The Compilation and Publication of the Taiping yulan and the … · 2014. 10. 11. · (Taiping guangji), and the Imperial Digest (Taiping yulan), two leishu, or encyclopedias, in

Johannes L. Kurz

The Compilation and Publication of the Taiping yulan and theCefu yuanguiIn: Extrême-Orient, Extrême-Occident. 2007, N°1, pp. 39-76.

Citer ce document / Cite this document :

L. Kurz Johannes. The Compilation and Publication of the Taiping yulan and the Cefu yuangui. In: Extrême-Orient, Extrême-Occident. 2007, N°1, pp. 39-76.

doi : 10.3406/oroc.2007.1069

http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/oroc_0754-5010_2007_hos_1_1_1069

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RésuméCompilation et publication du Taiping yulan et du Cefu yuanguiCet article porte sur deux encyclopédies réalisées sur ordre impérial au début des Song du Nord.Écrites dans des contextes différents, elles montrent d'abord combien les compilateurs étaient libres decréer de nouvelles encyclopédies. Elles révèlent ensuite les conceptions différentes que les empereursavaient de ces ouvrages et de leurs fonctions. La première, Ce qu 'a examiné l'empereur pendant l'èrede la Grande paix, est générale, traitant de tous les phénomènes naturels et surnaturels du monde,tandis que les Modèles tirés des Archives, compilée seulement trente ans plus tard, est un manuel pourle gouvernement, et donc limité aux affaires administratives. Les deux encyclopédies reflètent pourtantbien le contrôle que ces deux empereurs ont eu sur leurs fonctionnaires et l'intérêt qu'ils eurent àrecréer des traditions littéraires et érudites qui avaient été particulièrement mises à mal pendant lapériode chaotique précédant l'empire des Song en 960.

AbstractThe essay deals with two imperially sponsored encyclopedias of the early Northern Song. On the onehand, written under different premises, they show how flexible compilers were in creating newencyclopedias. On the other hand they also display the rather different understanding that emperorshad of the function of these works. The first one, the Imperial Digest of the Reign of Great Tranquility(Taiping yulan), was a more general work, dealing with all natural and supernatural phenomena in theknown world, whereas the Models from the Archives (Cefu yuangui), compiled just three decades later,was a handbook for government, and thus limited to administrative matters. Both encyclopedias reflectnevertheless the control the two emperors personally involved in the compilation of the two works hadover their scholar-officials and the interest they had in recreating literary and scholarly traditions thathad suffered in the chaotic period prior to the founding of the Song in 960.

Johannes L. Kurz

Extrême-Orient, Extrême-Occident, hors série - 2007

The Compilation and Publication of the Taiping yulan and the Cefu yuangui1

Johannes L. Kurz

Introduction

Emperor Taizu (r. 960-975), founder of the Song dynasty, spent his entire reign unifying the empire that had fallen apart beginning in the late ninth century. When emperor Taizong (r. 976-997) ascended the throne, various parts of the country still enjoyed semi-autonomy. During the first years of his rule, Taizong gained control of the last surviving kingdom of Wu-Yue in Zhejiang, and the important port cities of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou in Fujian, which had been ruled by a local warlord. However, simultaneously Taizong lost control over Jiaozhou, i.e. the northern part of modern Vietnam, which became part of the first Vietnamese empire under the Ly dynasty (1010-1225). With the successful unification of the country under one dynasty, Taizong was privileged to focus on the re-establishment of the cultural and literary traditions that had been neglected during the turbulent period of the Five Dynasties and Ten States (907-960). He ordered the compilation of a set of major works, namely the Extensive Records of the Reign of Great Tranquillity (Taiping guangji), and the Imperial Digest (Taiping yulan), two leishu, or encyclopedias, in 977, and a literary anthology titled the Finest Flowers of the Preserve of Letters (Wenyuan yinghua), in 982, which together with the Models from the Archives (Cefu yuangui) commissioned by his successor Zhenzong (r. 998-1022) in 1005, are referred to as the Four Great Books of the Song (Song sidashu).2

This article focuses on the Imperial Digest, a text that in the West has been either disregarded as an unimportant early Northern Song work, or used solely as a source for recreating and rediscovering otherwise lost Tang works.3 It is still considered a monument to Chinese traditional knowledge today, standing in a tradition of imperially commissioned works of the same nature, starting with The Emperor's Mirror (Huanglan) of the Wei dynasty (220-265).4

Johannes L. Kurz

Encyclopedias, or books arranged in categories, as the Chinese term literally translates, are of special interest to the researcher. As these works were regularly revised under successive dynasties from the Wei to the early Song, they provide information on the ways in which Chinese viewed the world at different times. They are also very useful for their insights into reading habits, as well as the acquisition and arrangement of knowledge. We will contrast the compilation of the Imperial Digest with that of the Outstanding Models, to see how the requirements for an encyclopedia varied even within the short span of two reigns.

