consumers are now, more than ever, concerned with the chemical nature of the products they buy. There is a need to know how their purchases affect the environment in which we all live. With this interest in mind, both government and industry have developed programs for consumer education.

This booklet has been developed by the Chemical Specialties Manufacturers Association (CSMA), a volun- tary, nonprofit membership association representing over 440 companies engaged in the formulation, manufacture, packaging, marketing, testing and distribu- tion of chemical specialty products for household, institu- tional and industrial use. These products include deter- gents and cleaners, disinfectants and sanitizers, automotive specialty products, polishes and floor mainte- nance products, and home, lawn and garden pesticides.

This booklet explains basic chemical terms that are necessary to understand how products are made and function. It provides a historic overview of this in- dustry and its products. It explores how products are developed and tested, and how packages and labels are designed to maximize consumer safety, product shelf life, consumer education, and convenience.

This booklet also discusses the problems with consumers making their own “home-made’’ products, the development of the poison prevention network, and the regtiiaioiji requiremenis iiiat heip assure pruduct safety. It also describes tl ;e functions, benefits, and types of ingredients in numerous categories of consumer chemical products. We hope that this booklet will provide insight into the efforts of both government and industry to provide consumers with the best prod- ucts for each task, as well as the safest products for our world.

Chemical specialties products provide important ben- efits to our society, beyond the obvious aesthetic bene- fits of keeping our surroundings clean, protected and free of pests.

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Disinfectants and sanitizers, along with other clean- ing products, play an important role in limiting the spread of infectious diseases.

Pesticides are essential in our efforts to stop pests such as fleas, ticks, roaches, mosquitoes and rodents that can spread serious human illnesses.

Waxes and polishes help extend the life of our pos- sessions, thus providing significant environmental benefits by limiting how often things must be thrown away and replaced.

Automotive products provide both environmental benefits, by extending the life of cars and assuring that they run efficiently, and benefits in assuring their safe and reliable operation.

Consumer products provide countless human health, safety, and environmental benefits.

This booklet covers many but not all of the types of chemical consumer products that are sold for house- hold use. We have not included such major categories as paints and coatings, adhesives, lubricants, drugs and pharmaceuticals, or cosmetics and other personal products. There are also major categories of chemical specialties that are formulated only for commercial or industrial applications. Each of these broad categories of products could easily fill additional booklets. In this book, we have chosen to concentrate on just a few of the many categories of common household products.

The chemicai speciaities industry is proud of the quality, effectiveness, safety, and environmental com- patibility of the products it produces, and is dedicated to assuring that its products continue to provide valuable benefits to public health and the environment. Manu- facturers want to hear from the consumers that use their products, and benefit from consumers who under- stand how the products work.

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compounds different than the original compounds. Mix- ing baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) with vinegar (acetic acid) will form carbon dioxide (a gas) and sodium acetate (an organic salt). When organic com- pounds are digested by bacteria in wastewater treatment systems, or in the natural environment, they react to form other simpler compounds in a process called biodegradation. Organic compounds, when com- pletely biodegraded, form carbon dioxide, water and various inorganic salts.

Compounds can also be mixed together and not react. This is called a chemical mixture. Milk, a mixture containing water, fats, proteins and carbohydrates, is an emulsion, which is two or more mutually insoluble liquids dispersed together. Many consumer products are solid mixtures, and many liquid consumer products are emulsions. If particles of a solid or a liquid are sus- pended in a gas, they are called aerosol particles. Aerosol products were named to reflect their ability to create aerosol particles.

A solution is a more intimate kind of mixture, since the compounds in a solution are uniform at the molecu- lar level. Liquid solutions can have solids, liquids and/or gases dissolved together in a single liquid phase, and are a very common form for consumer products. There can also be gaseous and solid solutions. Mixtures of metals in solid solution are called alloys.

Virtually all chemical consumer products are solu- tions or mixtures of chemical compounds. These com- pounds can be classified regarding their chemical prop- erties and the purposes they serve in the formulation.

Surfactants represent one of the most important classes of ingredients. Surfactants (short for surface- active agents) are compounds that have both a polar and non-polar nature, usually on different ends of a large molecule. One side of the molecule is therefore oil-soluble, the other water-soluble. These compounds can therefore bring polar and non-polar compounds to- gether into a single liquid phase as a stable emulsion or solution. (The term “surface-active agent” is derived from their tendency to collect at the surface of water and lower the surface tension, which is the thin skin-like film that naturally occiiis vv.heis vizter neeis air. SUriace tension is what causes water to form round droplets.) Surfactants are the key ingredients in detergents and cleaners, since they allow water to dissolve and remove oily or greasy soils. There are many hundreds of differ- ent surfactants used in consumer products, and they can be generally classed as anionic (forming negative ions in solution), cationic (forming positive ions), ampho-

teric (forming both) and nonionic (forming neither). Soap is itself a type of anionic surfactant.

Other ingredients in detergents and cleaning prod- ucts include:

builders and sequestrants, which are added to keep the natural calcium and magnesium in “hard” water from forming insoluble salts, to help suspend soils, and to control pH;

abrasives, which are solids that can help in cleaning hard surfaces;

antiredeposition agents, which keep soil from rede- positing ;

bleaches, which oxidize colored compounds and thereby remove stains;

enzymes, which are proteins that help degrade com- plex organic soils; and,

fluorescent whitening agents, which causes visual whitening by absorbing invisible ultraviolet light and emitting visible blue light.

Solvents, another important class of ingredients, are liquids that are used to solubilize other chemicals. Water, a polar inorganic solvent, is the most common solvent in most types of consumer products. Organic solvents are also commonly used, and can be either water-soluble (polar) or non-water-soluble (non-polar). Hydrocarbons and chlorocarbons are examples of non- water-soluble organic solvents. Water-soluble solvents are usually oxygen-containing compounds such as al- cohols or glycols (which are double alcohols).

Many ingredients are polymers, which are compounds made up of many smaller chemical units called monomers. Many of the most important chemicals of life are actually polymers, including starches, cellulose, and the extremely complex proteins and DNA that pro- vide the very basis for life. Plastics and wood are both polymers, whose molecules are composed of many thousands of monomers, but not all polymers are solids, nor are all polymers composed of large molecules. Sili- cone oils, for instance, are polymers that can be composed of as few as three to eight monomers, and

antiperspirants to lubricants. Today’s polishes for floors, furniture and other household items are virtually all based on polymers.

gredients used in consumer products. Antimicrobials are added to disinfectants, sanitizers, and some other types of cleaning products, as well as being used to

play an impartant m!e in many COnSnmPr prducts, frQm

There are also many other common classes of in-

preserve other types of chemical products from being attacked and degraded by bacteria. Dozens of different antimicrobial ingredients are used in consumer prod- ucts. Pesticide active ingredients provide the effective- ness of various insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides, and other pesticide products.

These are just some of the many types of solids, liquids and gases used as ingredients in today’s chemi- cal specialties formulations.

sics of chemistry as it applies to chemical consumer products. We hope that this basic introduction to chemi-

In this chapter, we have covered some of the ba-

cal concepts will provide a foundation for understanding the technology and science described in the rest of this booklet. The formulation of consumer products requires sophisticated scientific and technological expertise. Thousands of text books and articles have been written which together cover the broad range of chemistry and technology used to produce these products.

The remaining chapters will review in greater depth the science and technology that is being used to formulate products to be more effective, efficient, safe, and environmentally compatible throughout the history of consumer products.

T I he use of chemical substances for various spe-

cialized purposes undoubtedly predates recorded hu- man history. The records of the earliest human societies show that chemical products were prepared and used for cleaning, preservation, and assisting in the creation and use of the many tools that distinctly characterize our species. In recent centuries, consumer chemical product technology has continuously devel- oped safer and more effective products that have played essential roles in protecting the public health and environment as the human population of our planet continues to grow.

These early uses of chemical substances were primarily discovered by chance, not through careful sci- entific study. Most of the chemical substances used by man before the development of a proper understanding of the science of chemistry did not actually perform their intended functions very well-often not at all. They also sometimes had detrimental side effects.

Only in the past 150 years has an accurate un- derstanding of chemistry allowed man to begin the development of chemical products using scientific methods. Only in the past 50 years have we devel- oped the scientific understanding necessary to be- gin to assess quantitatively the efficacy, safety and environmental effects of chemical products. Our ex- ponential increase in scientific and technological

knowledge has assured that today’s consumer products, when used according to label instructions, are safer, more effective, and more environmentally compatible than the products used in the past.

Although there were chemical specialties products manufactured in the United States as early as 1635, the consumer chemical products industry had its real beginnings, along with the chemical manufacturing in- dustry, in the 19th century. It was then that chemical technology developed sufficiently for early scientists and engineers to manufacture and process specific chemicals and chemical mixtures to meet specific per- formance characteristics.

Early products were primarily either inorganic chemicals, usually mined from mineral deposits, or nat- urally-derived organic extracts. Scientific progress in understanding organic chemistry, however, soon led to vast improvements in chemical specialties products. Today, the chemical specialties industry in the United States is a $50 billion industry that employs more than a million people.

This chapter will provide an overview of the history of consumer chemical product technology from the earli- est days of human history to today for a few of the major categories of consumer products.

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CLEANING PRODUCTS Cleaning products may have been the earliest of

all chemical products used by man. The earliest refer- ences on the use of chemicals to assist in cleaning have been attributed to the Tigris-Euphrates area around 2500 B.C. Until the 20th century, however, vir- tually all cleaning products have been based on soap, a group of chemical compounds formed when fats or oils are reacted with a strong caustic.

The Romans were among the earliest soap mak- ers, and the word soap itself is probably derived from Mt. Sapo, an area near Rome where fat and ashes from burnt offerings to the gods were found to be good for cleaning. In the 16th and 17th centuries, olive oil was predominately used for making soap, and the olive growing regions of southern France and Italy were ma- jor soap producing areas. In the late 18th century, palm oil began to be used for soap making, and still is used today.

In the 19th century, many of today’s major soap companies were established, most often as candle and soap makers. These companies later began to formu- late laundry soaps containing builders and other such ingredients to increase cleaning performance. Just about the only alternative to soaps were sulfonated oils, first developed in the 1870s, such as turkey red oil, made from reacting castor oil with sulfuric acid.

Between World Wars I and II, German chemists discovered and patented thousands of surfactants, many of which were sulfonated oils. Alcohol sulfates were also developed, made by the hydrolysis of waxes. In the 1930s, a major technological breakthrough was made by the soap industry, and the first laundry deter- gent based on “synthetic” surfactants instead of soap was marketed. In the late 1940s, alkylbenzene sulfonate (ABS), the first major commercial surfactant, was discovered. Phosphate builders replaced the older and harsher carbonate and silicate builders, and were formulated with synthetic surfactants. These effective new powdered laundry detergents soon surpassed laundry soaps in usage.

environmental concerns were raised regarding these new detergents. First, it was found that ABS surfactants did not biodegrade rapidly enough. This did not result in any measurable degree of toxicity, but did interfere with some sewage treatment plants due to foaming. The in- dustry spent more than $1 00 million in research and development to develop new surfactants, and reformu- late cleaning products. ABS surfactants, which

In the 1960s, however, two significant

contained branched carbon chains, were replaced with linear alkyl sulfonates (LAS) which contain only straight chains, and are readily biodegraded.

The second environmental concern related to the use of phosphates in heavy-duty laundry products. Ex- cess phosphates can lead to an overgrowth of algae and other plant life in lakes and streams, causing dam- age to other aquatic species, in a process called eutrophication. Only a tiny percent of phosphate in wa- terways comes from cleaning products (most results from surface run-off from fertilizers and the decay of or- ganic matter). Nevertheless, the industry began in the late 1960s to search for new builders that would match phosphate’s performance, and develop non-phosphate cleaning products for those areas where eutrophication is a concern.

The change from natural to synthetic fibers in clothing also led to many challenges to laundry prod- ucts, including the development of new surfactants. While the vast majority of surfactants in cleaning prod- ucts are anionic surfactants, more nonionic surfactants came into use in the late 1960s and early 1970s, espe- cially in the new liquid laundry detergents. These prod- ucts are a significant fraction of the laundry detergents now used, thanks to significant improvements in the past decade. New fluorescent whitening agents, which absorb ultraviolet light and re-emit it as blue light, were developed with improved performance over those used previously, starting as early as 1929.

In the 1950s, it was found that various cationic surfactants could be used to “soften” laundered cloth- ing, and fabric softeners developed as a major laundry product. Synthetic fibers and increased used of colored fabrics spurred the development of peroxygen bleaches to supplement the traditional hypochlorite bleaches. In the 1980s, new enzymes were developed for use in laundry detergents to help break down and remove various types of organic soils, and research continues to develop new technologies that will allow more effective, safer and even more environmentally compatible laundry products.

The past 30 years have seen a tremendous prolif- eration in specialty cleaning prodi;ds, formi;lated for very specific cleaning tasks. Glass cleaners were de- veloped that cut grease without leaving streaks or residues on windows, using water-soluble solvents and small amounts of surfactants. Spray hard surface cleaners have been developed that can clean virtually any hard surface, using similar formulation technology. Abrasive cleansers have been specifically designed to

clean hard surfaces. Oven cleaners and drain cleaners were developed that use strong alkalies to clean, while toilet bowl cleaners use acids. Hand dishwashing liq- uids contain mild surfactant mixtures, while automatic dishwashing powders contain stronger formulas.

Today, hundreds of different specialty cleaners are marketed that are carefully formulated and tested to assure that when used according to label instructions they are effective, do not damage the objects being cleaned, can be safely used, and do not harm the envi- ron men t .

DISINFECTANTS AND SANITIZERS Although the understanding that micro-organisms

are the cause of most human disease is a rather recent discovery, antimicrobials and the techniques of disin- fection have been used throughout recorded history. Sulfur, which can be burned to form sulfur dioxide, may have been the earliest antimicrobial, since its use was recorded by the Greek poet Homer, who tells of Odysseus, in about 800 B.C., fumigating his house upon returning after a long absence. Houses were also commonly fumigated with sulfur during the Middle Ages. Another element, mercury, was used as a disin- fectant in early civilizations in China, India and Egypt.

The earliest investigations of the antimicrobial ac- tion of various chemicals were in the 17th century by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, the Dutch inventor of the mi- croscope. But the connection between microbes and human disease was not scientifically accepted until Frenchman Louis Pasteur’s important work in the mid- 19th century, which demonstrated this fact conclusively. Joseph Lister, a British surgeon, was one of the earliest to apply this new understanding of the cause of disease, and used antiseptics and disinfectants to cut dramatically the infection rates in hospitals in the 1860s.

Of the disinfectants still used today, chlorine and hypochlorites were the earliest to be discovered, in the late 18th century. They were being used in sanitation by the early 19th century. By the late 19th century, hypmh!orites were used in water treatment, and as open wound antiseptics in World War I. Organic chlo- rine-releasing compounds, which have greater stability, have been developed since the 1950s.

Iodine was used in wounds as early as 1839, and was used extensively in the U.S. Civil War. Organic io- dine compounds, such as iodoform, came into use in the 20th century. Iodophors, which are complexes of

iodine on water-soluble polymers, are the principle forms of iodine used as disinfectants and antiseptics today. Hydrogen peroxide in water solution was used for disinfection in the mid-1 9th century, and for a time in this century had a popularity with consumers equal to tincture of iodine as a household antiseptic.

Alcohols such as ethanol (found in alcoholic bev- erages) and isopropanol (rubbing alcohol) also have long histories of antiseptic use. But alcohol’s value as an antiseptic and disinfectant was not fully appreciated until research in the 1890s.

Phenol (also called carbolic acid) was discovered in 1834, but was only recognized to be a good disinfec- tant in the 1860s, although creosote (which contains a mixture of phenol and its derivatives along with many other compounds) had been used earlier. In 1903, phe- nol was used as the standard antimicrobial against which all others could be judged using the phenol coef- ficient method of testing disinfectants. (Updated versions of that method are still used today to test the resistance of standard organisms to be used in disin- fectant efficacy tests.) Today, various phenol derivatives are still used in many hospital-grade hard surface disinfectants.

Other compounds also find use as household an- timicrobials. Pine oil has been commonly used for many years in household disinfecting cleaners, where it lends both antimicrobial and cleaning ability in water solution. Today’s toilet bowl cleaners usually contain acids, such as sodium bisulfate or hydrochloric acid, as their active ingredients.

compounds used in today’s disinfectants and sanitiz- ers, is quaternary ammonium compounds. The antimi- crobial activity of these compounds was demonstrated in the 1930s by German scientist Gerard Domagk, who later won the Nobel Prize for his work on sulfonamide drugs. Work on new quaternary ammonium compounds proceeded rapidly in the U.S. after World War II. Dozens of these cationic surfactant compounds, commonly called “quats,” are now used in a wide vari- ety of antimicrobial products, and in other products as

Another important group of antimicrobial

we!! ?!? prese!?e them frm? micrebia! degr2dah . Today, thousands of antimicrobial products are

available to disinfect and sanitize hard surfaces of dis- ease-carrying organisms in health-care facilities, homes, schools, and food-processing areas. The prod- ucts are carefully formulated to avoid harm to the bene- ficial bacteria found in such places as household septic systems. Considering the multitude of dangerous infec-

tious diseases that are responsible for more deaths than any other cause in human history, there can be little doubt that millions of lives are saved each year by using antimicrobial products.

WAXES AND POLISHES The treatment of wood with oils extends at least to

the time of Alexander the Great, who ordered all bridge-making lumber to be coated in olive oil, a process that was later followed by the Romans in all wooden construction to be exposed to severe moisture. The ability of oils and waxes to provide a barrier to wa- ter to protect wood and other surfaces was therefore well established before the formulation of the earliest commercial waxes and polishes.

At the start of this century, the early waxes that were still being marketed were primarily organic- solvent-based paste waxes, consisting of a natural wax, usually carnauba (derived from a Brazilian palm tree), softened with a nonpolar organic solvent, such as deodorized kerosene. Technology was soon developed, however, to put these natural waxes in wa- ter emulsions, thus reducing the organic-solvent con- tent. This was followed by the addition of shellac to emulsified waxes for better scuff resistance and higher

When synthetic resins, such as acrylics and styrene polymers, began to be used in polishes in the late 1940s, modern polishes began to be developed. The switch from wood flooring to resilient flooring dur- ing the 1940s and 1950s also required that floor polishes be clearer and less yellow.

was produced with claims that it never needed to be waxed or polished. The floor polish industry embarked on a three-decade campaign to protect consumers against these exaggerated claims, and to clearly demonstrate the benefits of applying waxes and polishes to all resilient flooring. Another major issue for the floor polish industry in the 1950s and 1960s was slip-resistance. The industry developed standards and test methods to assure that floor polishes protected people from slipping on walking surfaces.

In the 1960s, formulators found that the inclusion of metals such as zinc in the polymer cross-linking made for far more durable polymers. Modern polymer technol- ogy led to significant improvements in polishes. Metal cross-linking also made them more detergent-resistant, and provided an easy mechanism for their removal with

gloss.

In the early 1950s, new “no-wax’’ vinyl flooring

ammonia solutions. In the 1970s, another significant ad- vance in floor polishes led to one-step products that clean and apply a polish in a single application.

The 1980s saw many further refinements in household and commercial wax and polish formulations. Today’s floor polishes, furniture polishes, automotive polishes, metal polishes, wood treatments, and other such products not only beautify, but protect and extend the life of durable goods-an environmen- tally sound action in resource conservation.

PESTICIDES Pests and parasites of various sorts-insects,

rodents, fungi, nematodes (worms), and others- have been the source of untold human misery and disease. Pests have served as carriers for the organ- isms causing such serious diseases as the bubonic plague, malaria, yellow fever, and many others, some of which threaten mankind to this day. The great potato famine of the mid-1 840s in Europe, which led to mass starvation, was caused by a fungus. In the 1970s, the sugar beet crop of Germany was almost totally destroyed by nematodes. Plagues of insects have destroyed mankind’s crops throughout recorded history.

