The complexity of language teachers’ beliefs and practice: one EFL teacher’s theories Li Li

The complexity of language teachers’ The complexity of language teachers’ beliefs and practice: one EFL teacher’s beliefs and practice: one EFL teacher’s

theories theories

Li Li

Since 1990s, there has been a surge of interest in the study of language teacher cognition – what language teachers know, think and believe.

• The special edition of System (2011)• flourish of over 600 publications

The development of teacher cognition:

The development of teacher cognition:

And it has changed from a relatively new and undeveloped area to an important and well-researched field of inquiry in understanding classroom instruction, pedagogical effectiveness and teacher development.

One strand of research focuses on the relationships between what teachers know and believe and how they practice in teaching.

The relationship between beliefs and practice (1)Contradictory view

beliefs play a central role in teachers’ decisions, judgments and behaviour. In particular, teachers’ beliefs heavily influence:• pedagogical decision making (Borg 2003, 2006; Farrell and Kun, 2008; Golombek 1998; Johnson 1994; Ng and Farrell 2003; Pajares 1992)•the acceptance and uptake of new approaches, techniques and classroom activities (Donaghue 2003; Li 2008)•choice of the subjects and evaluation in the classrooms (Borg 2001)beliefs ‘affect everything that they [teachers] do in the classroom’ (Williams and Burden 1997: 56–57).

• Beliefs are seen to be the strongest factors through which we can predict teaching behaviour (Pajares, 1992).

The relationship between beliefs and practice (2)Contradictory view

However, a great deal of empirical evidence has also suggested that there exists inconsistency, mismatches and discrepancies between teachers’ beliefs and their practices (e.g. Basturkmen, Loewen, and Ellis 2004; Farrell and Kun 2008; Feryok 2008; Lee 2009; Nishino 2008; Orafi and Borg 2009; Phipps and Borg 2009).

Speer (2005) argues that methods and research designs might cause the inconsistency of teachers’ beliefs and actions: shard understanding

The relationship between beliefs and practice (3)Influential factors

The contextual factors so far is still most widely recognized factor accounting for the discrepancy between teacher cognition and classroom practice •Student: (Shavelson & Stern, 1981); •school culture and its norms and recognized values (Davis, 2003; Li, 2008; Sato & Kleinsasser, 2004).

• at a theoretical level, much of this work has been conducted from a cognitive perspective, viewing beliefs as fixed assumptions, representing teachers’ mental lives. In this tradition, research tends to focus on the realm of reality inside teachers’ heads. However, it might not be appropriate to view beliefs from a single theoretical stance because a cognitive-based perspective ignores the contexts and interactive nature of teachers’ daily work in classrooms.

The relationship between beliefs and practice (4)Three observations

there is still a lack of similar parallel research with NNEST (Non-native English speaker teachers) in teachers’ beliefs and practices.

• methodologically, research so far has mainly involved elicitation of teachers’ perceptions using questionnaires and interviews, in order to compare with their classroom activities generally. The precise connections between teachers’ beliefs and specific practices are rarely examined in any detailed manner.

The relationship between beliefs and practice (4)Three observations

• Takes an interactionist perspective of beliefs (Skott, 2001) and theories of action (Argyris and Schön 1974) to understand the relationship between beliefs and practice

• Adopts a detailed case study approach (interview, classroom interaction and teacher reflection)

• Situates in an EFL context (an experienced teacher working in a prestigious school)

So this study…

An interactionist’s perspective of beliefs

– beliefs as ‘entities that may be transformed or even emerge in and as a result of his or her interactions with students’ (Skott, 2001).

– This perspective challenges the sole determinant role of beliefs in shaping classroom practices.

Theories of action

• espoused theories; concerned with what people give allegiance to and communicate to others (beliefs)

• theories-in-use, which govern what people do (practice)

Argyris (1980) makes the case that these two theories may or may not match and the individual may or may not be aware of the mismatch. If these two theories are compatible in any particular instance, this leads to a better understanding of an actor’s intentions, actions and consequences. However, when a gap is noticed between these two theories, seeking a connection creates a dynamic for reflection and dialogue – to gain insights from the teacher.

A case study

Context and participant

2004-2010


• Yuan had 26 years teaching experience (2005)• working in one of the best state secondary schools in Beijing• one of the first expert teachers in the city. • Diploma in TEFL and a BA in ELT. • had worked in different types of schools and witnessed the

transformation of pedagogy from translation methods to CLT• ongoing professional development activities, such as an

overseas training course and overseas visits


• Yuan’s class had 43 students, a common class size in Beijing. • Students were aged 16-17 and this was the students’ fifth

year of formal instruction in English as a foreign language. • Yuan had been teaching them for almost two years and in the

following year, students take the National College Entrance Test (NCET), GaoKao.

• The students’ English level was between intermediate and upper intermediate.