The Sources

This essay draws on a variety of sources. The most important official source is the Official History of the Song (Songshi) which was submitted to the throne in 1345. In addition, privately compiled works have been used such as the Summary of Events in the Eastern Capital (Dongdu shiliie, 1186), a history of the Northern Song, that together with the Official History of the Song, provides biographical information on the compilers of the work. The Long Draft of the Continuation of the Mirror for Aid in Government (Xu Zizhi tongjian changbian, 1183), another privately compiled annalistic history of the Song covering the period from 960 to 1127 is useful for further details on the compilation process and dates. The contents of imperial libraries are described in catalogues, such as the General Catalogue of the Institute for the Veneration of Literature (Chongwen zongmu, compiled between 1034-1042) which is an inventory of the book stocks during the reign of emperor Renzong (r. 1022-1063). Fortunately, some catalogues of private collectors of Song times also survive, such as the Catalogue of the Suichu Pavilion (Suichutang shumu) of the 12th century, which is basically a book list; the Record of Books Perused at Jun Studio by Master Zhaode (Zhaode xiansheng Junzhai dushuzhi) from roughly the same period; and the Catalogue of Books with Explanatory Notes of the Zhi Studio (Zhizhai shulujieti), which gives detailed descriptions of the books it lists. The most important source though is the Historical Precedents from the Pavilion of the Unicorn (Lintai gushi) from the 12th century. This is a work written by Cheng Ju (1078-1144), himself a librarian, who collected information on various topics, such as the compilation of books, collecting policies of the Northern Song imperial library and so forth. Finally the Sea of Jades (Yuhai), a Southern Song encyclopedia compiled by Wang Yinglin (1223-1296), provides very useful and detailed information in its bibliographical treatise.

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The Compilation and Publication of the Taiping yulan and the Cefu yuangui

The Imperial Libraries

The collection of books, which in the early years of the Song were for the most part hand-written manuscripts, was an immensely important step in the establishment of the imperial libraries, as well as the institutions that were to engage in the compilation of the Four Great Books. It is therefore necessary to look more closely at the conditions of the imperial book collections from the end of the Tang (618-907) to the start of the Song dynasty.

The Tang imperial library, which originated in the early seventh century, suffered greatly in the turbulence created by the An Lushan Rebellion (755- 763).5 It was reduced further in size in the last decades of the Tang. During the Five Dynasties period, the rapid succession of short lived dynasties in northern China, combined with several shifts of the capital, added to the miserable state of the imperial library. When Taizong started his ambitious endeavor of recreating the literary traditions, his officials were faced with an imperial library collection unworthy of its name. Li Tao (1115-1184), author of the Long Draft of the Continuation of the Mirror for the Aid in Government (Xu Zizhi tongjian changbian, 1183), made the following remarks on the state of the imperial libraries in the early Northern Song:

At the start of the Jianlong era (960-962) the Three Institutes only contained a little more than 12.000 juan of books. After the pacification of the vassal states their plans and records were received [in the Three Institutes], with Shu and Jiangnan contributing the bulk of material. A total of 13.000 juan were received from Shu und more than 20.000 juan from Jiangnan.

An imperial order made the submission of [private] books possible. Consequently books from all over the country complemented those volumes that were no longer present in the Three Institutes, since the time when the Liang had made Bian[liang] (Kaifeng) their capital (907).

From the Zhenming era (915-920) until that time (960) the Three Institutes consisted of a small building of several rooms only, which was located to the northeast of the Right Changqing Gate.

It was quite low and small and hardly gave shelter from wind and rain. The huts for the guards were close by, patrols passed by its side, and the officers and troops of the guard produced noises from morning until evening. Every time the scholars received imperial orders to discuss and compile books, they had to move to another place, to be able to start working and consequentiy submit the books to the throne.

Soon after the ruler had ascended the throne, he inspected the place. He turned to his retinue and said: "Shall We really store the charts and records of the whole empire in this miserable place and invite here the imminently talented men from all corners of the state?" At once he ordered officials to establish the Three

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Institutes in the grounds of the old outbuilding to the northeast of the left Shenglong Gate.6

He ordered an imperial commissioner to supervise the artisans from early in the morning until late at night. All instructions even those on how to assemble the roof beams were based on plans that he himself had made. From the start of the construction until the finished building the officials close to the emperor repeatedly talked about its sublimity and splendour. On the first day of the second month, a bingchen day (March 13, 978), an imperial decree named it the Institute for the Veneration of Literature (Chongwenyuan).

In the western wing a side door was opened to give the emperor personal access. All books from the old building which were arranged in the eastern corridor of the Institute formed the collection of the Institute for the Glorification of Literature (Zhaowenguan). The books in the southern corridor belonged to the Academy of Scholarly Worthies (Jixianyuan), while the books in the western corridor arranged in four magazines and categorized according to the classics, histories, philosophers and belles-lettres, formed the collection of the Institute of Historiography (Shiguan). Original manuscripts as well as copies of books and records within these six archives totaled 80.000 juan.