Despite millennia of devastation, chemical control of pests, other than the occasional use of sulfur to con- trol plant diseases and insects in the home, was not widely practiced until the late 1890s. At that time, other inorganic pest control chemicals were discovered, in- cluding Paris Green (an arsenic compound) for insects and Bordeaux mixture (a copper compound) for con- trolling fungi that caused plant diseases.

For nearly 40 years, mankind’s arsenal of pest control products was limited to inorganic compounds (primarily toxic heavy metals) along with the occasional petroleum extracts. One of the few inorganics still used today is boric acid, used in controlling roaches.

ered were botanical insecticides. In the 1920s, the insecticidal properties of pyrethrum (an extract of chrysanthemums) wprp djsmvprpd far household and commercial insecticides. (This important discov- ery was made by chance when a housewife dried some flowers and noted the large number of dead in- sects around them.) Pyrethrum remains to this day the primary household insecticide active ingredient. Other botanicals that were used even earlier included rotenone and nicotine.

The next generation of pesticides to be discov-

The history of pest control was forever changed in 1939 with the discovery of the insecticidal properties of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane). DDT was the first and most widely used of the synthetic organic pes- ticides. In the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, it was used against insects in the home, on crops and on the human body. It was inexpensive, easy to use, of low acute toxicity to humans, and lethal to a wide variety of insects. Its discoverer was awarded the Nobel prize in medicine for DDT’s impact on human disease control, especially the mosquitoes that carry such diseases as malaria and the lice that carry typhus.

DDT was banned or restricted in the U.S. and most other industrialized countries in the early 1970s due to its poor biodegradability and tendency to bioac- cumulate (characteristics it shares with many of the other organochlorine insecticides) and suspected ad- verse effects on some bird species. It is still manufac- tured and used to this day, however, in many develop- ing countries because of its effectiveness in controlling disease-carrying pests. While the possible environmen- tal impact had to be addressed, it should also be noted that more human lives may have been saved from the use of DDT than any other chemical in human history.

Another key breakthrough was made in the 1940s in the development of several chemicals for use in per- sonal insect repellents. The most important is DEET (N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide). Today, DEET remains in use in personal insect repellents, serving a vital public health role in controlling contact with ticks that carry dis- eases such as Lyme disease.

ents came into use. Most were either organophosphates or carbamates, both much more biodegradable than the earlier organochlorines. As the U.S. EPA increased the human health and environmental safety testing required to register pesti- cides for use in the U.S., such factors became of greater and greater importance.

are still widely used in home, lawn and garden insecticides. In the 1970s, new synthetic pyrethroids were developed that were based on the types of compounds found in natural pyrethrum extracts, and are now widely used for agricultural as well as nonagricultural applications.

Beginning in the 1940s, numerous herbicides have also been developed. Perhaps the most important were the phenoxy herbicides, 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D. Many synthetic organic fungicides were developed to replace

Beginning in the 1950s, new insecticide ingredi-

A number of carbamates and organophosphates

the overly toxic and nonbiodegradable inorganic prod- ucts. Rodenticides have evolved from toxic heavy met- als and botanical poisons (such as strichnine) to safer and more effective products. Dozens of specialized pesticides have also been developed to safely control such pests as mites, slugs, snails, and nematodes.

Very significant improvements have been made in the past 30 years to increase the effectiveness, while reducing the human toxicity and environmental effects. Today’s active ingredients for household pesticides are among the most biodegradable ingredients available. The development of aerosol dispensing systems in the 1940s and 1950s allowed more effective flying insect sprays, while minimizing the likelihood of accidental in- gestion.

In the 1960s, water-based emulsion technology began to replace organic-solvent-based formulations, especially for flying insect sprays. The 1970s saw the beginnings of more sophisticated biological pest con- trols, including new microbial products (modeled after the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensus used since 1938 to kill insect larvae), insect growth regulators, and insect sex pheromones, which can lure specific insect species into traps or monitors.

ucts have been developed with an unprecedented eye toward their safety. Tomorrow’s products are likely to be even better, as our increased understanding of chemical and biological mechanisms of pest control al- low more sophisticated and highly selective products to be developed for consumer use.

Today’s home, lawn and garden pest control prod-

AUTOMOTIVE PRODUCTS When Henry Ford introduced the first simple, low-

est, easy-to-drive “horseless carriage,” called the Model T, modern automotive history began. This created a need for ever more sophisticated fluids to assure the durability and safety of motor vehicles.

Mankind’s earliest mechanical lubricants and fuel oils were animal fats or vegetable oils. Petroleum de- posits near the surface allowed the use of such materi- als as pitch for sealing boats, but when the first oil we!! was drilled in 1859 in Titusville, Pa., it opened up a new source of raw materials for the already forming trans- portation industry.

Early cars required little more than motor oil and gasoline, both obtained through the distillation of petro- leum. But many specialized automotive performance and appearance products would be required in coming

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decades. As early as the 1920s, ethylene glycol-based PACKAGING SYSTEMS engine coolants were developed to help transfer excess heat from the engine through automotive radia- tors. (Ethylene glycol is a water-soluble alcohol with a high heat capacity and a lower freezing point and higher boiling point than water, characteristics needed for an effective automotive coolant.)

The earliest automotive polishes in the 1920s were developed to protect the durability of the enamel paint on automobiles. In the 1930s, car engines were demanding more of lubricants than ordinary engine oil could provide, and the earliest oil additives were developed.

The 1950s were the “Automotive Golden Age” due to the rapid advances in automotive popularity and engi- neering in America. New developments such as automatic transmissions, power steering and power brakes each needed a different array of fluids. Air condi- tioning systems also required new refrigerants.

As each system improved, so did its family of flu- ids. Heavier cars meant more heat build-up in hydraulic brake systems, and brake fluids required higher boiling points to avoid “vapor lock.” Fuel additives also had to be developed to boost the octane-rating of gasoline, and to prevent condensed water from freezing and blocking fuel lines.

tics and nonferrous metals becoming more prevalent, demanding different care and maintenance products. The same was true for the finishes, which would change from lacquers to more durable acrylics in the 1960s, and require improvements in automotive polishes, as well as changes in windshield washer flu- ids, which were found to mar the new finishes.

Today, there are dozens of automotive specialty products designed to assure the performance, appear- ance and durability of various components of motor ve- hicles. Products like brake fluids, automatic transmis- sion fluids, and power steering fluids help assure the safe operation of vital automotive systems. Windshield washer fluids and antifog treatments help assure the visibility required for safe driving. Engine and carbure- torkhoke cleaners help assure efficient engine perfor- mance and increased gas mileage. Automotive coolants and oil treatments help performance and ex- tend the life of the engine and radiator systems. Auto- motive polishes and other surface treatments also help to extend the life of automobiles.

Automotive specialty chemicals continue to play a critical role in assuring vehicle safety and minimizing the environmental effects of automotive use.

The exteriors of cars were also evolving, and plas-

From the beginnings of commercial manufacture and distribution of chemical specialties products, pack- aging had to prevent spillage during shipping and stor- age and facilitate safe use. Common early containers for various types of products included glass bottles (originally with cork stoppers), tin-plated steel cans, and, of course, various forms of wood, paper and card- board.

One of the most important innovations in chemical specialties packaging was the development of various types of plastic packaging, especially plastic bottles. Plastic bottles made of polyethylene, polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate and other plastic materials began to be used in the 196Os, and by the 1970s be- came the dominant form of packaging.

Today plastic cans, bottles, jars, tubes and other containers are used almost universally, and provide sig- nificant benefits. These high-strength, low-weight plastics have reduced the frequency of breakage in shipment, storage and use of chemical products, and also save en- ergy due to the lower shipping weights as compared to the glass and metal containers they replaced. They also made feasible the wide array of child-resistant closures developed in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s that have played a pivotal role in the significant reductions in acci- dental ingestions of household chemical products by chil- dren. And today, thanks to a coding system developed by the plastics industry, plastic containers can be sepa- rated from the solid waste stream and their material recy- cled into new plastic containers.

By far the most important packaging innovation, however, was the self-pressurized aerosol dispenser. Although the original concept for the modern aerosol was developed in 1924, World War II spurred its actual development, when a device was needed to dispense insecticide to protect American servicemen in the Pa- cific. After successful development efforts, 50 million canisters of insecticide, each bearing some resemblance to a hand grenade, were manufactured for military use during the war.

After the war, commercial work began to develop aerusoi pru&jcis fur the domes$c marKei. Lghier siee; containers were developed, and chlorofluorocarbons were found to be a favorable substitute to the sulfur diox- ide used in those first insecticides. In 1946, the Interstate Commerce Commission approved the first aerosol con- tainer for shipping. Within a few years, formulation chemists had developed spray paints, air fresheners, hairsprays, shave creams, and many other products in

the new aerosol can. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the aerosol container grew to become a prominent form for consumer products, and even led to the creation of products that could not exist in any other form.

The aerosol form, however, had to weather a sig- nificant storm in the mid-1970s. Concerns were raised that chlorofluorocarbons, primarily used as refrigerants in refrigerators and air conditioners, but also as propel- lants in nearly half of all aerosol products at that time, might eventually lead to lower concentrations of ozone in the Earth's stratosphere.

Since this ozone layer helps to shield us from the harshest of the sun's ultraviolet light, this possibility was a serious concern. By the time CFCs were banned for aerosol use in 1978, the industry had nearly completed a $2 billion effort to replace CFCs, mostly with the hy- drocarbon (purified natural gas) propellants already used in other aerosols.

Today, virtually all aerosol products in the industri- alized countries are propelled by either liquefied hydro-

carbons (mostly isobutane and propane), which usually also serve as a solvent in the product, or compressed gasses (such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen).

Aerosol products resumed their growth in the 1980s, spurred by constant innovation in formulations and types of products. Although aerosols are a product form that are misunderstood by many Americans-a large percentage, for instance, still believe today that aerosols contain CFCs-they actually convey many significant benefits in terms of safety, human health and the environment.

Aerosols are sanitary, tamper-proof, have a long shelf-life, are very efficient in applying the minimum product to do the most effective job, do not lead to ac- cidental ingestion, and are recyclable along with other metal containers, and are made with recycled materi- als. American consumers currently use nearly three billion aerosols each year which package more than 1500 products from asthma inhalers to hairsprays to flying insect sprays.

very chemical consumer product used in the United States is regulated by the extensive network of federal laws and regulatory agencies. Congress has moved progressively throughout this century to provide nationwide standards for the protection and education of consumers.

Most of the laws and regulations that ensure the safety and environmental compatibility of todays's prod- ucts come under six major laws administered by five separate federal agencies. The regulations that have

of the Federal Code.

The federal agencies and laws which have the most direct impact on consumer products are shown in the chart at right. In addition, all 50 states are involved in regulating consumer products. Some federal laws enlist the states as partners in enforcement. Some states per- ceive a need to provide a higher level of protection for

been pramu!gated under these !aws fi!! many vo!umE?s

Agency Food and Drug Administration

Environmental Protection Agency

Consumer Product Safety Commission

Federal Trade Commission

Department of Transportation

Laws Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act

Federal Hazardous Substances Act, Poison Prevention Packaging Act

Fair Packaging and Labeling Act

Hazardous Materials Transportation Act

AI--:" -:A: _--- AI--.- +- -1 - - -1 I -ae.-- I- -JJ!J.!-- AI L I I ~ I I GILIL~IIS L I I ~ I I ieueiai law uiiers. III auuiiiuri, tilere are even county and municipal ordinances affecting the sale, use and disposal of consumer products.

All of this government involvement has two pur- poses: protecting consumers and protecting the envi- ronment. Compliance by manufacturers assures that consumers are offered effective products with clear in-

structions, appropriate packaging to prevent accidental PESTlCl D ES exposure, and labeling for any necessary precautions and for accurate net contents declarations to permit value comparisons.

Each agency has its own unique approach to its mandate under the laws. Manufacturers must therefore become fully familiar with the requirements that affect their product lines. Under these federal laws, the prod- ucts of the chemical specialties industry fall into three general categories: food, drugs, and cosmetics; pesti- cides; and all other household products.

FOODS, DRUGS AND COSMETICS

The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act estab- lished one of the most rigorous and stringent regulatory schemes yet devised by Congress. And with good rea- son. Americans expect their food to be pure and whole- some and want their medicines to be effective and safe. Cosmetics and related personal products do not take the full brunt of these rules, but the Food and Drug Administration nevertheless imposes many requirements on the manufacturers of these products.

The cosmetics regulations establish the product la- bel as the principal route of communicating information from the manufacturer to the consumer. Manufacturers must identify themselves and the nature of their products on the product label. Labels must include a statement of net contents and a complete declaration of ingredients listed in descending order of their concentration in the product formulation. There are also rules about substances that may or may not be used as cosmetic ingredients. Warning statements are required whenever there may be health or safety risks that necessitate the consumer being careful when using the product.

There are also provisions for the voluntary regis- tration of cosmetic producing establishments, for filing product ingredient statements, and for reporting adverse reactions to products reported to the company by consumers.

Products considered by the law to be drugs instead of cosmetics are subject tc even more exten- sive and exacting regulatory requirements, the same as other over-the-counter or prescription drugs. Many of the products one might consider to be cosmetics or personal products are actually classified as drugs by the FDA. While suntan lotions are cosmetics, sunscreens are drugs. Underarm deodorants are cos- metics, while underarm antiperspirants are drugs.

Consumers frequently do not know how broad the legal definition is for the term “pesticide.” The United Sates Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classi- fies as a pesticide any substance intended to control an organism existing outside the bodies of humans or ani- mals.

but also disinfectants, insect repellents, fungicides, her- bicides, rodenticides, wood preservatives, and anti-foul- ing paints among others. Toilet bowl cleaners and laun- dry bleaches are among the array of products that are regulated by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Ro- denticide Act (FIFRA). The rules affect not only the end-use products offered for sale to consumers but also the active ingredients that go into them.

FIFRA provides for enforcement to be a shared responsibility between EPA and the states. Thus, man- ufacturers must not only deal with the federal agency but 50 other jurisdictions as well.

Manufacturers must register each manufacturing facility and all of their pesticide products with the EPA. The registration of products involves a full disclosure of product composition plus data on toxicity, efficacy, sta- bility, manufacturing process, product chemistry, envi- ronmental fate, packaging, and more.

After the agency makes a thorough review of the data, it decides what performance claims can be made for the product and specifies any hazard warnings and use limitations that must be stated on labels. It enforces the criteria for the use of child-resistant packaging of all pesticide products which require the special packaging to prevent accidental child exposure. It checks labels for other features such as the manufacturer’s name and ad- dress, the product registration number and the placement and prominence of required statements.

After labels are accepted by EPA they must be subjected to a registration process in the states. The thoroughness of the review varies with the state, but the intent is to prepare the state to be able to enforce FIFRA within its boundaries. Some states review regis- tration applications with respect to special geographic or climatic conditions existing there that EPA may not have considered in its deliberations. The states also as- sess annual registration fees and other taxes that go to support the registration and enforcement efforts.

When a pesticide ultimately reaches the market, it has been intensively tested by its manufacturer and rig- orously scrutinized by many government agencies. The

The term therefore includes not only insecticides

~

process yields products that are effective, have direc- tions that provide for safe storage, use, and disposal, and bear appropriate hazard warnings.

OTHER HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS All other household consumer products are regu-

lated by the United States Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). The commission administers a number of laws aimed at informing consumers and pro- tecting them and their children from hazards in the home. The law with the most far reaching effect is the Federal Hazardous Substances Act (FHSA).

Under FHSA, there is no product registration or la- bel preclearance program. The law defines “hazardous substance” and requires manufacturers to make safety determinations about their products. Some products are specifically banned because there is so much danger associated with them.

However, most that meet the definition of hazardous substance are allowed to be marketed pro- vided they carry warnings appropriate to the hazard. CPSC regulations contain numerous definitions and test procedures which manufacturers can use in mak- ing their determinations. The required warnings are ex- plicitly set forth in the regulations and the ones to use are determined by the definitions and test results. Fur- thermore, the commission makes guidelines available which assist the industry in writing labels.

Some products contain ingredients that may harm small children who cannot avoid hazards by reading la- bels. Such products are required by the Poison Preven- tion Packaging Act to have mechanical features which prevent access by children. The child-resistant closures must be capable of preventing most youngsters from ex- posing themselves to product while allowing most adults to open and resecure them. CPSC rules require manu- facturers to have data in their files documenting the ef- fectiveness of their child-resistant closures.

OTHER REGULATIONS Every chemical consumer product must have a

declaration of net contents on its label. This is to permit consumers to make value comparisons while they are shopping. The rules established on this subject by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) are used by state weights and measures officials in their enforcement ac- tivities. FTC also monitors claims made for products in advertising. Industry also works with the Better Business Bureau to ensure that claims are factual and that representations made are substantiated. FTC serves as a final arbitrator in these cases.

The movement of consumer goods through inter- state transport is regulated by the Department of Trans- portation (DOT). Shipping containers must be marked according to a rigid classification scheme that prevents over-labeling as well as under-labeling. Consumers do not see directly the effect of DOT regulations but they enjoy the indirect benefits that safe packaging and transport of goods provide.

along with numerous federal state authorities, works to assure that consumer products are safe and effective for use as directed, properly packaged and labeled, and environmentally compatible as well. In addition to the laws and agencies mentioned earlier, the Occupa- tional Safety and Health Administration has an exten- sive array of regulations that apply to chemical special- ties products used in the workplace, and there is an ever-growing number of other laws that place require- ments of various sorts on consumer products and their manufacturers .

supported a strong network of laws and regulations gov- erning its products that are consistent on a national ba- sis. This network allows the effective and efficient systems of interstate commerce to continue, thereby as- suring that safe and affordable products are available throughout the country.

The comprehensive federal regulatory network,

The chemical specialties industry has long

T he idea for a new consumer product usually origi- nates from the needs of the consumer as measured by consumer studies. It may be for a product improvement, such as a tougher furniture polish or a formulation change to an existing glass cleaner so that it will cause less streaking. Or the idea may be for an entirely new product, such as a newly designed air freshener or a concentrated laundry de- tergent.

Based on consumer needs, goals are established for the new product to meet. The goal typically involves formulating a product to maximize performance for mul- tiple factors. For an air freshener, the goals might be to formulate a fast-acting, long-lasting, disinfecting pump spray. Technical experts such as chemists and packag- ing specialists then work to formulate a product which will meet the target. The time involved in developing the appropriate formulation can be extensive if the product is new. Performance, time and cost are important con- siderations, as are safety in the manufacture, use, and disposal, and potential effects on the environment. One or more formulas may result, which must then be tested for performance, stability, and aesthetics.

Performance testing (also called efficacy testing) is done to determine how well a product works. There are two basic types of performance testing: laboratory and consumer. Laboratory testing may involve mechanical tests which use machines to measure ef- fectiveness. An example would be the testing of a tile cleaner in which soiled tiles would be scrubbed by a machine. The efficacy of soil removal might then be judged using an optical device. Laboratory tests might also involve expert judges.

in either case, testing is conducted under various controlled representative conditions. For instance, a laundry product would be tested at various temperatures and water hardness conditions. The test- ing would not only indicate whether or not the product is effective, but could also serve as the basis for sup- porting the commercial claims made in advertising or on the label.

In addition to laboratory methods, consumer testing serves several vital roles in assessing performance. Generally, most products go through some degree of consumer testing prior to test market or national introduc- tion. Such testing might include consumer panel testing or consumer research studies confined to a specific city or a test with geographically dispersed participants.

learns how the product will perform under actual home conditions but also learns how consumers actually will use the product. This information will be important in the safety assessments to be done later.

manufacturer if the product works but also indicates the rate at which the product works and the quantity of product required to perform a task. The ideal formula works better than the competitor’s product in terms of achieving the desired effect, achieving it quickly, and achieving it using a smaller amount and at a lower cost without compromising safety.