Data collection Research focus Data elicitation and collection

Beliefs Semi-structured interviews

Classroom practice Video-recording and transcription of classroom interaction

Participant’s insights into the relationship between beliefs and practice

Video-clip based stimulated comment procedure

Two interviews, with the first one focusing on the macro-context and the second on himself as a teacher and the development of his pedagogical beliefs.

four 45-minute lessons of 180 minutes in total. The unit had the topic ‘How English people celebrate Christmas’ and the classroom interaction data was from the first lesson of the unit.

playback of the selected stretches of interaction and Yuan’s interpretation and understanding of what was happening.

Data collection

Interviews: 3C approach (Lichtman 2009): coding, categorizing and concept-emerging. Data then were categorized by clustering units representing a teacher’s set of beliefs (see Speer 2008), which are a small group of related beliefs that, in combination, describe a teacher’s perspective on a particular topic: enhancing communicative abilities’ across belief categories

Interviews: 3C approach (Lichtman 2009): coding, categorizing and concept-emerging. Data then were categorized by clustering units representing a teacher’s set of beliefs (see Speer 2008), which are a small group of related beliefs that, in combination, describe a teacher’s perspective on a particular topic: enhancing communicative abilities’ across belief categories

Interactional data: detailed transcriptions of verbal and non-verbal behaviours were made subject to micro-level analysisInteractional data: detailed transcriptions of verbal and non-verbal behaviours were made subject to micro-level analysis

Yuan’s comments: Yuan’s interpretations and reflections on specific episodes are used to reflect insights of teachers’ perspectives

Yuan’s comments: Yuan’s interpretations and reflections on specific episodes are used to reflect insights of teachers’ perspectives

Data analysis

A collection of Yuan’s beliefs about ‘enhancing communicative abilities’

Teaching Learning Subject Student TeacherTeaching should focus on enhancing communicative skills by using authentic materials, using personal experience and helping students to be independent.

Learning is to making sense how language works through participation, collaboration and interaction.

English is a tool to communicate. Culture is an important part of language learning.

Students should be contributing to the class actively and should be one of the knowledge sources. Peer feedback is important.

The teacher is not the only source of knowledge, should play different roles in teaching.The teacher should facilitate classroom discussion.

communicative ability lies at the heart of Yuan’s theories

Communicative ability is of the utmost important for a language learner, and teaching and learning is all about enhancing communicative skills (Interview 1, Extract 1)


Methods and materials:

I use a communicative approach in my teaching… I use authentic materials and tasks (e.g. personal experience) to coach students to communicate in the target language…to ‘talk’ in context. The focus is on the learning process. (Interview 2, Extract 1)


Influence of the context

• Most of my students now learn English for their future needs, for example, to go abroad to study or travel, and without communication skills, they can’t do anything as English is the world language now. (Interview 1, Extract 2)

• I didn’t know how to order food when I visited abroad for the first time and it made me realize what’s the real purpose of learning a language. (Interview 2, Extract 2)

• memorization and translation are the most effective ways to learn but today, language is a tool to communicate rather than a subject because it opens a door to another culture and it’s a bridge to enter another community’ (Interview 1, Extract 3


expectations for learners

• It’s important for students to get involved, in different forms, for example, pair work, group work and individual work. I like to give students opportunities to speak because they can have very good points sometimes. It’s not about saying a correct sentence; it’s more about the topic, and speaking opportunities. (Interview 2, Extract 3)

• ‘students should contribute to the class actively’, ‘opening students’ mouths’ (Interview 2, Extract 4).


expectations for the teacher

• The only but most challenging thing is that I have to play different roles, rather than being a knowledge provider or instructor, I need to be a guide, a facilitator, an organiser, or a participant, an observer, a critical friend. (Interview 2, Extract 5)

• I do feel challenged, every minute, every second. You know, many students do know more than me in many aspects. And I am learning to switch from ‘PPP’ to ‘CLT’ and on top of that, our textbooks have changed so much in recent years. (Interview 2, Extract 6)

Convergence: Yuan does what he believes 1 Y ((clapping his hands))(.)Ok! 2 (5.0)3 can some group give me some information about how er (.) 4 English people spend their Christmas (.) and er (.) what er 5 is your discussion if possible? 6 (2.1)7 NAME what about you? 8 S (10.0) 9 En (.)they all er (.)have a very (.)10 Y Sorry? I can’t hear you (.)louder please (.)they all have a 11 very what?=12 S =a delicious food=13 Y =oh delicious dinner right? yes? yes I am sure 14 (2.3)15 on Christmas Eve or er on Christmas Day?=16 S =Christmas eve=17 Y =on Christmas Eve? possible (.)what else? thank you

Yuan’s insights / understanding

• ‘students are all given opportunities to say something’ (Reflection, Extract 1)

• Yuan’s reflection upon this interactional exchange highlights two factors influencing his decision-making: the student’s character and level of experience and pedagogical goal.