Only this change made the Culture of the imperial book collection shine!7

We can see that the political chaos of the Five Dynasties was responsible for the rather small number of books taken over by the Song dynasty in 960. A lack of interest in books, literature and scholarship on the part of the rulers of that period was the main reason for the decline in book holdings. Moreover, the space provided led to complaints by officials working there that in turn prompted Taizong to have a look at the library himself. By providing new and spacious buildings, Taizong had a chance to display his patronage of the cultural heritage in the form of the written tradition, and to emphasize his civil orientation. The manifestation of his civil orientation was an important factor in propagating the change that had occurred on the throne since he took over from his brother. It also connected the new dynasty to the Tang dynasty, and set it apart from the preceding tumultuous interregnum of the Five Dynasties.

According to the entry in the Long Draft of the Continuation of the Mirror for the Aid in Government quoted above, the book collections were made accessible in new and larger buildings, only about a year after the compilation of the Imperial Digest and the Extensive Records had been ordered in 977. From the start of the dynasty not only officials, but also private households, some of which had rather large book stocks,8 had been asked to submit books to be copied for the libraries. In the early years of the dynasty the submission of even 1 juan, for instance, would guarantee the donor 1.000 copper cash, while official positions and salaries were offered for the submission of 300 or more juan.9 The contributions made by private persons to the library were

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especially important, because many books had just disappeared, having been 'borrowed' by officials and never returned.10 All books were stored in the Three Institutes until 988. In that year an Imperial Archive (bige) was established in the Institute for the Veneration of Literature, which was to hold all original manuscripts and prints. It also served as a store for old paintings and calligraphy.11 This centralization offered faster access to books and other materials, since until then, in the worst of all cases, a book had to be looked up in all the collections of the Three Institutes.

Officials were certainly in need of having complete and accessible collections for their work, and the emperor shared their anxieties. In order to be able to categorize the information found in the classics, histories, belles- lettres and philosophy, the material that contained it needed to be collected. And not only was it necessary to collect the books, but also to produce definitive editions. After all, scholarship had not been held in high regard in the period preceding the Song. Emperor Taizong was willing to invest the time and manpower that was needed for the reconstruction of the literary heritage that would link the new dynasty with the preceding legitimate dynasties since the Han. The production of encyclopedias was only one aspect of the enterprise, which included the publication of a national geographical work entitled Universal Geography of the Reign of Great Tranquillity (Taiping huanyuji, 987); the revision and printing of classical texts and their commentaries, such as the True Meaning of the Five Canons (Wujing zhengyi, 988-994); the translation of Buddhist texts beginning in 982; the revision and collection of Daoist works beginning in 990; the production of works containing medical prescriptions, such as the Prescriptions Compiled with Imperial Grace during the Reign of Great Tranquillity (Taiping shenghuifang, 992); the revision of histories, such as the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji, 91 B.C.), the History of the Former Han (Hanshu, 92 A.D.), and the History of the Later Han (Hou Hanshu, 445), beginning in 994; and so forth.

Once the book collections had been established, many positions for scholars and clerical staff were available. The three component institutes, namely the Institute for the Glorification of Literature, the Institute of Historiography, and the Academy of Scholarly Worthies, which together formed the Institute for the Veneration of Literature, engaged officials in various functions. The highest position in the Institute for the Glorification of Literature was that of Grand Academician,12 followed by that of Auxiliary Academician. The title Grand Academician was conferred as a merit title for high officials, while the real work was in fact under the responsibility of the Auxiliary Academician. The routine work of the Academicians consisted of the compilation of new texts as well as the revision of old texts. All Auxiliary

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Academicians were posted to the Institute from their regular jobs within the bureaucracy. The difference in the designations was due to the ranking of the officials, so that candidates of rank five and higher were made Grand Academicians, those ranked six and below were made Auxiliary Academicians. This hierarchization on the basis of the rank held is evident in the Institute for Historiography as well. The highest title was that of Chief Compiler of the Dynastic History, followed by Auxiliary Compiler and Compiler. These were assisted by Examining Editors and Subordinate Compilers.13 Similarly we find Grand Academicians in the Academy of Scholarly Worthies, who were supported by Academicians, Chief Compilers and Auxiliary Compilers, who in turn were assisted by editors. The Imperial Archive as the central library of the Three Institutes was staffed with more Auxiliary Academicians and Subeditors.

The Palace Library, by contrast, was a place especially but not exclusively designed for the collection and storage of books. The Palace Library was an agency within the imperial bureaucracy and was under the supervision of the Department of State Affairs. All posts within the Palace Library were sinecures for important members of the central administration, whereas in fact the actual work such as collating and revising texts was done by the officials working in the Institute for the Veneration of Literature. The Director, as well as the Vice-Director and the Assistant Director, dealt with matters relating to the National History (guoshi), the Classics, the Veritable Records and astronomical calculations. An Editor and two Assistant Editors were responsible for the compilation of the imperial calendar, while two Library Assistants were engaged in the classification of all written documents held in the Three Institutes and the Imperial Archive into the four traditional categories of the Classics (jing), Philosophers (zi), History (shi), and Belles- lettres (ji). Real editorial work such as the collation and correction of texts was the task of four Editors and two Proofreaders.14

The first director of the Institute for the Veneration of Literature in 988 was Li Zhi (947-1001), who was responsible for the selection of books to be housed there. He recommended the first editors Pan Shenxiu (937-1005),15 Du Hao (938-1013),16 Shu Ya (before 940-1009),17 and Wu Shu (947-1002),18 the latter two of whom worked on the compilation of the Imperial Digest.