Performance testing also determines if use of the product could result in property damage; i.e., damage to wood, metal, furniture, clothing, appliances, etc. Thus, the manufacturer becomes an expert on its product’s benefits as well as shortcomings and can pass this in- formation on to the consumer via the product label.

Obviously, types of performance testing vary depending upon the type of product. For products legally classified as drugs or pesticides, some of this testing is required to be done according to strict government guidelines. For many other products, voluntary consen- sus standards for standard tests or product specifications are developed through organizations such as the Ameri- can Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) or the So- ciety of Automotive Engineers (SAE). Industry associa- tions such as the Chemical Specialties Manufacturers Association also develop standard testing protocols and specifications. The Department of Transportation sets some standards for automotive products to assure auto- motive safety. There are also performance specifications

From these test studies, the manufacturer not only

Performance testing not only tells the

for some products set by federal agencies, including the military, that buy commercial products.

and eggs may carry Salmonella bacteria. Food prepara- tion surfaces in contact with these uncooked foods

Stability testing is conducted to ensure that the product will work beyond the laboratory setting. Testing may be conducted to answer a number of questions, de- pending on the product type. Is the formula stable in hu- mid environments? Will the product remain stable if stored in high, low, or moderate temperatures? If the product is frozen and then thawed, will it still work? Does the fragrance in the product change in character due to interactions with other ingredients? Are the preservatives sufficient to keep the ingredients stable? Will the pack- age be compatible with the product over a long period of time? Stability studies will have to be conducted for three months to two years, depending upon the product type.

Sensory characteristics are also important in devel- oping new products. Suppose a manufacturer develops a new soap called “Spring.” The product is effective, it is sta- ble, but it is viscous, gray, and has an unappealing odor. Chances are that consumers will not buy this product again, assuming they tried it in the first place, because there is no perception of cleanliness. On the other hand, aesthetic characteristics, such as a foamy lather and pleasant aroma would encourage the consumer to use the product and profit from its hygienic benefits.

Performance, stability, sensory testing results and results of consumer studies may lead to formula modifi- cation. The process is reiterative, with testing and refor- mulating, influenced by safety, time, and cost of materi- als, until the optimal balance is achieved.

and marketing staff monitor consumer comments received via consumer hotlines or letters. Any unantici- pated occurrences are noted and reformulation may be undertaken if comment volume or severity of complaints warrant the change. \

Much effort goes into developing products that pro- duce their desired effects. But some might question if the effect is actually needed. As one example, are household cleaners/disinfectants really necessary? The scientific literature regarding the public health provides clear answers to this question.

shown to be vitally important. Bacteriologists have mea- sured bacteria levels in and around a toilet and found bacterial counts ranging from one thousand to 100 mil- lion per square centimeter.

In the kitchen, a variety of foods carry bacteria ca- pable of causing food poisoning. For example, chicken

Once the product reaches the shelves, technical

In the bathroom, cleaning and disinfecting has been

should be properly disinfected using an EPA-registered product and following label directions. A survey of bacte- ria in various large kitchens, such as in restaurants and hotels, found that bacteria capable of causing food poi- soning were encountered on various surfaces and were also potentially present in kitchen dust, and that the most important factor influencing the degree of bacterial conta- mination was daily cleaning using a safe disinfectant.

A hospital survey found that bacteria have a tendency to accumulate on floors, and germicidal deter- gents were recommended. In the home, children spend much of their time on floors. While the home is not likely to have as high a concentration of infected people, bac- teria accumulation can still occur.

Aside from the medical and safety benefits derived from consumer products, the products have also simpli- fied consumers’ lives. Today, people have less time to spend doing housework. Now more than ever, both heads of a household have jobs. Household products such as oven cleaners, no-strip floor waxes, mildew re- movers, hard surface cleaners, and dusting aids, to name a few, work quickly and minimize the amount of time required to do specific tasks.

Moreover, the products are optimized so that good performance can be achieved while minimizing the amount of product that must be used. Concentrated laundry prod- ucts are an example of the trend to decrease product amounts required to accomplish household chores.

financial savings. Automotive products help maintain cars, thereby extending their lives and cutting down on mechanics bills. Rugs, furniture, and clothes can be pro- tected from stains or restored, eliminating expensive re- upholstering or replacement costs. Floors, cars, wood- work, and shoes can be protected using waxes and polishes, significantly extending their lives. Disinfectants kill germs in the household that could lead to infection, potentially cutting down on lost time at work and health care bills. This is just a short list of how a relatively small investment in efficacious household products can result in protecticn cf larger financial investments.

The intensive efficacy testing conducted by consumer products manufacturers therefore serves pur- poses well beyond assessing whether the product will be a commercial success. These studies play a vital role in assuring that consumers gain the numerous public health and environmental benefits that are provided by today’s consumer products.

-

Efficacious consumer products can also result in a

I

W hat does “safe” mean? Most people have the feeling that they understand what it means, but aren’t quite sure how to define it.

Our children are taught that it is “safe” to cross the street, but only after looking both ways. It‘s “safe” to go swimming with a friend or under the watchful eye of a lifeguard, in an area without strong currents or hidden underwater hazards. As experienced drivers we know it is “safe” to drive a car, if the rules of the road are followed and the driver pays attention to the traffic signs, adheres to the speed limit, and wears a seatbelt. Cars are “safe” when they are well-maintained and their equip- ment (brakes, shocks, steering) all works properly.

Safe activities are generally considered to be those that don’t present an unreasonable risk of harm. A safe consumer product is one that doesn’t present an unreasonable risk of harm to human health or the envi- ronment when used properly and disposed of properly.

A safe product is one that you can buy, transport, prepare, and use with confidence that it will have no adverse effect on your health or your family’s health. When it is used or when it is discarded, a safe product won’t harm the environment.

How can a company be sure that its product is safe? This task is accomplished by paying careful atten- tion to the data from scientific studies. Many studies are conducted on products and their ingredients to provide a sound basis for evaluating safety.

This chapter is about the science of safety assessment. It is about the kind of measurements that are made so that consumers know that they can use the products they buy without risking their good health or the environment.

TOXl CO LOG I CA L TEST1 NG Toxicology is the study of the adverse effects of

chemicals on biological systems. This is both qualita- tive and quantitative. The qualitative part is the identifi-

cation and description of the biological effects that high doses of chemicals may have. Scientific studies on how and why the effects occur provide useful informa- tion for the design of safer products and for the treat- ment of individuals who accidentally misuse or even abuse products (as in the case of teens inhaling prod- ucts for the intoxicating effects).

toxicity, manufacturers can provide sound guidance to physicians and poison control centers. These tests also indicate the concentration of ingredients that might be hazardous and therefore allow the formulator to build in adequate safety margins.

The quantitative part of toxicology is the measure- ment of how much of a chemical it takes to cause a given effect. It is a common misperception that chemi- cals are either toxic or non-toxic. But in fact, all chemi- cals are toxic at some level. A 16th century physician, Paracelsus, recognized that: “All substances are poi- son: there is none which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy.”

materials are non-toxic or contain no “chemicals.” In ac- tuality, some of the most toxic substances known to man, such as aflatoxins and the toxin formed in botu- lism contamination, are natural chemicals. Both natural and synthetic chemicals must be tested for safety.

The truth is that toxicity is more closely related to the concentration and time of exposure to a chemical than to the inherent properties of a chemical. For exam- ple, vinegar is a 5% solution of acetic acid in water. At this concentration, acetic acid is safe enough to eat. Vegetables stored in vinegar (pickies) can be consumed without risking adverse effects. However, in a more concentrated form, acetic acid can be quite harmful. As with all chemicals, knowing the concentra- tion of acetic acid is the key to determining safety.

By testing for effects at different concentrations, scientists construct dose-response curves, and deter- mine dosages that are safe, or even beneficial. Arsenic

By thoroughly understanding the mechanism of

Another common misperception is that ”natural”

is well known for its toxicity at high concentrations. Less well known is that some nutritional scientists consider arsenic to be an essential human nutrient at very low levels. While its benefits are difficult to determine and therefore controversial, it is clear that at some level, ar- senic is safe. Many safe and nutritious foods naturally contain measurable levels of arsenic.

A toxicological effect can’t occur unless the chemi- cal reaches a target cell or target organ in the body at a concentration that is high enough and for a time that is long enough to cause a biological response. So, it is important to understand how people are going to be ex- posed to a product and its ingredients.

The route of exposure is the way chemicals reach the body’s systems. Three examples are topical or der- mal, inhalation, and ingestion. Topical or dermal expo- sure is direct contact with the skin. For many chemicals, the skin provides an excellent barrier. Gen- erally, dermal exposure is much less likely to result in an adverse effect than either inhalation or ingestion. Testing for’dermal effects is regularly conducted on products that come in contact with the skin. In this way dosages of chemicals that might cause irritation and rashes can be avoided.

Inhalation is exposure through the lungs. The use directions on the labels of some products recommend proper ventilation. This is to minimize exposures by in- halation. Abusive inhalation is a tragic societal problem requiring vigilant parental supervision. Toxicological testing is done to assure that there is no risk of adverse effects from inhalation under normal usage, and to pro- vide information that can be used to treat abusive inten- tional inhalation.

Ingestion is another route of exposure. Toxicologi- cal testing provides guidance on the need for special labeling precautions. If the data show that adverse ef- fects could occur from accidental ingestion of the prod- uct, child-resistant closures can provide the additional needed protection to reduce the potential for accidental ingestion.

ACUTE TOXiCCT’r’ TESTING Acute toxicity assays are used to collect data on

the potential effects of single or occasional exposure. Small spills on clothing or skin or a splash in the eye

are examples of acute exposure. For many products, anything more than acute exposure may be rare and, therefore, acute testing may be enough.

However, for some products used in the home, acute testing isn’t sufficient to make a sound judgment of safety. Physiological effects are not always evident after single dosages, and so acute (short-term) toxicity tests which measure the response to a single or a very limited number of dosages don’t always provide enough information to assure safety.

CHRONIC TOXICITY TESTING Chronic (long term or repeated) toxicity testing is

conducted with periodic dosages for extended periods of time. The most extreme example is in the case of carcinogenicity testing in which animals are fed large amounts daily over their entire lifespans.

Full lifetime bioassays of this sort are expensive and require detailed analyses so they are used only for chemicals for which there are other indications of po- tential carcinogenicity, or for which chronic exposure for large populations is likely. More common are sub- chronic tests which may last for 30 to 90 days. These tests provide data on the potential effects on all of the body’s biological systems.

ALTERNATIVES TO ANIMAL TESTING An intensive effort has been mounted in the

search for alternative ways to measure toxicity. But so far none of the proposed methods are generally accepted by scientists as providing sufficiently complete, accurate or reproducible information for safety assessment.

All of the products on the market today have been tested (either as final formulations or as separate ingredi- ents) for safety using various animal tests. (Products which claim to not have been tested on animals actually have been, although the testing may not have been con- ducted by the company whose name is on the label.)

The development of better, safer, more efficient or more environmentally compatible products requires the use of a wider variety of chemicals. Assurance of safety for those chemicals, for now, continues to require the use of animal safety testing.

I here are many similarities in the kinds of tests and information used to evaluate safety for the environment and safety for human health. There are also important differences. In both cases, safety is based on a com- parison of the amount of likely exposure to a chemical with the amount of chemical that causes a biological effect .

But the routes of exposure are different and the kinds of effects are different. In human toxicology, we are concerned with a single animal species, while in environmental toxicology we are concerned with a broad range of animals, plants and microbial species. In human toxicology the emphasis is on the individual, while in environmental toxicology the emphasis is on populations of individuals and on their interaction with the ecosystem. Humans are exposed to the product, often full-strength, but the environment usually is exposed only after the product has been diluted and undergone treatment.

There are two important elements of environ- mental risk assessment for which scientific measurements are made: fate and effects. By col- lecting data on the fate of product ingredients, envi- ronmental concentrations can be predicted. These exposure concentrations are then compared with the concentrations of the product determined by toxicology studies to cause an adverse effect in or- der to estimate the risk of harm.

TREATABILITY IN WASTEWATER What happens to consumer products after they

have sewed their purpose? Many products simp!\/ go down the drain through use or disposal. Products to clean your dishes, clothes and counter tops all eventu- ally go down the drain, as do disinfectants, mold and mildew removers and drain cleaners. These products become part of the wastewater stream and are treated by the same wastewater treatment systems that treat other wastes from your home. The fate of ingredients from products that go down the drain is determined

from experiments that mimic wastewater treatment processes.

About 70% of the homes in the U.S. are served by wastewater collection and treatment sys- tems. The other 30% have on-site treatment systems commonly known as septic tank systems. Consumer products that go down the drain must be compatible with both types of systems. Removabil- ity (or treatability) is examined in model sewage treatment units designed to predict the behavior of chemicals in a real sewage treatment plant. These experiments provide data on whether chemicals will be removed by adsorption to biosolids (also known as sludge), whether they will biodegrade, and what their concentration will be in the sewage treatment plant effluent. These tests allow manufacturers to assure that their products can be used and disposed in this manner.

An important wastewater treatment process is biodegradation. Tests are conducted to determine whether the microorganisms in a sewage treatment plant are capable of breaking down an organic chemi- cal to simple inorganic salts, water, and carbon dioxide. Biodegradation in wastewater treatment plants assures that the concentration of a chemical in the water leav- ing the plant is well below the toxic level.

cals continue to degrade after they are discharged to streams, rivers, estuaries and oceans. For chemicals that adsorb to sludge, tests are conducted for biodegrad- ability by soil microorganisms because sludge is removed from wastewater treatment plants and disposed of by spreading it on land. Biodegradation assures that chemicals in consumer products don’t accumulate in sludge and soils to toxic levels at any time.

In some cases treatment is far simpler than biodegradation. For example, caustic drain cleaners work because the ingredients in them are highly alkaline when concentrated. But in the wastewater stream they are diluted and neutralized by the buffering action of

Additional biodegradability tests assure that chemi-

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other wastewater constituents. In this way these ingredi- ents are quickly made harmless to septic tanks and sewage treatment plant microorganisms. Discharge of these inorganic salts is no more harmful to the environ- ment than discharge of ordinary table salt.

from experiments on treatability and biodegradation, the volume and concentration of chemicals reaching environmental Compartments such as rivers and streams, agricultural soils and landfills, can be accurately predicted. Computer models include data on wastewater discharge volumes and stream-flow volumes to accurately predict dilution under rainfall rates leading to high, average and low river-flow condi- tions. Published guidelines for sludge application rates allow predictions of concentrations in soils.

These data provide an expected exposure level. To get additional assurance that the experiments, mod- els and calculations are correct, monitoring programs are designed to bring samples from the environment back to the lab for analysis of the chemicals. For most consumer product ingredients, treatability and dilution reduce concentration to well below detectable levels in most environmental compartments.

For very high volume chemicals, under unusual conditions of poor treatment or low stream dilution, very sensitive chemical analyses provide data to verify the predicted levels of the chemicals, and provide assur- ance that even under the worst conditions, environmental concentrations are below those that can cause an effect.

From data on the total usage of a product and

ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICITY There are many types of potential effects of

high concentrations of chemicals on the environment. This includes both chronic and acute toxicity to organisms at every level of the food chain. Beyond toxicity, there are potential effects due to high nutrient inputs (perhaps contributing to eutrophication), accumulation of chemicals in aquatic species or in specific tissues (bioconcentra- tion), and complex effects on population, and ecosystem structure and function. Scientific tests are conducted on a wide variety of species to iden- tify the most sensitive.

At the lowest level of the food chain are bacteria, protozoa, and algae. At the next level are insects and invertebrates. Fish are at the next level. Representatives of many species are tested to provide

a broad toxicological profile showing the range of con- centrations at which a chemical can have a toxic effect. Tests on populations are conducted to determine whether there are behavioral effects that may not show up in toxicity studies but which may still have the poten- tial to upset the ecosystem.

Tests for effects on the relationships among organisms at different levels are conducted in microcosms, which are laboratory-scale ecosystems. In some cases these microcosms are large complex ex- perimental streams containing hundreds of species in water pumped directly from a river.

a chemical in the tissues of aquatic or terrestrial animals or plants. It can often be accurately predicted from knowledge about a chemical’s behavior in differ- ent liquids. Chemicals that are more soluble in organic solvents than in water are more likely to bioaccumulate. Where chemical data lead to clear conclusions regard- ing the potential for bioaccumulation, tests can be con- ducted directly on populations of fish in aquaria. After long-term exposure, fish tissue is analyzed for the chemical under study.

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Bioconcentration is the accumulation over time of

SAFETY FACTORS As in the case of safeguards for human health,

sound environmental safety decisions are based on comparisons of calculated or measured exposure con- centration with measured effects concentration. The safety factor is the ratio of these numbers. A safety fac- tor of 10 means that it takes a concentration 10 times higher than that which could potentially be found in the environment to cause a biological effect. For chemicals in consumer products, safety factors greater than 1000 are most common.

For those chemicals with lower safety factors, more data are collected, more species are tested, and more monitoring studies are done in more locations. This way we can be more confident that all species in all locations are free from the risk of harm.

Fnr the vast majority nf cnnsumer prnclucts, these types of evaluations assure that the products can be used and disposed of safely. Many products, including all of those whose use results in their going down the drain, are best disposed of by pouring into the waste- water stream that goes to a sewage treatment plant or septic tank system. (No products, however, should ever be poured down storm sewers, where water does not receive treatment.)

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DISPOSAL IN LANDFILLS For most other products, disposal in the trash

is the best and safest method of disposal for the empty containers that cannot be recycled, and for the occasional leftover product. In a properly designed and operated landfill, the toxicity of chem- icals is effectively neutralized by mixture with soil as the trash is buried.

The toxicity of leachate from landfills is caused primarily by the extraction of toxic compounds from the numerous manufactured articles we throw away, or in some cases to the improper disposal of

high volumes of industrial waste, not by the appro- priate disposal of chemical consumer products. Some products, however, require special consider- ations at disposal. Used motor oil, for example, should be returned to central collection facilities for treatment and recycling.

The continuing development of the science of environmental safety assessment, and the contin- uous use of these techniques by chemical special- ties manufacturers, are assuring that today’s com- mercial products are the most environmentally compatible products in the world.

A refocusing of national resources during the post-World War II era brought rapid growth to many American industries, including the household consumer products industry. Wartime infrastructure, such as fac- tories and manufacturing centers, was reverted to the business of serving the country’s domestic needs and its interrupted pursuit of the American dream. Pride of ownership in the home, a demand for better cars and home appliances, and the quest for more leisure time combined to stimulate American ingenuity. This dynamic period of innovation produced dramatic advances in research and technology as early versions of today’s household products took off in the marketplac-making the idea of modern conveniences a reality for millions of homemakers ea- ger for a better life.

This new diversity of products brought with it the need for better communication of information on how to avcid accidenta! exposwes to consumer prxiucts, and what medical treatment is necessary after accidental exposures occur. Industry scientists and medical spe- cialists responded by developing toxicological and safety data and helping to establish a system of poison control centers to take consumer calls and provide ex- pert advice during emergencies.

Today, thanks in large part to companies’ cooper-

ation in providing crucial information about product in- gredients to poison control centers, detailed toxicologi- cal data have been amassed for use by the centers, saving countless lives. The industry also educates the public directly through various information programs that emphasize the role of adults in keeping their home safe for children.

CSMA’S EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS CSMAs long-time membership in the Poison Pre-

vention Week Council, a coalition of over 35 national organizations concerned about stopping accidental poi- sonings, exemplifies the industry’s serious regard for its responsibility to consumers. The Council coordinates activities for National Poison Prevention Week, which, by Presidential proclamation, is designated on the third week of March every year to highlight the importance of preventing accidental poisonings among children. Ad- ministration of Council business and outreach efforts are handled by the Consumer Product Safety Commis- sion’s Office of Public Information.