Yuan’s insights / understanding: knowledge and experience

• His experience and knowledge about this particular student told him that the student was trying to avoid making mistakes by providing a minimal contribution. Yuan was not very satisfied with the student’s brief contributions, so his strategy was to elicit more talk by ‘asking further questions and push her if necessary’ (Reflection, Extract 2).

• Students usually feel embarrassed to speak publicly and the reason that I interrupted students was to slow down the pace to ease the student. It’s more conversation-like rather than a Q and A. The point is me being in the middle of the conversation can encourage the student to stay in this conversation. (Reflection, Extract 3)

Yuan’s insights / understanding: pedagogical goal

• The purpose of this activity was to ‘open students’ mouths and let them contribute to the content’ (Reflection, Extract 4)..

• He considered embedded error correction (note in line 13, he reformulated the student’s contribution to ‘dinner’) ‘a useful approach to establish an equal relationship and reduce anxiety in classroom to create a relaxing learning environment’ (Reflection, Extract 5).

Divergence: Yuan does opposite what he believes

1 S the great writer er=2 Y =the great writer (.)oh (.)who? 3 S ((2 unintelligible))4 Y Hhhh (.) this kind of thing happens(.)Charles Dickens 5 right? Charles Dickens (.)yes (.)what are you going to say?

6 S the Christmas (.)7 Y the Christmas carol right? (.) well I understand for some 8 new words you don’t know how to pronounce (.) you need to

9 pay attention to pronunciation using dictionary to see how

10 to can pronounce for some words (.)I am not sure (.)for

11 example 那叫什么 Chinese ((what’s that called)) 12 S ((2 unintelligible))13 Y xie ji sheng… are you sure? xie! xie xie Chinese I mean

((mistletoe))14 Chinese pronunciation 15 S Xie 16 Y are you sure? xie ji sheng 是吗 (.) 还是还是念别的 ((looking

((right?))((or it’s pronounced as something else?))17 at one student’s book)) 有人说念 xie 反正 Chinese (.)right?

((some people pronounce it)) ((anyway))17 a kind of plant thanks you (.) 18 NAME mentioned some information very important even the

19 great writer Charles Dickens and he loves Christmas so

20 much right? Ok 21 (1.2)22 and er by the way do you happen to know any other besides

23 Christmas carols any other written by this great writer?

24 (1.2)25 yes! for example? 著作 ((works))26 Y (6.0)27 who can you remember who can think of any book written by

28 this great writer? you have to know something right? 29 Charles Dickens so famous a writer!30 (2.3)31 oh what is Chinese? Dickens!!! Dickens


• Yuan acknowledged the tension between what he planned and what actually he did, and described this ‘moving away’ from task as an interactive decision he had to make in that situation.

• Yuan’s reflection upon this interactional exchange highlights three factors influencing his decision-making: priority of educational goals, subject content knowledge and self-preceived responsibility.


First of all, it is important for students to have correct pronunciation particularly for those students who will have to take the oral test for college entrance exam. And if I can categorize my educational goals, then improving their linguistic knowledge (e.g. pronunciation) is a short-term goal while enhancing communicative abilities would be counted as a long-term goal. Short-term goal always gets priority… (Reflection, Extract 6)

Second, there is no need to go on and on to discuss details of Christmas Carol and mistletoe [another topic that was brought up by a student that Yuan chose to neglect for further discussion] because partially I couldn’t comment on this student’s contribution as I don’t know much about this myself [laughs embarrassedly] and partially I need to provide some useful knowledge to students to make them feel they’ve learnt something from me. (Reflection, Extract 7)

Conclusion

1. we cannot simply say whether a teacher’s espoused theories are in alignment or in contrast with his or her classroom practice; evidence of both is to be found in what a teacher says and does even regarding one aspect of his beliefs in one lesson. There is no strict one-to-one relationship between espoused theories and classroom practice.

I believe in A but in class I sometimes do A and I sometimes do B.

Conclusion

2. teachers’ theories are conceptualized in a given environment and contextualized by this environment. • Yuan’s espoused theories are developed and shaped

by student future needs, his personal experience, the status of English and his understanding of the function of language. These macro-contexts might guide overarching pedagogy and instructional activities

• the classroom micro-contexts – the moment-to-moment variables shaped what Yuan did in this particular lesson. The relationship between teachers’ espoused theories and classroom practices is one outcome of interactions with the students.

Conclusion

3. methodologically, this study suggests that in order to understand the exact relationship between beliefs and practice, a fine-grained analysis of teacher behaviour through interaction and teacher insights into the reasons underlying decision-making is important. It highlights the need to situate beliefs in social acts.

Only by considering a detailed analysis of his classroom interaction with students and the rationale behind this, can we understand whether and why he did A or B.

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The complexity of language teachers’ beliefs and practice: one EFL teacher’s theories Li Li