The Compilation of the Imperial Digest of the Reign of Great Tranquillity

Taizong was a very communicative emperor, always eager to talk to his officials. A number of those discussions are still extant, among them one he had with Tian Xi (940-1004):19

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I want to have an outline that directs me in my rule, and I feel ashamed, that I do not possess profound knowledge of historical precedents. Since the days of old there have been works to be read by emperors (yulan), but their sections and categories are so numerous that they are difficult to peruse.20

This quote reflects Taizong's understanding of encyclopedias. Tian Xi did not respond directly to this offhand statement, but, instead, admonished the emperor to deal resolutely with the more urgent matters of the campaign against the Northern Han and the suppression of the rebellion in Vietnam (980).21 Both events date later than the start of the compilation of the Imperial Digest in 977 which makes the historical accuracy of the anecdote doubtful. However, the episode refers to the use of a digest of historical sources as a tool in practical government and to an established tradition of imperial sponsorship of such works.

The work that traditionally is rated the first imperially commissioned encyclopedia is the The Emperor's Mirror, dating from 220. Cao Pi, first emperor of the Wei dynasty (r. 220-226), ordered the compilation of the work upon his accession to the throne. He wanted his officials to collect all the classical philosophical texts and their commentaries, and to arrange them in 'successive categories' (suilei xiangcong). The final book consisted of more than forty categories, all of which were composed of dozens of subcategories. The precedent set by The Emperor's Mirror was followed in the Sui and the Tang dynasties, through the Song, and to the Grand Encyclopedia of the Yongle Era (Yongle dadian) of the Ming, and the Complete Collection of the Four Treasuries (Siku quanshu) of the Qing. The publication of the Great Encyclopedia of China (Zhongguo dabaike quanshu) since 1980 may also be understood as a not so distant echo of this tradition.

Wang Yinglin, author of the Sea of Jades (Yuhai), quotes the Veritable Records of Emperor Taizong (Taizong shilu) in the entry on the compilation of the Imperial Digest. The relevant entry reads as follows:

[The Taizong] shilu [record]: On the wuyin day of the third month of the second year of the Taiping xingguo era (April 7, 977) an imperial order reached the Hanlin-Academicians Li Fang and Hu Meng, the First Vice Director of the Department of State Affairs and Drafter in the Imperial Secretariat Li Mu, the Vice Supervisor of the Household of the Heir Apparent Tang Yue, the Director of the Court of the Watches of the Household of the Heir Apparent Xu Xuan, the Companion for the Heir Apparent Zhang Ji, the Left Rectifier of Omissions Li Keqin, the Right Reminder Song Bai, the Companion for the Heir Apparent Chen E, the Assistant Director in the Court of Imperial Entertainments Xu Yongbin, the Assistant Director of the Court of the Imperial Treasury Wu Shu, the Assistant Director in the Court for Education Shu Ya, and the Vice-Directors of the

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Directorate for Imperial Manufactories Lii Wenzhong and Ruan Sidao. They were to collaborate in the categorization [of the contents of] the Imperial Digest from the Xiuwen-Hall (Xiuwenfdian] yulan), the Literary Material Arranged by Category (Yiwen leiju) and the The Wide Ranging and The Essential in Literary Thought (Wensi boyao) from previous dynasties as well as of all other books and compile [a new work] in 1. 000 juan. Moreover they were to compile [a collection] of unofficial histories (yeshi), biographical records (zhuanji) and trivial talk (xiaoshuo)22 in 500 juan. On the gengchen day of the eleventh month of the eighth year (January 5, 984) the emperor ordered the Institute of Historiography, in which the General Categories of the Reign of Great Tranquillity (Taiping zonglei) in 1. 000 juan had been produced, to "daily present three juan of the work, since I, the emperor, want to read it in person". He started reading on the first day of the twelfth month (January 6, 984).23

This entry introduces the personnel that were to compile the Imperial Digest and its companion the Extensive Records. It also tells us something about the selection of sources that were to be used. The Imperial Digest is here referred to under its working title General Categories and not by the final title which it received after the emperor had finished reading it. The models and source materials for the new encyclopedia were older encyclopedias, whereas unofficial histories, biographical records, and trivial talk were the source materials for the other work, the Extensive Records. The origin of the ultimate title of the work itself resulted from the emperor reading it, and having ordered its compilation early in the Taiping xingguo (976-983) era. The working title was different from the final title,24 and the change of the working title from General Categories to the final title Imperial Digest, dates to January 25, 985.25

According to the description of books in the library of Chao Gongwu (?- 1171), a prominent book collector and bibliophile, the General Categories was compiled under the direction of Li Fang. Under his supervision, anecdotes from the classics and the histories were to be categorized following the example of the Records of Elementary Studies (Chuxueji), an encyclopedia compiled upon orders by Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712-756) of the Tang, to provide general knowledge to princes of the imperial family.26 It is therefore very difficult if not impossible to know if the General Categories is really identical with the Imperial Digest, or if, in fact, it was an independent work originally. Another possibility would be that the General Categories was a digest of the Imperial Digest, gathering the passages from the work deemed most excellent. Lastly, it may have been the general index for the Imperial Digest, but without further evidence this is hard to maintain.