As a Council member and sponsor, CSMA provides financial support for information kits distributed through poison control centers around the country. In addition, CSMA makes its publications available at a

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1 nominal cost through a resource list in the kit. The pub- lications guide consumers on the proper and responsi- ble use of household products. “Keep household prod- ucts locked up and out of children’s reach” and “Read and follow instructions on the package label” are key messages repeated in CSMA publications, underscor- ing to consumers that poison prevention efforts must be shared by those who use household chemical consumer products.

ally through the Council are:

“Your Child and Household Safety” by Dr. Jay M.

Among CSMA publications disseminated nation-

Arena, M.D., a pediatrician and authority on the pre- vention of childhood injury. First published by CSMA in 1964 and revised and reprinted several times since, this 20-plus page booklet outlines ways to pre- vent accidents children may encounter during the growing years, and discusses principles of first aid and poison prevention. The booklet has reached mil- lions of readers nationwide.

Various publications offered by the Aerosol Education Bureau, including “Safe Use of Aerosols Around the House” and print and video materials on the dangers of inhalation abuse or “sniffing,” a drug-related prob- lem also tracked by poison control centers.

Consumer Topics in Focus, CSMA’s quarterly newsletter on the benefits and correct use of house- hold products.

Active users of these materials, in addition to poi- son control centers, are pharmacy chains, hospitals, health insurance companies, schools and universities, local government health departments and others.

THE ROLE OF CONSUMER PRODUCT MANUFACTURERS

Today’s poison control centers provide an appro- priate mechanism for consumer product manufacturers to perform valuable public service in poison prevention. Manufacturers also help consumers directly through label instructions, the use of safety packaging, and con- tinuing consumer education.

The Label. When a company’s product is acci- dentally ingested, the poison center requests toxicologi- cal, ingredient and other information from the product manufacturer about that specific product. The informa- tion sought by the center sometimes extends beyond that generally provided on the package label (use direc- tions and cautionary statements, for example) which

are required by law. Companies have cooperated fully with poison centers by providing the necessary data.

Although label format may vary among individual products and brands, most products-even those con- taining minute quantities of substances that might pose a risk in case of accidental or deliberate misuse-gen- erally have the following information to assist in poison prevention :

Active ingredients. This list may consist of one or more ingredients identified by their common name and/or chemical name, often with reference to a reg- istered trademark name, and the percentage of each ingredient found in the product. The common names of the active ingredient are useful information that can be given to a doctor in an emergency.

guidance on immediate actions to be taken in case of an emergency. If it is necessary to follow up ini- tial actions with professional help, the product con- tainer with label intact should be taken to the doctor so that appropriate treatment can be prescribed.

Note to physicians. This note gives doctors poison treatment information and an emergency telephone number to contact. In addition, some companies have a medical toxicologist on staff to respond to inquiries about products, while others provide a toll- free consumer hotline staffed by qualified person- nel to handle product-related emergencies.

Safety Packaging. The use of safety closures on medications and some household products has contributed to the sharp reduction in childhood deaths from accidental poisonings, according to the CPSC. Deaths resulting from the accidental ingestion of med- ications and household products are examined by the CPSC, which administers the Poison Prevention Pack- aging Act, passed in 1970.

The first regulation under the law pertained to as- pirin-related deaths, since at the time the regulation was enacted, aspirin products were the most frequently ingested substances by young children. That regulation required the use of safety ciosures in 1972 for aspirin and in 1974 for oral prescription medications. The use of safety closures has saved the lives of numerous chil- dren, according to the CPSC.

To improve safety packaging, the closure manu- facturing industry is continuing research and develop- ment of closures that are both child-resistant and easily handled by the elderly or enfeebled individuals.

First aid instructions. These directions provide

ACCIDENTAL POISONINGS ON THE DECLINE

Deaths of children aged five or younger-from ac- cidental poisoning involving household chemicals- have declined 81 Yo since 1972, according to the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) in Wash- ington, D.C., which compiles mortality reports from all 50 states.

when NCHS reported 21 6 deaths from household chemical poisonings. This number dropped to 149 in 1973 (a 31 Yo decrease), and to 135 in 1974 (38%). In the next 14 years ending 1988, the latest year for which figures are available, a steep decline was evident: from 1 14 deaths in 1975 (47% decrease) to 42 deaths in 1988 (an 81 Yo decline)-a dramatic 50% improvement since 1972.

however, involved accidental exposure to the household products discussed in this booklet. According to the data compiled by the American Association of Poison Control Centers (AAPCC), there were actually only seven deaths in 1988 related to the household products covered here, and only two of those involved children. The great major- ity of accidental deaths involve other products available around the home, such as pharmaceuticals, dietary sup- plements or toxic plants.

While these improvements indicate that progress has been made, private industry and the poison preven- tion community recognize that their mission is to bring deaths from accidental poisoning down to zero. Their continued partnership therefore remains crucial in work- ing toward that goal.

The center began compiling statistics in 1972,

Only a very small number of these deaths,

POISON CONTROL CENTERS: A BRIEF HISTORY

The success of poison control centers makes it hard to imagine a time when no such facilities existed. In 1953, concerned by the finding of a survey by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) that half of childhood injuries were due to accidental ingestions, the Chicago AAP formed the first poison control center. Although other centers were formed in quick succes- sion throughout the country, their effectiveness was marred by lack of coordination and, where centers op- erated in the same area, duplication of efforts resulted.

Control Centers was established by the federal govern- In 1955, the National Clearinghouse for Poison

ment. Operating within the U.S. Public Health Service, the clearinghouse’s task was to collect product and in- gredient information from manufacturers and provide toxicity and treatment advice to centers.

Within the decade, poison control centers grew in such numbers that by the mid-1 960s, over 600 centers were in operation. But these centers were overworked, often with limited staff and overloaded telephone sys- tems. And, because toll-free and emergency numbers were not yet widely available, the centers were not eas- ily accessible to the public. It became evident that re- gionalizing poison center services was necessary.

In the early 1970s, the first regionalized poison centers were established. Today, there are over 100 regional poison control centers in the U.S., and 41 of these (as of April 1992) have been certified by the AAPCC to assure the round-the-clock presence of qualified personnel (drawn from the fields of medical toxicology, emergency medicine and education) for emergency response.

Industry’s cooperation in providing important toxi- cological data helped to build Poisindex, an extensive computerized database regarded as the specialist’s best resource in treating poison exposures. A reposi- tory of information on antidotes and treatment, as well as the toxicity of man-made and natural things found in the environment, Poisindex helps the specialist to act quickly to devise an emergency treatment plan and transmit it by fax to emergency room personnel before the patient arrives at the hospital.

Poisindex files are updated every 12 weeks in or- der to include new products on the market. Information on product ingredients supplied by manufacturers, and data on venomous insects, snakes, plants, and popular drugs of abuse, are included as well.

With such resources brought to bear in every poi- son emergency response, hundreds of thousands of lives have been saved. And, since about 85% of poisoning emergencies can be treated right in the home with authoritative guidance provided through the poison center hotline, untold amounts of dollars for un- necessary hospital trips and medical insurance have been conserved as well.

HOW A POISON CENTER RESPONDS TO AN EMERGENCY

When a caller reaches a poison center, a special- ist responds and asks the identity of the suspected poi-

son, how much was ingested, the age and weight of the patient, and when exposure occurred. The special- ist carefully guides the caller in responding to questions in order to obtain the information needed to determine what if any treatment is needed. Before recommending treatment, the specialist evaluates the severity of the poisoning by determining the amount of every toxic component in the ingested substance.

on complex poisonings. If the poisoning is serious, the patient is referred to the nearest hospital, which is im- mediately notified and advised of the recommended treatment.

recorded in the database, specialists can analyze poi- soning trends on an ongoing basis. More importantly,

A physician toxicologist is on hand for consultation

Because every case of poisoning exposure is

treatment protocols, which are part of the record, are important in the development of individual emergency treatment plans for stricken patients.

CONCLUSION The poison prevention community and its partners

in private industry point to the sharp reduction in deaths from accidental poisonings as a success story that nev- ertheless requires constant vigilance. Diligent use of safety packaging and careful storage of medicines and household chemical products are vital to preventing ac- cidental poisonings in very young children.

As a result of industry’s responsible actions in poi- son prevention and education, there are now relatively few serious injuries from the accidental ingestion of household chemical products.

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b hemical specialty product manufacturers go to great lengths to ensure the safe and effective use, stor- age and disposal of their products. Products are devel- oped with the consumer and the environment in mind, and they go through extensive testing to generate valu- able information that can be passed on to the consumer. The means of getting this information to the consumer is the product label.

As noted in an earlier chapter, the product label is regulated by various agencies depending on the prod- uct category. Insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, and disinfectants (all classified by law as pesticides) are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Food, drug and cosmetic product labeling is reg- ulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

under the authority of the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). In addition, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has requirements for proper net con- tents and measurement declarations on product labels, and requires that advertising claims made by manufactur- ers not be misrepresented and consumers not be misled.

All other chemical household product labeling falls

The definition of a “label” will vary slightly from one agency to another, but in general, a label can be defined as any written, printed or graphic matter affixed to or appearing upon any consumer commodity or a package containing any consumer commodity, for the purposes of branding, identifying, or giving any informa- tion with respect to the commodity or to the contents of the package. “Labeling” is a term usually considered to be much broader, and includes not only the label itself, but also any other information that may accompany the product at any time.

The information found on the label will guide the consumer from the point of product purchase, through its storage and use, and to eventual product and/or package disposal. Various sections of a label are de- signed to convey very specific information to consumers.

THE PRINCIPAL DISPLAY PANEL The most prominent part of the label is called the

principal display panel. The principal display panel is

usually the front label of a product, but it can also be a lid or a specific area (in size) of a particular shape, for instance on a cylindrical or oval package. The principal display panel primarily provides the name and type of product, the net contents, and safety information via the signal words, “caution,” “warning” or “danger,” followed by a statement identifying the specific hazard, such as “harmful if swallowed” or “eye irritant.”

statement, “contents under pressure.” Labels may also contain the word “flammable,” or other such statement, if the product meets certain flammability test criteria.

statement directing the consumer where to look for ad- ditional precautionary information, and this is usually phrased, “see back label for additional precautions.” In addition to this key information, manufacturers may also choose to list ingredients. Products falling under EPA pesticide regulations are required to carry the statement, “keep out of reach of children’’ on the princi- pal display panel as well as an ingredients list.

In the case of aerosols, the label will include the

When a signal word is present, there is always a

THE SECONDARY DISPLAY PANEL The “secondary display panel,” which is usually

the back label of a product, also contains a wealth of important information for the consumer. This panel pro- vides the directions for use, which include specific infor- mation on how much product to use, how to best use the product and under what conditions, what surfaces and materials the product can safely be used upon, and what surfaces/materials should be avoided.

The secondary display panel also provides full product safety information. This is the area to which the consumer is referred from the primary display panel. The signal words are again displayed along with spe- cific information regarding the product hazards and routes of exposure, the statement “keep out of reach of children,” precautionary measures that include condi- tions for use (for example, use with adequate ventila- tion), conditions to avoid (do not use near heat or open flame), what protective clothing to wear, and what treat- ment should be followed or administered In the event of accidental exposure.

This area of the label may also contain warnings with respect to the physical and chemical hazards asso- ciated with a product, such as “contents under pressure,” “do not puncture or incinerate,” or “avoid contact with other household products that contain chlorine or ammo- nia.” There may also be a note to seek medical attention

if a hazard is serious enough and warrants special instructions. Some companies provide emergency tele- phone numbers to provide additional information to physicians.

Also included on the secondary display panel is storage and disposal information. This information is de- pendent upon the type of product and the need for pre- cautions or special instructions. These instructions typi- cally read ”store in a cool, dry place,” “do not store near.. .,” “store away from.. .,” “do not reuse empty con- tainer,” “rinse container thoroughly before discarding,” or other similar phrases.

In today’s environmental climate, with the growing emphasis on reducing solid waste, disposal instructions on packages are becoming more prominent. Similarly, there is more information on recycled content, recyclabil- ity and reusability of packages. The current stress on en- vironmental effects from products also has manufactur- ers addressing the issues of biodegradability and overall environmental safety. The results of these efforts can and do appear on product labels as either product bene- fit claims or use and disposal cautions.

The manufacturer’s name and address is another piece of information that is usually found on the back label. Many manufacturers provide a toll-free number to help consumers with any problems related to their products. It is important for consumers to understand that consumer product manufacturers want to hear from those who use their products, and welcome calls about their products, to get information that might help them to improve their products.

registration number on their label, as well as the registration number of the establishment at which the product was produced. The appearance of these numbers on a product label indicates that a thorough EPA review has confirmed that the product was thoroughly tested for performance, safety, and shelf-life, and the label must contain specific infor- mation with respect to product use, performance, warnings, and manufacturer identification.

Before manufacturers begin developing a new product, they wiii conduct market research tests to de- termine consumer need and interest in a product. They will also evaluate similar competitive products. Once the concept has taken shape and is seen as viable, ef- forts will begin to develop a product, package and label. During this development phase a manufacturer will conduct various tests to determine product stability and package compatibility (shelf-life), product efficacy, ease

Pesticide products also require an EPA product

of use, and human and environmental safety, as described in detail elsewhere in this booklet.

It is the data generated by these studies that goes into the development of the product label which informs and instructs the consumer on the safe and effective use of the product, the hazards associated with the use of the product, the precautions to be taken in use and storage, treatment or first aid instructions in case of over-exposure or adverse reaction to the product, and productlpackage disposal.

Manufacturers are required under various fed- eral laws to meet certain minimum labeling require- ments. But chemical specialties manufacturers usu- ally go beyond these minimum requirements to ensure that the consumer is well-informed.

Today’s consumer product labels serve numerous purposes, and are the result of many years of efforts to collect data and communicate ef- fectively to consumers.

A II products, unless grown directly in your gar- den, come in some form of packaging. The primary function of packaging is to contain a product, but it serves many other functions. This chapter will discuss packaging functions, the sign of a new package, and efforts underway in the chemical specialties industry to minimize the impact of packaging on the environment.

THE FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING The primary function of a package is to contain and

protect a product from the time it is manufactured until the time of its ultimate use. The product must be protected as it goes from the site where it was initially produced and packaged, to warehouses and distribution centers, to retail stores and ultimately to the customer.

If a package fails to protect somewhere along this chain, through breakage, leakage, or spoilage, product and packaging waste will result. Improvements in pack- aging and distribution over the past 20 years have re- sulted in significant reductions in product and packag- ing waste.

Product protection comes in many different forms. Some products need to be kept free from micro-organ- isms and oxygen, which can cause contamination and decrease their useful life (which is called shelf-life). The life of other products is extended by keeping moisture or light out. The chemical and physical properties of

some products affect the types of packaging material used. A product must not interact with the package, which can lead to loss of barrier function of the pack- age or to alteration of the product. Many products must be distributed in tear resistant or puncture-proof pack- aging to prevent spilling or pilferage. Tamper-evident packages also ensure product protection.

A trend occurring in the past few decades is an increased use of plastic packaging, particularly for liq- uid products. As the amount of plastic packaging goes up, the amount of product waste goes down. This is es- pecially evident with food products, where it has been estimated that every pound of plastic packaging decreases food waste by 1.65 pounds. Although the waste avoided may not be as large with non-food prod- ucts, there is no doubt that plastic packaging reduces breakage, and therefore product waste.

Another major function of packaging is communi- cation. Packages are designed to carry labels that con- tain a variety of information, as was discussed in an earlier chapter. -

Today’s packages must be easily opened, poured, measured, reclosed, and stored. Packaging features which help in this area include measuring caps, self- draining cups, squeeze bottles, pour spouts, and snap- top closures. These features ensure the proper dosage of product is used and help minimize waste from spilling, dripping, and bottle hang-up.

CHILD-RESISTANT CLOSURES spend money on unnecessary packaging.

Another important feature to households with small children is the child-resistant closure, which is also referred to as child-resistant packaging (CRP). CRP must be convenient and easy for adults to open, but prevent children frdh opening the package through smashing, biting, or picking it apart. Child-resistant packaging is based on the principles that young children cannot perform two deliberate and different motions at the same time, cannot read the instructions, are not as strong, and have smaller hands and fingers than adults.

Once a CRP is designed using these principles, it needs to be evaluated with both child and adult panels to ensure that children cannot open the CRP and that adults can. A CRP which is too difficult or time-consum- ing for adults to open may not be effective if adults are tempted to leave the packages opened.

ENVl RONM ENTA L COM PATI B I LlTY

tion, and dispensing are the primary functions of a package. However, today’s packages are designed against environmental criteria as well. Ideally, all pack- ages would be the same (Le., same shape, packaging materials) so that just one type of recycling program would need to be set up and people would not need to worry about separating the various types of packaging for recycling .

In reality, though, there are just too many differences among products with regard to shelf-life, shipping distances, protection needs, and how they are used and stored for this to be practical. For example, people appreciate plastic containers in the shower or with products that children frequently handle because breakage and the danger of cuts are less likely than with glass. It is also important to have a variety of pack- age sizes available so that people can buy the most economical size for their needs which does not result in product waste from spoiled or expired product.

Once a company identifies the basic materials necessary to meet the primary packaging needs (pro- tection, communication, dispensing), environmental considerations are incorporated. An early step involves conducting tests of the package durability when dropped, shipped long distances, or otherwise subjected to stress to identify the minimal amount of packaging thickness necessary for product protection. It makes good economic sense for a company to not

Product containment and protection, communica-

A subsequent step may be to explore the possibil- ity of incorporating recycled materials into the package. This decision will primarily be affected by availability and cost of recycled materials, and contamination con- cerns (Le., can product be protected from contaminants potentially in recycled materials?).

Another environmental consideration at this point is whether or not the packaging material can be altered to make it more compatible with recycling programs. This is one of the more difficult issues facing packaging designers right now because the materials which are collected vary so much from community to community.

Companies are making specific changes to pack- aging in response to environmental concerns. Compa- nies have always been interested in source reduction because it saves them money, and ultimately the cus- tomer as well. But source reduction can take on many other forms, such as product concentration or other such steps to decrease the amount of product that must be used to accomplish a given job.

Many products have recently been concentrated, from fabric conditioners to laundry detergents. Unfortu- nately, not all products can be concentrated further be- cause of safety considerations (a product might become too acidic or too irritating if splashed in eye) or because of physical or chemical properties of the prod- uct (a liquid might form a hard-to-dissolve gel or solids might not stay in solution).

Fortunately, there are other source reduction op- tions. Manufacturers of smaller packages (such as tubes, cups, tubs) are eliminating the outer cartons which were frequently used with these packages. The double packaging was used for a variety of reasons: to prevent shoplifting, to protect package during shipping, or to enable packages to be stacked on store shelves. Eliminating the excess packaging has required changes in other systems (such as the way items are shipped), and has required the input of all involved throughout a package life cycle.

Another source reduction activity underway is the use of refills. This can include a small refill of a concen- trated product which the user dilutes and transfers to a large container (such as fabric softeners), or a large re- fill from which the user transfers product to a small con- tainer with extra functions. An example is glass clean- ers where product can be transferred from a large container to a small spray bottle. This prevents the user from having to continually purchase and dispose of the spraying attachment.

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RECYCLING Manufacturers are trying to create stable recycling

programs by using community-collected materials in packages. This helps to ensure that local recycling pro- grams are economically viable. For example, newspa- pers and old corrugated shipping containers often end up in paperboard boxes such as that used for laundry detergents, dry bleaches, and fabric softener sheets. If these packages are grayish-brown inside instead of white, they probably contain recycled materials.

Likewise steel packages, including aerosol con- tainers, often include recycled content from steel cans collected in local programs. Glass and aluminum con- tainers typically contain recycled materials as well.

The newcomer to the recycling area is plastic. Five years ago, most plastic packages did not contain any recycled materials. Today, many polyethylene terephthalate (PET) packages contain recycled materi- als from old two-liter soda bottles. Many high-density polyethylene (HDPE) packages contain recycled plastic sandwiched in a middle layer. The recycled material is sandwiched to prevent product contamination, odor problems, and color problems since HDPE plastic typi- cally comes in many different colors which when recy- cled together form brownish-green plastic.

Early efforts by chemical specialties manufactur- ers to use recycled plastic relied on two-liter soda bot- tles (PET) and milk jugs (HDPE) collected by communi- ties. Now manufacturers are going one step further and using their own packages (Le., a detergent bottle into a detergent bottle) as the source of recycled materials so that communities can collect more materials.

cycling programs by sponsoring research on making recycling more economical (such as identifying more cost-effective ways to sort by color and type, to bale, to grind, etc.), and by designing packages to be compati- ble with these programs wherever possible. This might include use of single material packages, coding for the type of plastic, or use of plastic types which are more likely to be recycled.

Manufacturers are also trying to support local re-

In any case, a very important service a manufacturer can offer customers is a choice. Choice in sizes allows customers to pick a size of product which prevents dispos- ing of unused product. A choice of several packaging ma- terials allows customers to pick one that can be recycled in their community, or which works est with their lifestyle (whether or not there are children % round, how often they use the product, and other such factors).

consumers to help minimize the amount of packaging and/or products they throw out:

Buy the right product for the task. In this way, less product and associated packaging will be needed in the first place and there will be less need for extra work and use of additional products.

Buy a package size which is the largest possible for your needs which does not result in product waste. Larger sizes generally use less packaging per unit of product. However, if you do not use up all of the product before the product’s expiration date, you are offsetting the benefits of a large size. An example might be a sunscreen with a short expiration date; a smaller size could prevent product waste in this case.

recycled in your community and recycle them. For those materials not currently recyclable in your com- munity, look for ways to source reduce such as con- centrated products or refills.

Buy items packaged with recycled materials to stimu- late end-use markets for items collected in local recy- cling programs.

them. Each community has different requirements with regard to sorting, cap and label removal, rinsing, etc. Following these rules improves the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of your local program.

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With this in mind, the following tips can be used by

If at all possible, pick packages which can be

Know the rules of your local program and follow

Write or call manufacturers to let them know what you think of their packages-good or bad. Manufactur- ers do listen and will change packages in response to customer needs.

T he chemical specialties industry goes to great

lengths to assure that its products are safe and effica- cious for consumers to use in accordance with proper label instructions. Companies adhere to all applicable state and federal regulatory requirements, and have a long history of assuring product safety and protecting human health and the environment.

As has been shown in previous chapters, chemi- cal specialty products must be thoroughly tested for health, safety and environmental effects before the products reach the marketplace, and also tested to as- sure effectiveness and compatibility with other materi- als when used according to label directions. In addition, the industry provides educational materials on the safe use, storage and disposal of its products, packages products with child-resistant closures where needed, and continuously seeks to improve its products.

There has been a proliferation in recent years of advice urging consumers to formulate their own chemi- cal specialty products using various commercially avail- able chemicals and materials. These home-made for- mulations are usually presented as “natural” or even “non-toxic” alternatives that will work as well as commercial products and will be safer and better for the environment.

In the vast majority of cases, however, none of these claims is true. Some of the recommended home- made remedies are actually based on a visual appear- ance of doing a job, instead of actually performing it, such as when vinegar and baking soda are recommended for use as a drain cleaner. (The acetic acid in the vinegar reacts with the sodium bicarbonate in tne baking soda to form carbon dioxide gas, mimick- ing the appearance of drain cleaning, but actually doing nothing to unclog a stopped up drain.)

In virtually all cases, recommendations to formu- late home-made cleaners, disinfectants, pesticides and other such products are based on fundamental misun- derstandings of the basic principles of toxicology and ecology.

GOOD CHEMICALS VS. BAD CHEMICALS It is a common belief, for instance, that naturally

occurring or naturally derived substances are always less toxic and better for the environment than syntheti- cally derived chemical compounds. In actuality, scien- tists have found no correlation between naturalness and toxicity or environmental compatibility. Many of the most toxic substances known to man are natural sub- stances, while many synthetic substances have toxici- ties too low to measure. In addition, a given chemical compound has the exact same toxicity whether it is nat- urally extracted or synthetically manufactured.

toxic” substance. Every substance has a dose at which it will cause a toxic response to a given organism by a given route of exposure. All substances have doses or concentrations below which no adverse effects occur, and all substances have doses or concentrations above which adverse effects do occur. The purpose of safety and environmental assessments is to assure that, with an adequate margin of safety, doses or concentrations that would cause an adverse effect will not occur.

In short, scientists recognize that there are no “good chemicals” or “bad chemicals.” Any substance at the wrong concentration in the wrong place can cause toxic effects or environmental problems.

Likewise, there is actually no such thing as a “non-

SERIOUS CONCERNS Some serious concerns exist that creating and us-

ing these home-made formulations without proper edu- cation could lead consumers to unsafe practices. Con- sumers could, for instance, niix inappropriate materials such as sodium hypochlorite bleach with ammonia or an acid. They could create health risks by using materi- als such as mayonnaise or milk which would encour- age bacterial growth. They could use ineffective prod- ucts for disinfection or treating disease-carrying pests.

cautionary labeling or child-resistant closures. Poison Home-made products would usually not have pre-

control centers cannot easily advise consumers in the event of accidental ingestions of home-made products. Their packaging might not be chemically compatible with the ingredients, or the ingredients with each other. Damage could be done to sensitive surfaces, clothing or other valued possessions.

And, of course, the home-made formulation may not work very well, or possibly not at all. If your goal was to treat a disease, disinfect a surface or kill pests that may carry diseases, this could present serious health risks.

COMPARISON: COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS VS. HOME-MADE ALTERNATIVES

Meet Federal Safety Regulations

Proper Precautionary Labeling

Ingredients Known to Poison Centers

Child-Resistant Closures Where Needed

Packaging Compatible With Formulation

Formulation Stable

Won’t Grow Harmful Bacteria

Won’t Harm Goods When Used as Directed

Careful Quality Control

Evaluated for Safety and Environmental Compatibility

Not Subject to Federal Regulations

No Precautionary Labeling

Ingredients May Not be Known to Poison Centers

Usually No Child-Resistant Closures

Packaging May Not Be Compatible

Product May Degrade in Package

May Grow Harmful Bacteria

May Do Harm to Valuable Possessions

Varies By Consumer Skill

Not Evaluated for Safety or Environmental Compatibility

The buyer of commercial consumer products has many important assurances. Performance strengths are well studied and this information is passed on through the label. The products have also been tested for stability, thus ensuring that the product will perform not only when it is first purchased but months after as well. If accidental exposures occur, the local poison control center will know what to do. The formulations have been carefully evaluated and optimized in terms

of effectiveness, safety and environmental compatibil- ity. The manufacturer has also taken efforts to make using the products convenient and a pleasant experi- ence to the senses.

Thus, the buyer can be confident that the product being purchased will work, and can be used safely according to label directions. Product efficacy also has its environmental benefits; the less of a product that is needed to do a job, the less the environmental costs in producing and using that product.

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LIFE-CYCLE ANALYSIS It is important in doing environmental comparisons

to look at the complete picture. Scientists are now working to establish standard assessment techniques for the complete cradle-to-grave assessment of all the environmental consequences of a given product or process, so that different options can be compared. This technique is now being called “life-cycle analysis.” These analyses can be quite complex, even if the prod- uct or process involves only “natural” chemical substances.

common ingredients often recommended for home- made consumer products), for instance, might include the energy use in the agricultural activities, energy use and pollutants during processing or distillation, energy use and pollutants from the transportation of the com- modities, effects of the agricultural chemicals used, waste generated in processing the agricultural products, energy and other impacts of the packaging required, and many other factors. There are no products or processes without calculable environmental costs. It is very possible that a complete life-cycle analysis would show that using lemon juice or vinegar to formulate a window cleaner, for example, has higher environmental impacts than the use of commercial window cleaners, which are much more effective and efficient.

consumers can make themselves that are safer, better for the environment, and as effective as today’s commer- cial chemical specialties products.

A life-cycle analysis on lemon juice or vinegar (two

There really are no natural, non-toxic products that

ANTIFREEZE In the early days of automotive engine design,

most engines were cooled with a mixture of alcohol and water. While this mixture did indeed help prevent freeze-ups, alcohol-based antifreezes also had some serious drawbacks. Alcohol boils away, eventually leav- ing the engine underprotected. In addition, alcohol is corrosive to the metals in the cooling system.

overcome in 1927 with the introduction of an ethylene-gly- col-based antifreeze/ coolant. Ethylene glycol has since become the automotive industry’s standard base chemical to produce antifreeze/coolant. It has supe- rior anti-freeze and anti-boil properties, and is less corrosive than alcohols. Mod- ern antifreeze/coolants also include spe- cia1 corrosion inhibitors to prevent rust and deterioration of all commonly used cooling system metals.

Most antifreeze/coolant manufac- turers recommend that used antifreeze be collected and disposed of according to local laws and regulations. Because ethylene glycol is readily biodegradable, they recommend disposal in sanitary sewer systems, where permitted. Used antifreeze/coolant should not be drained onto the ground or into storm drainage systems, however, since it can be toxic to animals if ingested in high concentrations.

brake parts, as well as CV joints. Uneven braking, noise, and chattering can be caused by brake shoe and pad lining dust, brake fluid seepage, and slippery road film which contaminates brake drums and

these contaminants without requiring disassembly- Brake surfaces are left clean to help improve brake ac- tion for smoother, surer, more dependable performance. Most brake cleaners are effective even for today’s carbon composite brake linings used on many new import and domestic cars. Most cleaners can be used on drum brakes (linings and shoes, drums, cylinders, springs) and on heavy duty disc

brakes (caliper units, brake pads, rotors).

The good solvency and quick-dry- ing characteristics of many brake cleaners results from the use of chloro- carbon solvents, the same solvents used to dry-clean clothes. Research is now underway to develop alternative formulations containing other solvents that will be equally effective in assuring safe brake operation.

BRAKE FLUIDS The average driver uses his or her brakes approx-

imately 75,000 times a year and expects them to func- tion properly each and every time. Brake fluid is the “life

Brake cleaners quickly dissolve and wash away

The shortcomings of alcohol-based antifreeze were

/

- New technology has just been developed to recy-

cle used antifreeze. These processes clean up the old antifreeze and give it a fresh charge of corrosion inhibitors. Such processes will have to be scrutinized to be sure that the recycled antifreeze meets the same performance reauirements as new antifreeze.

BRAKE CLEANERS

. .

blood” of any hydraulic braking system and essential to brake operation. Brake fluid produces the braking or stopping action and protects and lubricates braking system components. The use of a high quality brake fluid is critical to assure the safety of the driver and pas- sengers traveling in the vehicle.

Most motor vehicles today call for brake fluids which are water miscible and composed of synthetic glycol ethers. The initial development of hydraulic brake fluids occurred during the early 1920s. They had to be

Brake cleaners are high solvent formulas used to compatible with natuial rubbe;, and were generally mix- tures of castor oil and denatured alcohol. Higher boiling clean brake pads, rotors, drums, calipers, and other

alcohols were utilized later to improve anti-vapor-lock characteristics and the castor oil was also modified to improve low temperature properties.

Following World War II synthetic polyglycols, which were water miscible lubricants, became available, and continue to be important in the manufac- ture of hydraulic brake fluid today. Polyglycol fluids were introduced in the 1950s, and borate-ester-based fluids were introduced in the 1960s, which offered im- proved wet boiling point (fluid boiling in the presence of water) and dry boiling point (fluid boiling in the absence of water) performance. Silicone-based brake fluids were later introduced which are not miscible with water and offered improved boiling point and low temperature flow characteristics.

Brake fluids are categorized as DOT 3, DOT 4 and DOT 5 by specifications established by the Depart- ment of Transportation (DOT). The primary difference between the DOT categories is boiling point and low temperature flow properties. Fluid boiling point require- ments increase in moving from DOT 3 to DOT 5. Low temperature flow requirements are most strict for DOT 5 fluids followed by DOT 3, then DOT 4.

Most vehicle manufacturers today recommend a DOT 3 or DOT 4 brake fluid for their vehicles. One should always refer to the owners manual to assure the proper fluid is used.

In order to ensure that the expected performance is received from a brake fluid product, the fluid must be handled properly to avoid contamination. Contamina- tion with mineral oil products such as motor oil, grease or transmission fluid must be completely avoided. Even trace amounts of such contamination can cause deteri- oration of the rubber seals in the braking system. Mois- ture contamination can cause an excessive drop in fluid boiling point. Brake fluid should be kept in its original container and the container should be tightly sealed during storage.

CARBURETOR/CHOKE CLEANERS

carburetor or fuel injector to stop an automobile or truck dead in its tracks. This could leave the motorist stranded, sometimes under unsafe conditions. But the problem can usually be resolved by the purchase of an inexpensive, chemical specialty product.

Carburetor cleaners or fuel injector cleaners are formulated with special detergent and solvent ingredi- ents that will solubilize contaminants. Many fuels con-

It only takes a small amount of dirt or residue in a

tain maintenance levels of cleaning ingredients but oc- casional use of higher dosage may be required. In the worst cases, disassembly for a more thorough cleaning may be needed. A specially formulated cleaning prod- uct will then be used for the parts to loosen and solubi- lize the residue. Choke cleaners also provide some lu- brication as well as cleaning performance. Improvement in engine performance can frequently im- prove combustion enough to make a significant reduc- tion in tail pipe emissions.

Development of these formulations requires a great deal of care. Compatibility with a variety of fuels and engine components is required. Performance must be evaluated over the wide range of potential contami- nants which may be encountered. Both the formulas and packages are developed for ease of use and con- sumer safety. Long necked bottles with measuring abil- ity and restricted orifices can be used for fuel tank addi- tives. Aerosol containers, often with extension tube, give controlled application for under hood use.

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ENGINE DEGREASERS Engine degreasers are high-solvent formulas

used for oil and dirt deposit clean-up on engines in cars, trucks, vans, tractors, boats, and motorcycles. These aerosol products contain grease stripping and metal-cleaning agents designed to penetrate and dis- solve grease and grime to give your engine a profes- sional clean-up, quickly and easily.

Engine degreasers also contain surfactants which lift the grime off of the surfaces after they have been dissolved by the solvents. Most formulas leave no oily film to attract dirt so your engine can stay clean longer. Engine degreasers are formulated to be safe for under-hood ma- terials such as painted metal, plastic, and rubber.

Cleaning automobile engines is done for more than just aesthetic appeal. Oil, grease and dirt on engines can cause deterioration of some engine system components. Dirty engine parts can also interfere with engine mainte- nance operations. Engine degreasers play an important role in helping keep engines durable and running efficiently.

GASLINE ANTIFREEZE Gasline freeze-up is always a nuisance; it can even

be hazardous when it occurs in emergency situations. Use of gasline antifreeze during the cold weather driving season can keep it from happening.

Water can accumulate in fuel by contamination or condensation from humid air in the head space of the fuel tank. If it freezes, the ice can completely block the flow of fuel. Solvents and detergents can help to incor- porate the water into the fuel to remove that accumu- lated water. Formulas for these products can be as simple as 100% alcohol. However, there are considera- tions such as compatibility with engine parts (some plastics are intolerant of certain alcohols) and with all fuels.

Most gasline antifreezes contain methanol, which serves to keep any water that condenses in the gas tank from settling out and entering the fuel intake line. Methanol is toxic when ingested and label warnings should be followed carefully.

POLISHES & WAXES

future. Polishing accomplishes more than temporary beautification. The abrasive action of road dust com- bined with the effects of salt, fog or smog will damage the painted surfaces of the vehicle. Automotive polish provides a protective coating that helps preserve the automotive paint. Polishing agents will also smooth and seal the surface to reduce oxidative damage to the surface especially in bright sunlight or high eleva- tions (due to ultraviolet energy from the sun).

Automotive polishes were originally blends of sol- vent with a moderately hard wax. They were hard to apply and rub out and were not very long lasting. Most currently available polishes are emulsions of water and a solvent with silicone or other polymers. These formu- las are easier to apply and rub out, and they protect the automobile finish longer.

Today’s automotive polishes are very complex for- mulations that reflect a great deal of sophisticated tech- nology. Continuing advances in formulation technology have made this product essential to assuring a longer life to modern automotive finishes, as well as for restor- ing and maintaining older vehicles.

Polishing an automobile is an investment in its

STARTING FLUIDS

flammable liquid, which when sprayed into the carbure- tor helps to start stubborn engines fast. The products work on a wide range of engines, which include cars, trucks, lawn mowers, generators, snowmobiles, motor- cycles, boats, and construction equipment. They can

Starting fluids contain diethyl ether, a volatile and

be used with gasoline engines and diesel engines that do not use glo plugs.

In cold winter weather, cars are often difficult to start because cold fuel does not readily vaporize. Be- cause starting fluids have a wide flammability range, winter starts are easier to achieve. The practical benefit of quick starts is that it prevents excessive wear on the battery and starter. Cranking an engine for long periods of time is hard on the starter and drains the battery. By providing quick starts, starting fluids minimize the amount of time the battery and starter are in use. Start- ing fluids work in flooded engines as well.

Starting fluids remain one of the best-selling auto- motive products because there are no practical alterna- tives. In the last decade, however, there has been a con- sistent decline in use, as carburetors have been replaced by fuel injectors on newer engines. But as long as there are still car, truck, motorcycle, lawn mower and other engines with carburetors, starting fluids will continue to be essential automotive products, especially in colder climates.

TIRE INFLATORS Tire inflators are designed for drivers who cannot

change a flat tire immediately. This aerosol with a tire valve connector gives the alternative of adding a charge of air to the tire to compensate for a slow leak and a sealant material to seal small punctures. It allows the motorist a short additional distance of driving in the case of an emergency.

Tire inflators contain a compressed gas and a sealant material that temporarily can stop small leaks in the tire or innertube. These products are not intended to be used instead of proper tire repair, and are care- fully labeled so that consumers understand the limita- tions of the product. After using a tire inflator, motorists should have the tire permanently repaired as soon as possible, and let the service technician know that the product was used for the temporary repair of the tire.

VINYL PROTECTANTS ~

Protectants are products designed to protect and beautify vinyl, rubber, finished leather and plastic sur- faces. Protectants are simply applied, spread evenly, allowed to penetrate and bond for a few minutes, and then wiped for a beautiful long-lasting shine. Protectants restore luster, and protect against the ef- fects of weathering.

Most vinyl protectants are water-based silicone polymer formulations, and are non-flammable and non- corrosive. Performance testing on tires, dashboards, and bumpers have demonstrated the value of these products in protecting and prolonging the life of vinyl and other surfaces, as well as beautifying them.

WINDSHIELD WASHER FLUIDS Windshield washer fluid is a very important

product that is useful year-round. Motorists need windshield wash in the summer to help remove bugs, tree sap, dirt, and oil on the windshield. Most wind- shield washing fluid is composed of methanol, water, and detergent. Each of these ingredients solubilizes different compounds, resulting in a clean windshield.

Using water alone will not clean the windshield as ef- fectively.

Windshield washer fluid is even more important for wintertime driving. Because roadways become wet and dirty in the winter, it can be a serious hazard if the driver’s visibility is impaired by a dirty windshield. Because water alone can freeze, it is impractical in cold regions to use water alone in the windshield washer system.

Methanol is the usual base chemical because it depresses the freezing point of water more effectively than other alcohols, is less expensive, is a better sol- vent for road salts, and is less likely to cause smearing on windshields. It is toxic, however, and windshield washer fluid should be handled with care, especially around children.

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AIR FRESHENERS

Throughout the ages, fragrance has been an important element in creating an environment that evokes feeling of comfort and well being. For more than forty years, consumers have relied on air fresheners to dispel disagreeable odors and add inviting scents to their homes.

forms ranging from instant-action products, which include Air fresheners are available in a variety of product

made from porous clay and are considered natural and decorative. Another popular continuous-action air fresh- ening form on the market today is a reusable electrical warmer unit with a refillable fragrance cartridge, that utilizes a controlled release technology.

Carpet fresheners, which are usually powders that are sprinkled on the carpet and then vacuumed up, are increasing in popularity given their ability to eliminate odors and freshen carpets simultaneously.