The Documents Relating to Matters of State (Guochao huiyao, also Song huiyao), a collection of materials dealing with the institutions of the Song

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dynasty, is cited in a Yuan edition of the Imperial Digest. The quotation complements the statement from the Sea of Jades:

Before these events (i.e. before the compilation orders were given), the emperor had read in encyclopedias from previous dynasties. Their categories and topics being confused and lacking order, the ruler ordered to compile this book [i.e. the Imperial Digest]. I...]27

This entry also supplements the statement made in the Elegant Sayings in Yuhu, by referring again to the alleged impracticality of previous encyclopedias. It is clear that Taizong had read the existing older encyclopedias and that he did not really appreciate them as handbooks. Furthermore he wanted to surpass his imperial predecessors in the area of encyclopedias by producing a work of higher quality. He felt that the older works were not easy to use, and he wanted to change this with the new work.

The models for this new encyclopedia were the Imperial Digest from the Xiuwen-Hall,2S compiled by order of the last emperor of the Northern Qi dynasty, Gao Wei (r. 565-576), the Literary Material Arranged by Category29 and The Wide Ranging and Essential in Literary Thought,30 which were produced under the first two Tang emperors Gaozu (r. 618-626) and Taizong (r. 627-649). All three encyclopedias were imperially commissioned. The Imperial Digest thus fit into a tradition of imperial sponsorship of such works, but it is hard to define in which areas the new encyclopedia differed from its predecessors, when it was in large parts based on their categories and on their contents. The addition of "and all other books" in the Sea of Jades entry may well refer generally to all kinds of books including encyclopedias or specifically to any older encyclopedias. The Record of the Essentials of the Song Dynasty (Songchao yaolu) interprets the statement in the latter sense and lists the following titles: "[...] the Imperial Digest from the Xiuwen-Hall, the Literary Material Arranged by Category, The Wide Ranging and Essential in Literary Thought and books in categories from previous dynasties."31 Chen Zhensun also did not believe that the Imperial Digest preserved books that had been lost otherwise. The books mentioned in the Imperial Digest had directly been derived from quotations in earlier reference works:

Once someone said to me: "At the start of the dynasty many of the old books had not yet been lost." The reason for this statement is that the Imperial Digest quotes these book titles. As a matter of fact this is not so. It quotes especially earlier encyclopedias, as can be deduced from [the relevant entry] in the National History of the First Three Reigns [of the Song] (Sanchao guoshi). There were only slightly more than 36.000 juan32 in the imperial libraries and the palace, and many of the books quoted in the Imperial Digest were not listed there. That is rather evident.33

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This passage suggests that already during the Song dynasty the sources used in the compilation of the Imperial Digest were disputed. The view commonly held at the time of its production was that it was based on books, which were lost since the very early Song, for they did not appear in the early Song catalogues. By referring to the book holdings of the early Song as listed in the state history of the first three Song emperors, Chen thought that the Imperial Digest consisted only of quotations and copies from older encyclopedias. Given that neither the Imperial Digest from the Xiuwen-Hall nor the The Wide Ranging and Essential in Literary Thought is extant, it is difficult to corroborate Chen's claims. Nevertheless his position with respect to the Imperial Digest appears to be quite convincing.

Consequently, the Imperial Digest has to be understood - as most other encyclopedias - as a derivative work rather than an original work. This also touches upon the notion that knowledge needed to be preserved in order to understand the wisdom inherent in the writings of the old masters such as Confucius or Laozi. The scholars charged with the compilation of the work therefore adopted categories from the older encyclopedias and rearranged them in the new work. They largely followed precedent, which is evident in their keeping to a system of categories that were already known. The Imperial Digest generally follows the Literary Material Arranged by Category in its organization of categories.

Categories in the Literary Material Arranged by Category and the Imperial Digest

Literary Material Imperial Digest Heaven (tian) Heaven Seasons (shixu) Seasons (suishi) Earth Earth (di) Emperors and kings (huangwang) Provinces (zhou) Usurpers and hegemons (pianba) Prefectures (jun) Imperial family (huangqin) Mountains (shan) Provinces and prefectures (zhoujun) Waters (shui) Lodgings Heavenly credentials (fuming) Enfeoffments (fengjian) Emperors and kings (diwang) Bureaucracy Imperial consorts (houfei) Military (bing) Crown princes (chugong) Human affairs (renshi) Man (ren) Hermits (yimin) Rites (It) Relatives (zongqin) Music (yue) Ceremonies and rites (liyi) Bureaucracy (zhiguan) Music Conferral of ranks (fengjue) Literature (wen) Administration (zhizheng) Study (xue)