The major ingredient in most air fresheners is fra- aerosols, non-aerosols and disinfectant sprays, to continuous action products, including gels, paperboards, liquids, ce- ramics, electrical and controlled-release products. There are also carpet deodor- izers that serve as room fresheners, most of which are powders.

Aerosols are preferred by many consumers because of their effective- ness, safety and efficiency. Pump prod- ucts are a non-aerosol alternative to tra- ditional instant action air fresheners while disinfectant sprays kill household germs and control mold and mildew. grance that they imitate.

Continuous-action air fresheners provide continu- ous freshening from thirty to sixty days depending on product form. Gel air fresheners are typically low cost, functional products which have been a long-standing favorite. Paperboard can be used to hold a fragrance, or as part of a liquid system. Ceramic air fresheners are

grance. These fragrances can be a combination of many different fragrance components. These compo- nents are divided into nine major groups: spicy, sweet, fruity, citrus, flo- ral, green, woodyhutty, mint and herbal. Hundreds of subcomponents exist within each of these families. A given fragrance can consist of hundreds of different chemical compo- nents, and although most fragrances

are now synthetically derived, they contain exactly the same types of chemical compounds as the natural fra-

Individual sense of smell can vary from person to person and people do perceive fragrances differently. A fragrance that you find pleasing may be disliked by an- other person or a scent you perceive as strong and in- tense may seem delicate and light to another. When developing air fresheners, thorough testing is

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conducted with consumers to determine their reaction to various scents, packaging forms and concepts. This is why air fresheners are available in many different fra- grances, intensities and product forms.

BATHROOM (TUB & TILE) CLEANERS Bathroom tub and tile cleaners are formulated to

conveniently, effectively, and safely clean, shine, deodorize, and remove soap scum and mineral deposits from bathroom surfaces. Bathroom cleaners are used on a variety of surfaces such as bathroom fix- tures, tile, chrome, fiberglass, baked enamel, porcelain, stainless steel, and synthetic marble. Products are available in aerosol, pump spray, and liquid forms.

dients which work hard to make tough bathroom clean- ing jobs easy: antimicrobial agents for disinfecting; sol- vents to help solubilize other ingredients and start the cleaning action by solubilizing the soil that is being cleaned; surfactants to emulsify grease and suspend solid soil matter by reducing surface tension which makes it easier to rinse the surface being cleaned; chelating agents to attack soap scum; and perfumes to deodorize by imparting a clean, fresh smell. Bathroom cleaners are formulated to be compatible with bathroom surfaces without damage when properly used as directed on the product label.

Many bathroom cleaners disinfect as well as clean surfaces where common household germs such as Salmonella, Staphylococcus, athlete’s foot fungus, and mold and mildew may be present. These products go through intensive review with the EPA before being of- fered for sale to ensure product stability, efficacy and safety to consumers and the environment.

Bathroom cleaners contain carefully selected ingre-

CARPET CLEANING PRODUCTS In the days before mechanical carpet cleaners, a

person would take a rug outside and beat it. If there were any stains, the person would take soapy water to wash it or send it to a professional cleaner. With the ad- vent of wa!!-to-wal! carpeting this was no longer possi- ble. As a result, products were developed and marketed to meet this new consumer need.

Today a wide variety of carpet cleaning products exist. They can be found as dilutable liquids, ready-to- use pump sprays, powders, and aerosols. All typically contain biodegradable surfactants, designed to wet and clean the carpet fibers, but not the carpet’s backing.

Most cleaners also contain an antisoiling system. This system is designed to replace the factory finishes re- moved during the cleaning process. Limited amounts of solvents are used in some carpet cleaners, especially spot treatments. These solvents aid in the removal of greasy soils and certain stains.

Many of today’s carpet cleaning products are de- signed to be used with a particular type of cleaning ma- chine. Dilutable high-foaming cleaners are used with “shampoo” units. Dilutable low-foaming products are used with hot water extractors. Dry powders, pump sprays, and aerosol foams are used with vacuum de- vices. Each of these cleaning formulations yield optimal performance only when used with the right mechanical device.

DISHWASHING PRODUCTS Dishwashing is done about a thousand times a

year in most homes so a lot of research has been dedi- cated to the development of products which make this task easier, more effective, and less time-consuming. Dishwashing is important because: 1) bacteria can grow rapidly on dishes and utensils that have not been properly cleaned, 2) dirty dishes attract roaches and other pests, 3) cooking equipment conducts heat more evenly and efficiently when spotless, and 4) items which are kept clean last longer. Dishwashing products are designed for either hand dishwashing or automatic dishwashing.

Hand dishwashing detergents were initially intro- duced as granules but are almost all liquids today. A hand dishwashing detergent must remove all types of food soils, have long-lasting suds, be mild to hands, be safe for dishes and other washables, and rinse free of films and spots. Hand dishwashing detergents are used for a variety of other purposes including handwashing delicate garments, and household cleaning tasks where heavy soil is not involved.

on anionic surfactants (which are high sudsing), but they may also contain nonionic surfactants. Other com- mon ingredients are ethanol, suds boosters and stabi- lizers, coloring agents, and fragrance.

Because they are used so broadly, hand dishwashing detergents are extensively evaluated to ensure that they are safe for skin, eyes, and for accidental ingestions. They are generally mild to the skin, produce only temporary eye irritation such as red- ness and stinging, and are readily eliminated from the

Hand dishwashing detergents are usually based

body through vomiting if accidentally ingested. These products are also extensively tested to ensure that they are safe for the environment when disposed of down- the-drain. Ingredients are selected to biodegrade or be removed in wastewater treatment.

Automatic dishwashing detergents must meet dif- ferent criteria than hand dishwashing detergents. An automatic dishwashing machine replaces the mechani- cal cleaning action of hand dishwashing with that of wa- ter pressure. Therefore, automatic dishwashing deter- gents must be very low sudsing, since suds would cushion the mechanical cleaning action of water. They must also inhibit foam created by certain proteinaceous foods such as eggs or milk. Automatic dishwashing de- tergents must also soften water to prevent insoluble de- posits, loosen and hold soil in suspension, leave items clean and grease-free so they rinse without spots, and be safe for a wide variety of materials, including china and metals, which must be protected from the corrosive effects of heat and water.

Automatic dishwashing detergents usually contain nonionic surfactants (which are low sudsing), and water softeners that tie up water hardness minerals so that mineral/food soil combinations do not form insoluble residue on dishes. They may also contain a corrosion inhibitor (sodium silicate), a suds suppressor, process- ing aids (inert materials that allow ingredients to be blended), and oxidizing agents (usually a hypochlorite) to help break down soils and remove stains, and a fra- grance. Automatic dishwashing detergents are available in granule or liquid forms.

Because of their alkaline nature, all automatic dishwashing detergents can produce transient eye and skin irritation. The degree of irritation corresponds to the degree of alkalinity. Accidental ingestions may cause a burning sensation and irritation of mouth and throat, with nausea, vomiting and diarrhea, depending upon the amount swallowed. Although automatic dish- washing detergents are alkaline in the concentrated form, they do not have adverse effects on the environ- ment since the alkaline ingredients become greatly di- luted and return to the environment as naturally occur- ring salts and minerals.

DISINFECTANTS & SANITIZERS Infectious disease and its physical, psychological,

and economic impact remains a significant problem in today’s society. Through research, we have learned that by limiting the number of infectious agents to which

people are exposed, the chances of disease transmis- sion can be reduced.

spread of infectious diseases is through disinfection. Surfaces in the kitchen or in other areas where food is prepared can be heavily contaminated with microorganisms. Bathroom surfaces are also known to harbor many different types of organisms. Bacteria and viruses are aerosolized and deposited on surfaces (e.9. faucets, door knobs) each time the toilet is flushed.

A disinfectant is an agent that eliminates microor- ganisms. A sanitizer is an agent that reduces the num- ber of bacterial contaminants to safe levels. Disinfec- tants generally contain one or more chemical agents which are applied to objects to destroy disease germs, or other harmful microorganisms. Major considerations in selecting disinfectant compounds include health risks, potential damage to surfaces, and scope of effec- tiveness.

Today’s disinfectants may include alcohols, qua- ternary ammonium compounds, hypochlorites, iodine, bromines, pine oils, peroxides, or phenolic compounds. The scope of organisms controlled and the mechanism of performance varies widely between these agents. Some puncture the cell wall of the microorganism, al- lowing the contents to Idak out, while others permeate and enter the cell, destroying the microorganism from within.

To achieve optimal effectiveness, shelf life and safety, disinfectant agents are carefully formulated with other essential ingredients. These ingredients can in- clude solubilizers, buffers, detergents, synergists, builders, stabilizers, grease cutters, and fragrance. Proper balancing of these formula components will in- sure good wetting properties, minimal toxicity, emulsifi- cation of fatty matter, and penetration of organic soils. This will ultimately help deliver the disinfecting agent to the infectious source for maximum impact at minimal concentrations.

No product can make disinfecting claims unless it is registered with the Environmental Protection Agency. The EPA will register the product for sale and use only if they find the product performs in accordance with its claims, and it poses no unreasonable threat to human health or the environment. Because it is crucial to pub- lic health that disinfectants be reliable, it is EPA policy to look carefully at the efficacy of disinfectants.

Disinfectants are classified by the EPA as either limited disinfectants (effective only against one specific group of bacteria, such as gram-positives), broad spec-

One important control measure to help prevent the

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trum disinfectants (effective against gram-positive and DUSTING AIDS gram-negative bacteria), or hospital-grade disinfectants (the highest level and scope of effectiveness). Addition- ally, a disinfectant may be registered as tuberculocidal, fungicidal, or virucidal, where efficacy against specific viruses must be demonstrated.

To insure that a product has been thoroughly tested, is safe for use, and is approved and registered with the EPA, an EPA registration number must appear on its label. Advances in chemistry have brought us ef- fective and safe disinfectants. Our understanding of the spread of disease has also grown tremendously. Disin- fectants and sanitizers reduce our exposure to microor- ganisms and improve our living environment.

DRAIN CLEANERS

Dusting aids were developed to assist in dusting by increasing the ease with which dust is removed, and to reduce the scratching of surfaces being dusted. For- mulas have been developed to allow frequent use with- out applying an additional polish film every time you dust. Dusting aids also are formulated for use as mop treatments, since unlike furniture polishes, they do not contain slippery ingredients that would be unsuitable for use on floors. Household dusting aids, however, are used primarily when dusting furniture and other such household surfaces.

The aerosol is the predominant form for dusting aids due to its ease and efficiency of application, although dusting cloths are also available. In addition to being a dusting aid, these products oily soils.

The primary ingredients of dusting aids include Drain cleaners are products formulated to clear

blockages in drains or improve slow running drains in homes, businesses, and industries. Drain cleaners are normally added directly and undiluted into drains through bathroom or kitchen sinks, shower or tub drains, or floor drains.

Drain cleaners are available in liquid and granular forms. Three main types of liquid products are currently available. Those based on hypochlorite are the most prominent liquid form on the market today, and contain combinations of sodium hypochlorite and sodium hydrox- ide or potassium hydroxide. Some liquids are caustic

water to aid in removal of water soluble soils and stains, and solvent for removal of oil borne stains and to carry the oil-phase actives. Mineral oil is usually pre- sent to aid in picking up dust from the treated surface. A typical aerosol formula would include organic solvents, mineral oil, water, fragrance, preservative, emulsifiers and propellant. A dusting cloth formula would include a non-woven substrate, mineral oil, and fragrance.

FABRIC PROTECTANTS/ WATERREPELLENTS

products that are solutions of potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide. Some liquid drain cleaners are acids, typically solutions of hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, but this formulation is primarily sold to institutional consumers.

Typical granular products available are either caustics, mostly solid sodium hydroxide sometimes containing additives for special functions, or biological enzyme-based formulas containing enzymes or biologi- cally-active cultures, which can slowly dissolve some kinds of clogs.

Most drain cleaners contain caustic ingredients that car! be corrosive to the skin and eyes. These hgre- dients are needed in order to make the product effica- cious against the tough blockages that are frequently found in drains. As a result, manufacturers take extreme care to provide adequate and clear use direc- tions and warnings on the label. When used according to label directions, drain cleaners play a vital role in helping consumers avoid costly plumbers’ bills.

Today’s fabric protectants and water repellents are generally one of two formulation systems. Silicone- based formulations are used where water repellency is the primary objective, while fluorocarbon formulations are used where soil repellency is the primary goal.

Silicone-based water repellents come in many forms, but all contain silicone polymers in an organic sol- vent that polymerizes into a water-resistant shield when applied to virtually any fabric. These products cannot be formulated using water, since water interferes with the polymerization process, and would also damage “dry- clean only” fine fabrics.

in that they apply fluorocarbons or fluorocarbon poly- mers (similar to Teflon, which is also a fluorocarbon polymer) that interact very weakly with both oil and wa- ter, and thus repel soils, and provide some water repel- lency as well. The fluorocarbons in fabric protectants are hard and non-tacky, and have low adherence to

Fluorocarbon-based fabric protectants are unique

dust as well. These products are mostly sold in aerosol form for easy and efficient application, and contain car- bon dioxide propellant.

The use of fabric protectants and water repellents result in savings of millions of dollars each year by ex- tending the useful life of clothes and other types of fabrics.

FLOOR CARE PRODUCTS The purpose of floor polish is to provide a thin,

temporary coating which will provide a floor with an at- tractive, clean, well-cared-for look, and at the same time will take the abusive wear of foot traffic and extend the useful life of the flooring beneath the polish. Scien- tific studies have repeatedly established the protective effect offered by floor polishes. Studies have confirmed the need for floor polishes even for today’s “no-wax” floors.

In addition to enhanced beauty and protection, pol- ished floors resist soiling better than unwaxed floors, and are easier to clean. Modern floor polishes also provide a walking surface with balanced frictional properties which give enough slip for comfortable walking, but present little danger of slipfiall accidents. The terms floor wax, floor pol- ish, floor finish, and floor dressings have all been applied to these products and have become synonymous.

The earliest use of a beeswax to protect floors was recorded in the 14th century. But beeswax is very soft and gives a dull, sticky surface when it is applied. It was not until the incorporation of petroleum solvents and the application of harder waxes in the 19th century that the protection and beautification of flooring became easier. Solvents allowed harder waxes such as carnauba, castor, and montan types to be used in the floor products, and resulted in products that could be applied more evenly and in a thinner layer that could be easily buffed to a shine.

As long as the primary flooring was wood, the sol- vent-based polishes were and still are the product of choice. With the development of synthetic flooring in the early 20th century the chemistry of floor care prod- ucts had to change accordingly. Early synthetic flooring materials, like rubber and linoleum were damaged by the solvent used in the floor care products of the time. This problem led to the development of water-based emulsion products that we commonly use today.

ing, requires care to protect and maintain high gloss over long periods of use. Today’s floor care products

Modern flooring, even the so-called “no-wax’’ floor-

are quite complex and contain materials that allow them to be used on a wide variety of flooring types. These materials include polymers to form a continuous film that is hard enough to resist abrasion, resins to give good gloss and to help level the product over the surface; and wax to improve wear resistance. In addi- tion plasticizers, coalescing solvents, preservatives ammonia and fragrance are used to optimize product stability and performance.

Modern floor care products are subjected to many testing procedures to insure their suitability and safety on various surfaces. These include tests to ensure that the product will dry to a glossy tack-free shine, have minimum resistance to daily washing with detergents, and can be easily removable when desired. Slip-resis- tance testing is conducted to ensure the ability of the product to provide a safe non-slipping surface to walk on. (Consumers should never mix up their own floor polish formulations, since such mixtures would only not protect floors, but create slipping hazards as well.)

come from wood and stone to the vast selection of man-made products currently available. As these have become more varied, the floor care formulator has had to respond with products that continue to beautify, pro- tect and incorporate the safety that consumers require.

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During the past one hundred years, flooring has

FURNITURE POLISH Furniture polishes serve as decorative and protec-

tive coatings for factory applied permanent finishes. The polish film provides a renewed glossy appearance that is a measure of quality, respectability, suggested newness,and cleanliness. In addition, polishes impart varying degrees of protection against handling, abrasive wear, dust, and spillage that could result in staining.

Today’s furniture polishes offer consumers choices in levels of protection, cleaning, shine enhancement, ease of application and fragrance. Prod- uct forms include aerosols, liquids, pump sprays, pastes and impregnated cloths. These products are for- mulated using waxes for protection and film uniformity, silicones and oils tc enhance gloss and easy applica- tion, solvents for cleaning and to prevent build up, and fragrance to provide a clean fresh scent during and af- ter use.

Most furniture polish formulations are developed to work on a wide variety of surfaces, from fine wood furniture to vinyMeather, paneling, metal and other fin- ishes. Many specialty products are also available such

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as moisturizing oils and paste waxes, to offer maximum surface protection with lower gloss enhancement.

When furniture polish products are developed, they are evaluated on many surfaces in the laboratory to as- sure that the performance is satisfactory on all surfaces. They are then tested by consumers at home under ac- tual use conditions before the product is put on the mar- ket. Consumers who try to formulate their own furniture polishes will find that not only will the surfaces not be protected, but can actually be irreparably damaged. Many tests are performed on these formulas to insure that the consumer receives a safe and effective product to use, including flammability tests, toxicological testing, long term stability testing, and package testing.

GENERAL PURPOSE CLEANERS General purpose/hard surface cleaners are prod-

ucts designed to clean a variety of household surfaces including ceramic, stainless steel, formica, plastic, linoleum, and painted surfaces. They can be used full strength or can be diluted, depending upon the clean- ing job, and generally require no rinsing.

General purpose cleaners typically contain soaps, solvents, surfactants, and builders that work together to soften, emulsify, and lift dirt from surfaces. In addition, some general purpose cleaners are also disinfectants that kill microorganisms capable of causing illness and odors.

applications. For example, a typical general purpose cleaner can be used in the kitche on the stove, refriger- ator, floor, counters, and other surfaces, and can also be used in the bathroom to clean toilets, walls, sinks, and showers. Thus, these products are quite versatile and in many cases eliminate the expense and need for specialized products. Spray products work quickly to remove dirt and grime without leaving a film. This saves the user time that might otherwise be spent scrubbing stubborn soils.

General purpose cleaners are thoroughly evalu- ated for safety and appropriately labeled. Safety stud- ies are aesigned not oniy to meet government require- ments but also the higher safety standards of the industry. Studies are also conducted to determine po- tential toxicity and assess the hazards of product mis- use, including accidental ingestion. Moreover, general purpose cleaners claiming disinfectancy are registered with the U.S. EPA and meet all the associated require- ments of safety testing, labeling, and packaging.

General purpose cleaners have many

Industry has risen to the environmental challenges facing its products. Virtually all of today’s general pur- pose cleaners contain only the most biodegradable cleaning agents. Industry is also responding to the solid waste crisis by minimizing packaging. This is being achieved by producing dilutable products and refillable/re-usable packaging. Moreover, many general purpose cleaners come in packaging with some recy- cled content, and/or that is itself recyclable.

GLASS CLEANERS Glass cleaners are formulated to remove complex

mixtures of soils, both grease and particulate, that accu- mulate on windows, glass table tops and other hard, shiny, surfaces. Glass cleaners must clean without leav- ing a residue that would show up as a film or streaks. The transparent, high shine of these surfaces requires special consideration of the types and amounts of clean- ing ingredients. Glass cleaners contain surfactants which provide the penetration, wetting and detergency; solvents to dissolve greasy soils and control evaporation rates; and a builder such as ammonia or vinegar to boost detergency. Sometimes, polishing agents and other ad- ditives are incorporated for special functions.

small amount onto the surface to be cleaned and then wiped with a clean cloth until clean and dry. The prod- uct is used at a very low volume because of the nature of the surface (non-porous). Although usually found as aerosols or liquid pumps, glass cleaners can also be found as impregnated towelettes, pastes and solids.

Glass cleaners provide significant aesthetic bene- fits in cleaning shiny surfaces around the home or busi- ness, and provide important safety benefits when used to clean the windshields of automobiles or boats. Alter- native cleaners such as ammonia or vinegar in water lack the necessary detergency and solvency required to give the optimum results. Other alternatives such as diluted dishwashing liquids usually leave a film or residue that can be hard to remove.

Glass cleaners are usually used by spraying a

METAL POLISHES Metal polishes are hard surface cleaners formu-

lated for removing soils, surface imperfections, and cor- rosion from metal surfaces. They can be for general ap- plication to many metals or designed for specific metals such as silver or copper. They come in a variety of forms including aerosol sprays, liquids (including solu-

tions, emulsions and suspensions), pastes, solids, and impregnated wipes or towelettes.

One way that polishes work is by abrading or me- chanically removing tarnish and soil. Clay-like materials or finely divided hydrous silica are typical of the mild abrasives used. Another mode of action utilizes organic acids such as citric or oxalic acid to convert corrosion products to water soluble compounds. Other possible ingredients include surfactants, solvents (including wa- ter), alkalies, and corrosion inhibitors.

product forms are required because of the many types of metals and surfaces to be polished. Label directions should be followed carefully to avoid damage to valu- able metal finishes.

A wide variety of metal polish formulations and

MOLD & MILDEW STAIN REMOVERS

Mold and mildew stain removers are commonly used on showers, bathtubs, and grout because the moist conditions in the bathroom tend to promote the growth of mildew. However, these products can be used on a variety of other household surfaces, such as in toilet bowls, on tile floors, fiberglass, and sinks.

orizing mildew stains. Some mold and mildew removers work by actually killing or removing mildew in addition to decolorizing the mildew stain. Products claiming to actually “remove” mildew or disinfect must be registered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

sodium hypochlorite as their active ingredient. This is the same active ingredient encountered in some laun- dry bleaches. Additionally, some of these products also contain fragrance and surfactants to enable better wet- ting of surfaces, which is useful for soap scum removal.

evaluated for safety under household use and appropri- ately labeled with potential hazards. These studies are designed not only to meet the government requirements but also the higher safety standards of the industry. Studies are also conducted to determine potential toxicity and assess the hazards of product misuse, including accidental ingestion. The active ingredient for mold and mildew stain removers, sodium hypochlorite, breaks down readily after its usage.

Mold and mildew stain removers work by decol-

Mold and mildew stain removers generally contain

Mold and mildew stain removers are thoroughly

OVENCLEANERS The soils found in household ovens are greasy

and carbonaceous, and have been subjected to high temperatures over extended periods. This makes them perhaps the most challenging cleaning problem in the home. Oven cleaning products are commonly liquids packaged in aerosol cans or in bottles with spray pumps. The product is sprayed onto the soiled surface, allowed to stand for a period of time, and then wiped off. Another type of oven cleaner includes a pouch con- taining the liquid that is encased in a pad with an abra- sive synthetic sponge.

based on highly alkaline ingredients. Sodium hydroxide (lye) is the most commonly selected active ingredient. It acts by reacting with greases to form water-soluble soaps. Detergents in the formulation facilitate removal of the baked on soils by wetting and penetrating them. Oven cleaners must remain in contact with soils over a period of time to be effective, so they also contain thick- ening agents to make them cling to oven walls.

The use of heat can make any oven cleaner work faster. Some oven cleaners are specifically designed to work at elevated temperatures. These products are based on weakly alkaline salts, and are activated by heat to attack the soils. Their advantage is that fewer special precautions are needed while using them be- cause they do not contain lye.

Oven cleaners can make a difficult job relatively easy, and clean ovens can also operate more efficiently with savings in energy usage.

Products designed to work at room temperature are

SHOE CARE PRODUCTS Shoe care products represent a broad range of

products designed to clean, polish, protect, condition and enhance shoe surfaces. Their cumulative effect, as with any maintenance product, is to prolong the life of the product on which it is used. Shoe polishes not only make shoes and boots last longer, but also help repel water and soils, and make them look their best.

that provide optimal performance in maintaining footwear. Examples include wax and polymer blends to polish shoe surfaces, oils that prevent leather from drying and cracking, polymers that repel water (which tends to weaken suedehubuck leather), surfactants that are most effective in removing stains from shoe surfaces, and dyes that can enhance or change the color of shoes.

Shoe care products are formulated with ingredients ~

Shoe care products are available in a vast array of forms, for a wide variety of uses, in many colors, and for use on a number of different materials. The careful use of shoe polishes and other shoe care products can double or even triple the life of footware.

SOAP PADS Removing cooked-on greasy soils from cookware

is a real cleaning challenge. This challenge is further complicated by the wide variety of cookware surfaces available to consumers. In answer to this challenge, in- dustry has developed a multitude of scrubbing devices including the ever-popular steel wool soap pad.

the early 1900s. They consisted of steel wool pieces and a separate bar of soap. Today, modern versions of steel wool soap pads have evolved, with a complex mixture of soaps, detergents, rust inhibitors, perfumes, and pigments impregnated into the steel wool pads. These modern soap pads are designed for a wide variety of cleaning jobs from pots and pans to whitewall tires.

In recent years, a new type of soap pad has emerged, using plastic fibers with abrasives instead of steel wool. These types of plastic soap pads are usually designed for specific jobs, such as nonstick cookware.

pad is very low. Its steel wool degrades to naturally oc-

Soap pads were first introduced to consumers in

The environmental impact of a steel wool soap

curring iron oxides, and the soaps and detergents used in it are biodegradable. Plastic soap pads also contain biodegradable detergent systems, but the plastic fibers used in these products (although durable and long-last- ing) are not currently recyclable or degradable. Research is being conducted to improve this situation.

TOILET BOWL CLEANERS Toilet bowl cleaners come in a variety of forms, in-

cluding liquids, thick liquids, powders, crystals, foams, and tablets, and contain a variety of ingredients (acids, bleaches, antimicrobials, surfactants) to make an impor- tant but difficult job easier.

and odors. Various product formulations can be used to clean and disinfect toilet bowls. Many products use acids to remove rust, mineral deposits, and other stains, even where hard water is a problem. Hypochlorite bleaching agents are effective in removing organic stains and disin- fecting. Thickening agents can be used to help the prod- uct stick to the bowl, and concentrate the cleaning power. Surfactants are used in the formulations to remove and suspend soils. Some products contain strong acids to provide rapid cleaning and disinfection.

The cleaning and disinfection of toilet bowls using today’s toilet bowl cleaning products provides consumers with both aesthetic and public health benefits.

The toilet bowl is a constant source of dirt, germs

BLEACHES breaking the stain into smaller units which are then more easily removed by laundry detergent and the me- chanical action of the washing machine. When used as a laundry additive, sodium hypochlorite bleach effec-

There are two basic types of laundry bkaches on the market, “chlorine bleach” and color safe, “non-chlo- rine bleach.” Sodium hypochlorite is the active ingredi- ent in “chlorine” bleach, being present at levels of 5.25%. Sodium hypochlorite is a chlorine-containing compound; however, while very reactive, it has much different properties than chlorine gas. “Non-chlo- rine bleach” contains other oxidizing agents than hypochlorites for the removal of stains.

Sodium hypochlorite bleach was first introduced to American consumers in 191 6. Bleach provides a variety of benefits. It decol- orizes stains by oxidizing the compounds that form stains. Moreover, it aids in actually removing stains by

tively cleans a variety of fabrics. However, it should only be used to wash color-fast items. Label directions provide instructions for determining the color-fast- ness of washables.

Sodium hypochlorite bleach also disinfects and sanitizes, killing bacteria, viruses, molds, mildew, and fungus. In order to claim disinfectancy, hypochlorite

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bleaches must be registered by the EPA, which requires supporting data for registration.

Sodium hypochlorite bleach is temporarily irritating

to eyes, skin, and mucous membranes. However, it is not corrosive to these tissues and does not cause per-

tions, as well as new manufacturing processes that make the best use of them.

manent damage. Hypochlorite bleach should not be mixed with other household chemicals such as toilet bowl cleaners, rust removers, acid, or products contain- ing ammonia. To do so would cause the release of haz- ardous gases.

vironment and have made efforts to understand this product’s environmental effects. It has been found that bleach reacts with stains and soils to become primarily salt water. Any remaining bleach goes down the drain into either the local sewer system or septic tank and re- acts rapidly with wastewater components thereby degrading.

fabrics, dry color-safe bleaches began appearing on the market in the 1970s. These products clean, whiten, and brighten clothes, but do not disinfect. Non-chlorine bleaches come in powder and liquid forms. Recently, there has also been a trend to incorporate the bleach in detergent products.

Manufacturers of bleach are concerned for the en-

Since hypochlorite bleach can not be used on all

The key components of all heavy duty detergents are surfactants and builders. Surfactants lower the sur- face tension of water making it “wetter,” and more ca- pable of reaching and dissolving soil. Builders make surfactants work better by complexing water hardness ions that would otherwise interfere with their function. In addition to this water softening function, some builders provide other benefits like helping to keep soils in solu- tion so that they rinse away more completely.

Other ingredients in some heavy duty detergents include enzymes, bleaches, brighteners, and fragrances. Enzymes are proteins that interact with the proteins in some soils such as grass stains and choco- late pudding. The enzymes break down these soil pro- teins so that they can be washed away by the surfac- tants. Bleaches also work by chemically breaking apart soils (usually through oxidation) so that they can be re- moved from the surface of fabrics. Brighteners enhance whites and colors making clothes look new longer. Fragrances provide a fresher-smelling laundry, particularly for clothes that are machine dried. Most non-chlorine bleaches contain enzymes to

break up protein stains, ingredients to make clothes look brighter, and a source of hydrogen peroxide to oxi- dize and decolorize stains. In addition, there are ingre- dients which adjust the pH of the laundry, thereby en- hancing the detergent’s cleaning ability. Because the efficacy of peroxide is reduced at lower wash tempera- tures, ingredients called activators are sometimes in- cluded to react with peroxide, producing a more effica- cious bleaching agent.

DETERGENTS The task of getting the family’s clothes clean is in-

creasingly challenging. The growing variety of fabrics used in today’s clothing adds complexity to the already difficult job of cleaning a wide variety of soil types with a range of methods and washing machine types. A broad range of water hardness and water temperatures adds further complexity.

Heavy duty detergents designed for washing clothes became available in the mid-I 940s. They were invented primarily to replace soap which was not capa- ble of removing some soils types and which combined with hardness ions in water to form a precipitate on clothes and on washing machines. Since then they have been improved many times with increasingly effi- cient and cost-effective new ingredients and formula-

There are distinct differences among the heavy duty detergents available. The consumer may choose among low, medium or high sudsing products, for ex- ample, to suit their needs depending on the machines and the size of the loads they wash. Some products are designed to be more effective in lower wash tem- peratures. Some contain ingredients to provide additional fabric care benefits such as softening and static control and wrinkle reduction. Liquid detergents provide a convenient form for pretreating the toughest soils like oily spots and stains.

than others, so that a smaller amount is needed in the wash, so use instructions should be read carefully. It is important to use the recommended level to do the most thorough job without wasting any of the product.

Some detergents are more concentrated or denser

FABRIC CONDITIONERS Fabric conditioners impart softness and/or fluffiness

to washable fabrics by preventing fabric fibers from gath- ering together and forming rough clumps during drying. This is especially important when washing fabrics that have become stiff, harsh, or roughened after repeated washings. They also help control static cling which is of- ten a problem on synthetic fabrics. Fabric conditioners also reduce wrinkling and make ironing easier.

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Fabric conditioners are usually added during the these laundry products can therefore save energy, wa- ter, and money. rinse cycle (liquids) or during drying (usually sheets). A

few are added during the wash cycle; these are usually granular or liquid laundry detergents combined with fabric conditioner. LAUNDRY STARCH

Starch is a natural polymer made out of sugars. When added to clothing, usually during ironing, it acts as a smoothing and anti-wrinkle agent that assists the ironing process. Corn starch is the starch most commonly used in laundry starch products.

The most commonly used softening agents are cationic quaternary ammonium compounds. The soft- ening agent is impregnated onto rayon or polyester sheets, with or without a perfume, for dryer added prod- ucts. The liquid products also contain water, and may

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. . include a perfume, dye, and/or preservative. A recent trend is the several-fold concentration of liquid products, with the Consumer either using less or diluting with water before use.

Today’s laundry starches are usually aerosol products, and actually are formulated in several closely related categories, including ironing aids, fabric finishes and sizings. The primary difference is in the amounts of

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starch soids and silicone ironing assistant contained in

silicones, and a small amount of propellant, in a water base. Bluing, optical enhancers and perfumes may be added. All of these products help to make the cloth-

Fabric conditioners have a low Order Of toxicity with the product. The products consist of starch, surfactants, accidental ingestions producing slight nausea and vomit- ing. Likewise, direct eye only or skin contact with undi- luted product is likely to result in temporary, mild irritation.

ing we wear attractive with the least ironing effort.

LAUNDRY PRETREATMENT PRODUCTS Laundry pretreatment products are applied to

stains prior to laundering. They facilitate the removal of a variety of stains such as oily and greasy stains, grass and food stains, and stains around shirt collars. Pretreaters come in a variety of package types. Some pretreaters are available in trigger spray bottles, bottles with push-pull tops, and aerosol cans. There are also pretreaters available in a solid stick form which is rubbed on stains.

aging type, contain surfactants which penetrate and lift stains from fabrics. Some pretreaters may also contain solvents which assist in stain removal or enzymes to break apart stains. The use of pretreatment products has the benefit of restoring clothing or other items that might otherwise be permanently stained. Instead of throwing garments away or heaping them onto the rag pile, they can be worn again.

Moreover, pretreatment products reduce the need to re-launder items that might not have been fully cleaned the first time with detergent alone. The use of

Most pretreatment products, regardless of pack-

SPOT REMOVERS Spot removers come in a number of forms, includ-

ing aerosols, liquids and gels, and are generally one of two types: dry cleaning spot removers and water-based spot removers.

Dry cleaning spot removers contain the same sol- vents that are used by commercial dry cleaners, and can be used on a variety of natural and synthetic fab- rics to remove a broad array of stains. Some of these products have an absorbent, such as silica gel, that al- lows the solvent to transfer the stain from the cloth to the silica, which can be brushed off when the solvent evaporates. Water-based spot removers contain sur- factants and water-soluble organic solvents, and can be used on some non-water-sensitive fabrics to remove some kinds of stains.

Spot removers are often called upon for those tough stains that can not be removed by normal laun- dering, and stains on upholstery. The use of these products provides significant savings in extending the lifetime of clothing, upholstery and other fabrics.

ANT & ROACH INSECTICIDES present no hazards to the user when properly applied. Most products use a combination of active ingredients, Some to Provide a fast knockdown action and others to

Today’s ant and roach products use active ingredi- ents that have proven to be effective in the control of the target insects, yet can be used at concentrations which provide adequate mortality and residual activity.

The materials providing good knockdown activity are usually natural pyrethrum or one or more synthetic pyrethroids. Materials providing mortality and residual activity are represented by organophosphates, carba- mates, and the photostable pyrethroids. The remaining ingredients may be solvents and/or water as the carrier for the active, emulsifiers, fragrance, adjuvants, and a propellant.

Many household ant and roach products are aerosols, which provide a number of advantages, including being ready to use and requiring no dilution or handling. They are also very efficient in applying the residual pesticide product to cracks and crevices.

larity for long-term control of insects. Bait stations contain small amounts of active ingredients mixed with a food material and encased in a plastic, child-resistant feeding station. The insect enters the bait station to feed and may take some of the bait back to the nest for others

range of tests to ensure their ability to control insects and to do so in a manner 7

Ant and roach bait stations are also gaining popu-

Ant and roach products are subjected to a wide

which controls any hazardous exposure. Efficacy testing includes measurement of speed of action, residual life of residues,

fleas and ticks. The goal for effective flea and tick con- trol is to eliminate the adult while preventing the devel- opment of immature stages.

Since the source of a flea or tick infestation is the surrounding environment such as the yard or home, treatment of these areas with appropriate yard sprays, directional sprays or total release aerosol foggers are recommended. These products typically contain a com- bination of active ingredients which can quickly kill the adult pest, provide residual activity against adults and function as insect growth regulators to prevent further development of immature insects.

The use of products such as shampoos, collars, sprays, dips or powders for direct application to pets occur at regular intervals to kill fleas and ticks. Exten- sive testing is done on pet products to assure that pets will not be harmed if the product is used according to label directions.

The various products which are used for flea and tick control have several common characteristics. Both

the active ingredients and specific product formulations have undergone extensive safety and efficacy testing mandated by EPA and state regulations. All products are labeled with complete and proper directions for use plus specific instructions on proper disposal. Flea and tick insecti- cides play a vital role in maintaining public health.

repellency, activity on various surfaces,and other attributes when tested on cockroaches, ants, and any other target insects. Products are tested for acute oral, dermal, and inhalation tox- icity, skin and eye irritation, and toxic effects as required, and are formulated with active ingredients whose toxicological properties, from both acute and chronic exposures, have been thoroughly studied.

Aerosol ant and roach products provide the consumer with a product which can be used with confi- dence. They provide a controlled dosage, and are very directional in application. Current formulation efforts are directed towards developing more water-based formula- tions, evaluating new materials for insect control, and new ways to deliver a more effective product.

FLEA AND TICK INSECTICIDES The need for safe and effective products to kill dis-

ease-carrying fleas and ticks was established many years ago. In addition to the significant irritation created by the bites of these pests, major human illnesses such as bubonic plague, Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, Lyme disease and tularemia can also be transmitted by

FLYING INSECT KILLERS Flying insect killers are insecticide products which

are intended for use against flying pests, as a contact space spray. These insects include flies, mosquitoes, moths and gnats. Secondary use directions as crawling insect contact spray are usually included on the label. Some house and garden products have use directions on plants.

the late 1950s. The active ingredients are all contact insecticides which include the natural pyrethrum or syn- thetic pyrethroids. The products are used to either spray individual insects or to clear a room. In the latter case, the room is sprayed and then closed to allow the insects to come in contact with the spray.

Aerosol flying insecticides are today almost all wa- ter-based products. There are also a few “dry” formulas which contain a high level of propellant and/or solvent, and only a small amount of water. The ideal product for

Household flying insecticides were introduced in

I use in killing flying insects has a number of key proper- ties. Among those properties are: quick knockdown of flies and mosquitoes, the two most important fling in- sect pests; small particle size, which keeps particles in the air to clear rooms; low residue, with no mess at time of spraying; clean smell with no objectionable odor; and safe to use, leaving no residue, having low flammability and having low mammalian toxicity.

killers are direct spray tests and room clearing spray tests. Direct spray tests are conducted on all insects claimed on the product label. Simulated in-use tests are conducted by spraying individual or a small number of a specific insect, such as flies, and measuring how fast they are knocked down and killed. Room-clearing spray tests are conducted by placing the insect in a room, spraying for a few seconds, and measuring insect knockdown and kill after various lengths of time. Prod- ucts that are designed to be used on plant insects are tested by spraying plants designated on the label.

There are numerous diseases that can be spread by flying insects, and effective flying insect killers play a critical role in lessening the spread of diseases as well as providing a more comfortable home environment.

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Tests which are used to evaluate flying insect

FU NG IC1 D ES Homeowners who grow roses as a hobby or

even for those who have only a few rose bushes to decorate the garden are familiar with the three major fungus diseases of the rose-rust, powdery mildew, and black spot. Powdery mildew also attacks carna- tions, calendulas, dahlias, phlox, zinnias, and many other annual plants. In many areas of the country, dollar spot, leaf spot, melting out, brown patch, cop- per spot, and rust are well established lawn pests. Fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals cannot be grown in many areas without the help of a protective fungici- dal treatment. The use of curative applications of a fungicide product will stop the spread and further damage of the fungus organism.