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Administration (zhidao) Law Buddhism (shi) Daoism (dao) Ceremonies (yishi) Clothing (fuzhang) Accessories (fuyong) Techniques Diseases (jibing) Handicraft (gongyi) Utensils (qiwu) Miscellaneous things (zawu) Vessels Vehicles Appointing envoys (fengshi) Barbarians (siyi) Precious things (zhenbao)

zao) Cloth and silk Trade and agriculture (zichan) Cereals Beverages and food (yinshi) Fire Auspicious omens (xiuzheng) Inauspicious omens (jiuzheng) Spirits and demons (shengui) Extraordinary phenomena (yaoyi) Quadrupeds Feathered animals (yuzu) Animals with scales Insects and worms Wood Bamboo (zhu) Fruit Vegetables (cairu) Incense (xiang) Medicines (yao) Plants (baihui)

New categories introduced in the Imperial Digest include Buddhism and Daoism, as well as descriptions of foreign countries and diplomatic relations with them. The category "medicine, incense and plants" (yao xiang zao) from the Literary Material Arranged by Category was split to form three independent categories in the Imperial Digest. The added categories certainly reflect the interest of Emperor Taizong in things religious and medical, and the introduction of the category "barbarian countries" reflects heightened

Law (xingfa) Literary genres (zaweri) Military (wu) Military equipment (junqi) Lodgings (juchu) Business (chanye) Clothing (yiguan) Ceremonial ornaments (yishi) Dress (fushi) Vessels and vehicles (zhou che) Food (shiwu) Utensils (zaqi) Handicraft (qiaoyi) Techniques (fangshu) Buddhist scriptures (neidian) Things magical and strange (lingyi) Fire (huo) Medicine, incense, plants (yao xiang Precious jade (baoyu) Cereals (baigu) Cloth and silk (bubo) Fruits (guo) Wood (mu) Birds (niao) Quadrupeds (shou) Animals with scales (linjie) Insects and worms (chongzhi) Auspicious omens (xiangrui) Natural disasters (huoyi)

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awareness of the fact that the Chinese empire had become part of a larger world with neighbors that were able to threaten the stability of the new dynasty. Therefore knowledge of these countries as well as of ways dealing with them constituted an important necessity.

The compilation team was composed of scholar-officials who possessed the competence, experience and knowledge necessary. Some of the compilers had previously worked together on other projects. Li Fang and Hu Meng had both participated in the production of the Comprehensive Rituals of the Kaibao Era (Kaibao tongli, 973), which defined official rituals and ceremonies, as had Chen E.34 They subsequently worked on the Official History of the Five Dynasties (Wudaishi), as did Li Mu.35 While they were working on the Imperial Digest, they also participated in the compilation of the Veritable Records of Emperor Taizu (Taizu shilu), collaborating with Li Mu and possibly Song Bai.36 Tang Yue and Xu Xuan around 979 wrote a history of the Southern Tang, the Record of Jiangnan (Jiangnan lu).

While evidence is quite scarce it seems safe to assume that the actual work on the Imperial Digest was done by an even smaller group of scholars. The officials mentioned above were not only busy working on other compilations, but most of them also accompanied Taizong on his campaign in 979, with the exception of Tang Yue. They were not, therefore, in the capital during the entire period in which the Imperial Digest and Extensive Records were compiled.

As for Zhang Ji, he only took part at the beginning of the compilation process in the capital, since he left to serve as district magistrate in 979 and stayed at least until 981. The only officials who could have worked continuously on the Imperial Digest were Tang Yue, Chen E, Wu Shu, Shu Ya, Lii Wenzhong, Li Keqin, Xu Yongbin, and Ruan Sidao.37 With the exception of Li Keqin, all had been officials in the southern and southwestern states prior to the founding of the Song and the accession to the throne of Taizong. As I have argued elsewhere,38 the importance of the work on the encyclopedia and the other compendia did not lay in the actual product but in reconciling southern with northern learning. This reconciliation was necessary, since the north and the south of China during the preceding decades had not only been separated politically, but also culturally.

The reduction of the original number of officials may be the reason for the slow progress of the work, which was only submitted to the throne by the Institute of Historiography in 984. The compilers' biographies contain no information of possible promotions as a result of their participation in the compilation.

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With the beginning of the compilation, the library and its related institutions, which were usually charged with the production and edition of texts, were all reorganized. This may partly explain why none of the compilers is mentioned in the sources with any relevant position within those departments. Exceptions were Li Mu and Song Bai, who were both transferred to the Institute of Historiography in 978. It is also possible that the compilation, though undertaken in the libraries, was not part of the job of the normal library personnel.

Haeger argues that the insignificance of the Imperial Digest can be deduced from the fact that, in the Official History of the Song, it is only mentioned in the biographies of the less well known Wu Shu and Lti Wenzhong, but not in the biographies of Li Fang and Song Bai, the senior officials in charge of the project. Haeger thus implies that position and rank, instead of contributions made to the work, should have been the decisive factors for identifying officials as collaborators in the Official History of the Song. Apart from Wu Shu and Lii Wenzhong, there is only one other official whose biography in the Official History of the Song links him with the Imperial Digest, and that is Zhang Hong (939-1001).39 Though he possessed literary talents, and worked in the Institute of Historiography during the Taiping xingguo period, the official history is the only source which identifies him as a collaborator, while neither the Summary of Events in the Eastern Capital nor the entry on the Imperial Digest in the Sea of Jades confirm his participation by listing his name. We can thus not only discount Zhang Hong as a compiler; simultaneously we may disregard the Official History of the Song as a reliable source for the compilation of the Imperial Digest and the other works, as well as the officials involved.