The commonly used synthetic fungicides in use today are designed to control organisms that are con- tacted by the spray and also prevent the spread of the disease to unaffected foliage or fruit. Preventative appli- cations can be made to plants known to have had fun- gus problems in past growing seasons, thus stopping the disease-causing organisms before they can become established and cause further damage.

Some of the newer fungicide chemicals are locally

systemic, thus providing internal protection to the plant. The systemic materials also provide protection which cannot be washed off by rainfall or irrigation. These products are not persistent and must be applied on a schedule provided by the label directions to achieve complete control.

to protect valuable landscape plants or fruits and veg- etables which may be susceptible to a wide range of pathogens which could not be controlled except by the use of chemicals.

Lawn and garden fungicides allow the homeowner

HERBICIDES Weeds in the lawn are more than an unsightly nui-

sance. They compete with the lawn grasses for water and nutrients, and can attract annoying insects. Weeds in the vegetable garden also compete with your vegeta- bles for nutrients and water. Weeds around storage buildings or around the home can be a source of harborage for mice, rats, spiders, and other pests. Weeds such as poison ivy and poison oak can cause serious skin rashes and irritation.

There are herbicides which can be sprayed on a grass lawn infested with broadleaf weeds which will se- lectively kill the broadleaf weeds such as dandelions, clover, and plantains. There are herbicide products which can be applied before the weed seeds germinate and actually prevent weeds from growing. There are aerosol and ready to use trigger spray applicators which are used to apply selective herbicides for these uses.

izer and broadleaf weed killers so that a single applica- tion will supply needed nutrients and kill broadleaf weeds with only one application. There are also liquid products which are applied with disposable hose end sprayers. There are liquid herbicide products without fertilizer, also available in a hose-end sprayer that is disposable when empty. These applicator systems ap- peal to people who are looking for fast and convenient methods of dealing with weed problems.

There are contact, non-selective weed killers which are available as concentrates to be diiuted and sprayed in a tank sprayer or in a hose end sprayer. Non-selective herbicides will kill all vegetation contacted by the spray. Uses include vegetation control around sheds, buildings, and walkways. There are also non-selective products available for killing brushy weeds such as poison oak, poison ivy, wild berry vines and other unwanted vegetation.

There are granular products which contain fertil-

There are ready-to-use products which are sold in trigger spray bottles for controlling grassy weeds which infest ground covers, evergreens, and other ornamen- tals. These grass killers selectively control the grass without harming the desirable ornamental plants. There are other selective grass killers used to control crabgrass, nutgrass, foxtails, and other weeds in most major turf grasses.

Most herbicides are designed to control the target weeds and then degrade. There are some herbicide products which provide longer term control and preven- tion of regrowth.

INDOOR INSECT FOGGERS Indoor foggers are insecticide products that are

designed to release all of their contents as a fog or mist, into household indoor areas during a single appli- cation. Foggers are designed to treat all areas of a home or room. The actuator is locked into position and the person then leaves the home. The insecticides in foggers usually contain a flushing material to drive the insects out into the open. The particles in the air then fall on the insects.

Most foggers require the user to keep the home closed for two to three hours. Formulations are evolving from solvent-based synergized pyrethrum to water-based synergized pyrethrum and synthetic pyrethroids. Some of today’s products also contain insect growth regulators that prevent juvenile insects from becoming adults.

In general, insecticide foggers are used for severe insect problems. Small roaches, large roaches, ants and fleas are the most common insects that foggers are used against. The foggers are used two to three times per year and average usage per treatment is three to four cans. Foggers are used in almost all rooms of the house, but the highest usage areas are the kitchen, living room, and bedrooms.

Foggers are labeled to treat a certain size area in the home. These areas usually range from 2,400 cubic feet to 6,000 cubic feet of unobstructed space. Labora- tory tests are designed to simulate in-home use. Test chambers of various size are used to test insects. The insects are usually confined to a cage where the fogger particles can contact the insects. Measurements of flush- ing, knockdown, kill and residual activity can be made.

driven from simulated harborages. Knockdown is a measure of how fast or how many insects are incapable of moving at a certain time after the

Flushing is a measure of how fast the insects are

treatment. Kill is simply the number of dead insects af- ter a certain amount of time. Residual activity is a mea- sure of how long the insecticide is active on various surfaces at some length of time after the product has been discharged. Other testing conducted on foggers would include actual in-home use of the foggers, con- ducted either by scientists or actual fogger consumers.

Indoor insect foggers provide consumers with an effective alternative to professional pest control treat- ments. They therefore save consumers millions of dol- lars each year while protecting homes from insect in- festations and the diseases they can carry.

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LAWN AND GARDEN PESTICIDES A beautiful yard adds value to the property and,

according to a recent real estate survey, mature trees can add up to $10,000 to the value of a home. A beau- tiful yard also provides relaxation for the person who maintains it. Most avid gardeners do not see maintenance as a chore, but as relaxation.

A beautiful yard requires planning, careful plant selection, and mostly, diligent maintenance. Lawn and garden pesticides are an extremely important part of the maintenance factor in achieving a truly beautiful landscape. Why are lawn and garden pesticides impor- tant if one has taken great care in selecting plants for the landscape? Even native species of grasses, shrubs, and ornamentals are not free of pests such as fungus organisms, insects, weeds, snails or slugs.

Lawn and garden pesticides include the weed killers that can be used to selectively kill broadleaf weeds such as dandelions and plantains in grass lawns and that prevent the germination of weeds and unwanted grasses in the lawn. They also include the weed killers that are used to kill emerged weeds in an- nual flower beds and vegetable gardens. These prod- ucts eliminate tiresome hand weeding and provide uni- form, certain results.

The term “pesticides” also includes the fungicide products which control mildew, rust, black spon, and a multitude of other diseases which affect the foliage of grasses, annual flowers, vegetables, shrubs, and trees. Insecticides, however, are the most prominent type of lawn and garden pesticide, and are designed to control hundreds of different insect pests. In some areas of the United States, soil inhabiting microscopic worms called nematodes cause plants to be stunted and not produce a usable crop of vegetables. Similarly, mollusks such as slugs and snails can strip transplants of foliage overnight.

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! Certainly there may be alternatives to the use of a

few lawn and garden pesticides, but the majority of pests encountered in the home lawn and garden are best controlled by the careful use of lawn and garden pesticides, which must be registered with the U.S. EPA and the states before they can be sold. This registration means that the manufacturer has met the data needs of the regulatory agencies, and that EPA has approved the formula and label of the product, including precau- tionary statements and use directions. If the label direc- tions are followed, the user and the environment will not be harmed.

MOTH CONTROL PRODUCTS

vapors into the air which will repel moths from garment storage areas and sometimes even kill adult and larval moths, as well as inhibit egg-laying behavior. The pri- mary objective for consumers, of course, is to protect natural fiber garments, rugs, and other fabrics against damage from moths. The larval or worm-like stage of the clothes moths is the life-stage of the insect which does the damage to the fabric.

Chemicals such as p-dichlorobenzene, naphtha- lene, essential oils such as cedar oil, and synthetic in- secticides, are used in moth control products. While it is commonly believed that materials such as p-dichloro- benzene and naphthalene (sold in blocks, balls and crystals) will repel clothes moths, their actual utility is a fumigation effect that kills the insect. These two materi- als will not keep moths from laying eggs. However, heavy concentrations in enclosed containers that are practically airtight can keep the larvae from feeding, and death can result through starvation or the toxic ef- fect of the fumigants. Sprays which are applied directly to fabrics contain active ingredients such as resmethrin, permethrin, pyrethrum, or perthane.

Moth control is especially important for wool, as well as other natural fabrics that are subject to moth in- festations. Moth control products allow consumers to protect their clothing and other natural fabrics even when being stored for long periods.

Moth control products are usually designed to emit

PERSONAL INSECT REPELLENTS A personal insect repellent is designed to be

applied on human skin, hair, or attire worn on hu- mans in order to prevent contact with or repel biting insects and pests. The most common repellent is

N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide, commonly referred to as DEET. Products containing DEET are used primar- ily for repelling mosquitoes. Other insects repelled include gnats, deer flies, sad flies, no-see-ums, sta- ble flies, black flies, ticks, chiggers, and fleas. Forms of repellents found in the marketplace include aerosols, pumps, liquids, lotions,

leading forms by sales volume.

Repellent products are useful in various occupations to repel insects so that work can be performed, for exam- ple by a forester. They are also used in leisure and recre- ation activities to protect from annoying insects at picnics, while playing golf, and in back yards. A very important us- age is in the prevention of disease. Repellent is used to protect against transmission of diseases carried by insects such as Lyme disease by ticks, as well as various diseases transmitted by mosquitoes.

Various forms and concentrations for insect repel- lent products are available. Consumers should select the product best suited for their activity and location. Aerosol and pump spray products are generally preferred for treating clothing, as well as for skin appli- cations. Liquid, cream, lotion and stick products may be used for more precise skin application.

Lower concentration DEET products are appropri- ate for most situations where insect exposure is mini- mal. Higher concentration products give increased pro- tection which may be particularly useful in highly infested areas or to those individuals more prone to in- sect bites. In addition, some species of insects and ticks are more difficult to repel and many require a higher concentration product for effectiveness. Higher concentrations also provide longer-lasting protection for lengthy exposure periods where reapplication may be inconvenient or impractical.

Personal repellents are tested in the laboratory, in the field, and by end users. Laboratory tests are usually conducted with caged insects. The repellents are ap- plied to the forearms which are then exposed to the in- sects at various times. When a certain number of bites occur, the test is terminated and the time of protection is established. The annoyance caused by insects varies by region, time of the day, time of the year, and many other factors.

Field tests are often conducted to determine the duration of protection for all of the insects claimed on a repellent label. Consumer field tests are often conducted in various regions of the country to get their opinion of the product. The purpose is to evaluate all

towelettes, and sticks. Aerosols and pumps are the -.

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aspects of a product in a home environment. This is the only method permitting direct evaluation by consumers.

Today’s personal insect repellents play an im- portant role in protecting consumers from the annoy- ance of biting insects, and the many diseases they carry.

PET PRODUCTS Currently there are well over one hundred million

dogs and cats in the United States, in addition to the many fish, birds, reptiles and other exotic pets. Pets can harbor various pests (fleas, ticks, lice, mites) which if untreated can pose serious health threats to the pets themselves and the humans they contact. The goal of pesticide use in pet products is to eliminate the individ- ual pest without any adverse impact on the treated pet, its owner, or the environment.

Pesticide-containing pet products are available in many different forms to allow safety and convenience. Insecticide pump sprays, aerosol sprays, powders, soaps, shampoos, dips, and collars have been thoroughly tested for both safety and effectiveness prior to market introduction. Active ingredients commonly used include pyrethrum, pyrethroids, carbamates, organophosphates and insect growth regulators which work in very small amounts to kill pests upon direct contact. Pet products are formulated to provide the necessary amount of insecticide when and where it is needed. All products have labels giving precise direc- tions for use and proper disposal instructions.

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RODENTICIDES Rats and mice are dangerous both to humans and

to property. They can chew through insulation and elec- trical wiring, causing fires. (Some experts estimate up to 25% of farm fires of unknown origin are caused by rats.) These pests also contaminate food, and are re- sponsible for spreading 35 known diseases, including typhus and bubonic plague.

Rodenticides have been used for hundreds of years. Until relatively recently, severe poisons such as arsenic, strychnine or rapid-acting plant poisons were used in various parts of the world. But all of these poi- sons share the same basic characteristics, the same dangers, and the same shortcomings, and are not very effective rodenticides. When rats or mice die quickly and violently after eating a rodenticide, the remainder of the population quickly associates the deaths with the

location, taste and odor of the bait, and will refuse to eat it themselves. They become “bait shy.”

When warfarin was developed, it became the standard active ingredient in rodenticides throughout the world, and made real control of rat populations pos- sible for the first time. Warfarin is an anticoagulant that works by preventing the blood from clotting. It prevents enzymes that recycle Vitamin K from converting prothrombin to thrombin in order to form a clot, and the rodent becomes susceptible to internal bleeding.

More recently, new anticoagulants have been de- veloped that can kill in a single dose. Brodifacoum and bromadiolone are two such successors to warfarin. As with warfarin, brodifacoum blocks the enzyme that re- cycles Vitamin K. The body supplies of Vitamin K are thus depleted over a three-to-four-day period and the animal dies from bleeding.

Rodenticides come in a number of forms, includ- ing wax bait blocks, grain baits and pellets. As with any EPA-registered pesticide, rodenticides must go through efficacy, toxicity and stability test evaluation in order to be sold. Based on the results of these tests, labeling is required so that the products can be used to provide their valuable public health benefits and disposed of effectively and safely.

WASP AND HORNET INSECTICIDES Each year, more than fifteen thousand people re-

ceive stings from bees, wasps or hornets that are seri- ous enough to require calling their poison control cen- ter, and each year some fatal or near-fatal incidences are recorded.

Wasps, bees, and hornets differ from most other flying insects found around households in that they are capable of inflicting a painful and potentially dangerous sting. The most effective way of eliminating these pests is to destroy them and their nests at the same time. Aerosol sprays have been developed that produce forceful streams that can be projected safely from sev- eral yards away.

The traditional formulation contains active ingredi- ents that kill on contact or that volatilize quickly and act through the insects’ respiratory and nervous systems. The carrier is usually a solvent that does not conduct electricity, making the product usable around electrical equipment and wires. (These products are also used by telephone and electrical line repairmen to kill nests on utility poles.)

When the entire colony of insects is in its nest at night it is most vulnerable to eradication by the application of this type of product. Any insects that escape will be disoriented and less dangerous.

both safety and efficacy. Products must be carefully de- signed to assure quick knock-down and avoid attacks on users by unkilled bees, wasps and hornets. Wasp and hornet sprays play a vital role in helping consumers enjoy the outdoors safely. Wasp and hornet sprays are carefully tested for

GLOSSARY abrasive-an ingredient whose purpose is to help a product physi- cally abrade a surface; usually a fine, hard powder. acids-chemical compounds that lower the pH of water-based so- lutions; the opposite of bases. acute toxicity-the rapid onset of an adverse effect from a single exposure. aerosol-a small particle of a liquid or solid suspended in a gas. aerosol product-a pressurized, self-dispensing product form used for a wide variety of chemical specialty products. alcohols-a class of organic compounds containing a hydroxyl (OH) group; common examples are ethanol (the alcohol in alcoholic beverages), isopropanol (rubbing alcohol), and methanol (wood alcohol). a l kal ies-see bases. anionic-a substance that forms anions, negatively-charged species, in water solution. bases-chemical compounds that raise the pH of water-based so- lutions; the opposite of acids. biodegradation-the process by which complex organic compounds are broken down into simpler compounds by microor- ganisms in the environment. builder-leaner ingredient that assists cleaning by resisting hard water, adjusting pH, and keeping soils suspended. cationic-a substance that forms cations, positively-charged species, in water solution. caustic-able to burn or corrode by chemical action. chemicals-all of the solids, liquids and gases that are formed from elements or compounds of those elements; all matter at or above the atomic level. chemical reactions-interactions between elements and/or com- pounds that form different elements and/or compounds. chemical specialties-formulated chemical products designed to accomplish specific tasks. child-resistant closures/packaging+hemical specialties con- tainers designed to be difficult to open for children, used to deter accidental ingestion. chlorocarbons-a class of chemical compounds composed of car- bon, hydrogen and chlorine; also called chlorinated hydrocarbons.

chlorofluorocarbonsompounds composed of carbon, chlorine and fluorine, and containing no hydrogen; currently used as refriger- ants, formerly used as aerosol propellants. chronic toxicity-the slow or delayed onset of an adverse effect, usually from multiple, long-term exposures. compounds-hemical substances that are composed of mole- cules containing specific arrangements of elements held together by chemical bonds. disinfectants-products approved by EPA as capable of eliminat- ing harmful bacteria. efficacy-how well a chemical specialty performs its various tasks and functions. elements-the 106 basic building blocks of which all chemical sub- stances are formed, each element is composed of a certain number of protons and electrons, plus neutrons. emulsion-a stable mixture or two or more liquids that are not mu- tually soluble in each other, usually formed through the use of sur- factants that are called “emulsifiers.” enzyme-a protein that acts to increase the rate of specific chemi- cal reactions without itself being changed; enzymes are key to the cell chemistry of all living organisms. fats-a family of non-water soluble chemical substances composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, often of biological origin; fats are in the same chemical class as oils, but are solids instead of liquids at room temperature. gases-hemical substances with no fixed volume or shape; gases become liquids or solids when subjected to high pressure. glycols-a class of organic compounds with two hydroxyl (OH) groups per molecule. (See also alcohols.) hydrocarbons-large class of chemical compounds composed solely of carbon and hydrogen. inorganic+hemical compounds containing no carbon, plus a few carbon-containing compounds, such as carbon dioxide, carbides and carbonates. ionic-a chemical compound that creates separate positively- or negatively-charged species (ions) in water solution. kerosene-a petroleum distillation fraction containing a mixture of hydrocarbons and related compounds that is less volatile than gasoline but more volatile than motor oil.

liquids--chemical substances that have a fixed volume but no fixed shape; they can therefore be poured, but not easily compressed. (See also solids, gases.) metals-a large class of chemical elements that forms positive ions when its compounds are in solution and whose oxides form hydrox- ides instead of acids in water; about three quarters of the known chemical elements are classified as metals. mixture-two or more chemical substances combined together but not uniformly dispersed at the molecular level. molecule-a group of atoms joined together by chemical bonds; the smallest unit of a chemical compound. nonionic-a chemical compound that does not create separate positively- or negatively-charged species (ions) in water solution. oils-a family of non-water soluble chemical substances composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, often of biological origin; oils are in the same chemical class as fats, but are liquids instead of solids at room temperature. organic-hemical compounds containing carbon, with the excep- tion of a few carbon-containing compounds, such as carbon diox- ide, carbides and carbonates. oxidation-a class of chemical reactions that usually results in the addition of oxygen; the opposite of reduction. pesticide-a product that kills, repels or otherwise mitigates any pest; the legal definition includes a wide variety of products, includ- ing insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, disinfectants and sanitizers. petroleum distillate-mixtures of chemical compounds derived from the distillation of petroleum; usually characterized according to the range of boiling points between which they were distilled. polar-compounds with electrical charge unevenly distributed so that one side is positive and the other negative; non-polar compounds have their electrical charge distributed evenly around the molecule.

polish-a product used to beautify and protect a surface by remov- ing surface materials and/or applying a protecting layer to the sur- face. polymers-a broad class of chemical compounds composed of repeating series of one or more chemical units called monomers. propellant-the compressed or liquefied gas in an aerosol product that serves to pressurize the container, and usually also serves as a solvent. proteins-naturally-occurring polymers composed of monomers called amino acids. salt-a class of chemical compounds that are formed when the hydrogen in an acid is replaced by a metal, usually occurring when an acid and a base react and are neutralized. sanitizer-a product whose use lowers the amounts of harmful bacteria to safe levels. solid-chemical substances that have fixed volume and shape; includes powders, granules, crystals, and other such forms. solution-a mixture of a solid or liquid in another solid or liquid that is uniformly dispersed at the molecular level. solvent-a liquid that can serve to bring other chemical substances into solution. surfactant-surface active agent; a chemical compound with both polar and non-polar characteristics that can help bring polar and non-polar substances into common solutions or emulsions. synthetic-a chemical compound or mixture manufactured through chemical reactions which result in creating different compounds than the starting materials. toxicity-the ability to cause an adverse effect on an organism at a given dose and route of exposure. wax-a mixture of water-insoluble organic compounds (usually mostly long-chain hydrocarbons) that is solid a room temperature but melts at low temperatures.

Additional copies of this booklet are available for $5.00 each from:

The Chemical Specialties Manufacturers Association, Inc. .

1913 Eye Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20006

(202) 872-81 10.

Bulk quantity rates are also available; please inquire.

Copyright 1992 Chemical Specialties Manufacturers Association, Inc.

S m a Chemical Specialties Manufacturers Association

1913 Eye Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20006 Phone (202) 872-81 10 Fax: (202) 872-81 14

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