The third official is Wang Kezhen (also Kezheng) (929-989), whose participation is mentioned in the Gazetteer of Jiangxi from the Yongzheng Reign (Yongzheng Jiangxi tongzhi).40 Even though this text dates from the Qing there is little reason to doubt its validity regarding Wang. The fourth official is Tang Yue, who is attributed participation in the Spring and Autumn of the Ten States (Shiguo chunqiu), a work of early Qing times that dealt with the history of the illegitimate states in the tenth century.41

Thus only four officials are identified in their biographies as compilers of the Imperial Digest, namely Wu Shu, Lii Wenzhong, Wang Kezhen and Tang Yue; they all originated from the former Southern Tang state. In his discussion of the Imperial Digest, P. L. Chan holds the four of them responsible for the major part of the compilation work. 42 It is noteworthy, that no information exists on the type of work the compilers were responsible for while producing the Imperial Digest. A closer look at the careers and qualifications of these

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four officials will give us a better understanding of what they might have done to contribute to the work.

Wu Shu (947-1002) is of particular interest, because he was one of the most prominent writers within this group, who along with several others, also participated in the compilation of the Extensive Records and the Finest Flowers of the Preserve of Letters.*3 The talents of the then young Wu Shu were noticed by the two leading literati of the Southern Tang state, namely Pan You (?-975) and Han Xizai (902-970), the latter of which is the main character in the famous scroll "Nightly Entertainments of Han Xizai" ("Han Xizai yeyantu", attr. to Gu Hongzhong, fl. 10th century).44 According to the Summary of Events in the Eastern Capital, Wu passed the doctoral (jinshi) exam under the Southern Tang, and was given a position in the imperial secretariat of the Southern Tang. After the Song takeover in 976, Wu hit hard times, and it took him a while to find patrons that recommended him to the throne. One of his first posts was that of Assistant Editorial Director in the old library. In 988 he was promoted to Subeditor in the newly established Imperial Archive, after having served previously as Subordinate Compiler in the Institute of Historiography. Wu Shu was well versed in calligraphy and interested in studies of the Explanations of Simple and Compound Graphs (Shuowen jiezi), a well-known dictionary, dating back to Han times. He shared this interest with his father-in-law Xu Xuan and his younger brother Xu Kai (920-974), who were the leading authorities in Shuowen studies of their times.

Wu was also a prolific writer which is evident in titles like Idle Talks from the Archive (Bige xiantan) which was a collection of anecdotes dealing with the Imperial Archive, and Records of Extraordinary Monks (Yisengji), both of which are unfortunately no longer extant. In addition Wu is credited with a collection of writings in 20 juan, which has not survived either.45 However, Wu is best known for his authorship of the Prose Poems on Quotations and Allusions (Shileifu), an encyclopedia consisting of 100 paragraphs (pian) covering 20 juan, which he submitted after 996. Emperor Zhenzong read through the whole work and ordered Wu to revise it. Wu instead rewrote the book by re-arranging and supplementing it, thus increasing the total number of chapters to thirty. Each entry within the chapters was introduced by a prose poem (fu) that referred to the locutions and historical allusions within the entry. Thus the category "Precious things" for instance consisted of entries for gold (jin), jade (yu), pearls (zhu), brocade (/in), silk (si), and money (qian), and five prose poems for each entry. In the commentaries to the entries Wu explained the origins of those locutions and allusions. The structure of the Shileifu followed that of the Literary Material Arranged by Category as well as that of the Imperial Digest.*6

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Compared to Wu Shu, a real man of letters, Lii Wenzhong was much less talented. His biographies emphasize Lu's skills as an envoy of the Song to Gaoli (in modern Korea) but do not refer to him as a writer.47 He passed the doctoral exam under the Southern Tang and entered the service of the Song as Case Reviewer at the Court of Judicial Review. It is not clear when his posting as Assistant Editorial Director occurred, but if it was consistent with the treatment of the other compilers, it is likely to have happened after the compilation of the Imperial Digest and the other large works. He was well versed in the recitation of texts. After he had recited the Prose Poem on the Rivers and the Seas (Jianghaifu) from the literary anthology Literary Selections (Wenxuan, early 6th cent.) to Emperor Taizong he earned the post as Hanlin Academician Reader-in-Waiting. Reciting of course included memorization and Lii may have known more texts by heart, a skill and a resource that was certainly very useful while the imperial book collection was still being established.

Wang Kezhen passed the doctoral exam under the Southern Tang in 951 and was appointed Proofreader in the Palace Library in 952. After his appointment in the Document Drafting Office he acted as supervisor of the examinations in 977. It is likely that his literary talents and his participation in the compilation project paved the way for his later career. He was promoted to Vice Director of the Ministry of Revenue and the Ministry of War, and finally reached the positions of Director of the Ministry of Rites and the Ministry of Revenue.48 This career is remarkable given the fact that Wang came from a rather lowly position in a southern state. It also shows that Taizong was inclined to treat southerners more generously than his predecessor, who had always been suspicious of them.

Tang Yue's original name was Yin Chongyi, which he had to change because of a name taboo concerning the name of the father of the Song founder, Zhao Hongyin. Tang had served the Southern Tang in high positions, such as Director of the Imperial Chancellery and the Imperial Secretariat. His literary fame even spread to the court of the Later Zhou. However, after the Song takeover, Tang was employed in lower functions such as Junior Supervisor of the Household of the Heir Apparent. Nevertheless, he was also given the prestigious title of a Grand Master of the Palace with Golden Seal and Purple Ribbon, a title conferred only on meritorious officials.

In 976, Tang was appointed to the Document Drafting Office together with his fellow colleagues from the Southern Tang, Xu Xuan, Wang Kezhen and Zhang Ji. Only officials with literary talents were eligible to this office, since they had to draft imperial edicts and other state documents. Together with Xu Xuan, he had been ordered by Taizong to compile a history of the Southern

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Tang, the now lost Record of Jiangnan (Jiangnanlu), submitted in or around 980. No further information is available on Tang after the completion of the Extensive Records, where his name is mentioned, and we cannot identify the specific talents that qualified him for work on the Imperial Digest other than his alleged literary skills.

For Kaderas (1998), the Imperial Digest differed from all other encyclopedias in some important innovations: the size of the work, 1,000 juan, and the speed with which it was compiled. While these two features are certainly worth noting, they were nothing new when we compare the work with, for instance, the Pearls and Blossoms of the Three Teachings (Sanjiao zhuying). This anthology comprising 1,300 juan was compiled under Wu Zetian (reg. 690-705) in less than three years.49 Kaderas suggests that "the book stocks of the imperial library were to be inspected for the compilation of this gigantic universal work".50 Yet, this is questionable since not one of the sources available today ever mentions an order of the emperor to sift through all the books in the library. However, having a complete or near complete book collection at their disposal, work for the compilers certainly was much easier. They did not need to be given an imperial order to use the books for the compilation.

The Imperial Digest was very likely the first book compiled by the Institute of Historiography within the new Institute for the Veneration of Literature. After the emperor read it and gave it its final title, the manuscript was shelved in the library and not printed. For Haeger, this is an indication of the irrelevance or insignificance of the work at the time. Apparently impressed by excellent work on printing in Europe at the time when he wrote his paper, Haeger measured the value of the book by its availability in printed form. Printed books imply greater availability since they can be reproduced, and thus 'published' and distributed, much faster and easier than their handwritten siblings. In the Song dynasty, and specifically in the Northern Song, the readership of works was rather small, comprising no more than the elite circles of the gentry and the scholar-official class. Copying a book by hand did not only combine reading with the acquisition of knowledge, but, since copying was done by educated people, typographical errors and other formal mistakes were easier to avoid. This in turn ensured - at least in theory - correct versions of texts.51 Compared to this the printing of texts was a hazardous enterprise for the cutting of the text on a wood-block did not require a person versed in textual studies, but an artisan or craftsman who knew how to use a cutting knife. Hence even semi-literate persons could produce printed books. Moreover, the hand-written work was imitated in its printed form as well, because, due to the nature of the Chinese script, all texts

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drafted for wood blocks were hand-written as well. These features contradict the idea that Elizabeth L. Eisenstein has formulated for early European printing and its impact on texts, namely, that the new technology available since the 15th century guaranteed the production of correct versions of texts.52

So far it has not been possible to find more details that would illuminate the reasons for printing the Imperial Digest. To answer this question it would be necessary to know the status of printed books in the early Northern Song period. Since we are very short of accessible sources, we are faced with two options: either printing was too insignificant to consider the Imperial Digest to publish in print, or that by contrast, printing was so popular at the time, that no one bothered to remark on any printed edition of the work. Until further studies on printing in the Northern Song, we have to contend with what little information is available at present. According to Haeger, the Imperial Digest was printed after 1023, during the reign of emperor Renzong (r. 1023-1063).53 The Record of Books Read at Xiyuan (Xiyuan dushuzhi), a work by the famous bibliophile and book collector Ye Dehui (1864-1927), gives the year 984 as the date for the first printing of the work, which seems unrealistic, given the fact, that the work received its final title only in 985. Ye may have mistaken the Imperial Digest for the smaller anthology Extensive Records that was actually printed in 984. According to the Annotations and Comments on the Revised and Enlarged Concise Catalogue of the Four Treasuries (Zengding siku jianming mulu biaozhu) dating from the Qing, the Imperial Digest was printed in 1045.54

No printed examples from the Northern Song survived until this day, but one Southern Song edition from Fujian, and another one from Sichuan are extant according to Hu Daojing.55 A number of commercial print editions of the Imperial Digest can be identified, all of which date from the Southern Song.

Evidence for the availability of the work can be found in catalogues of the imperial libraries as well as in catalogues describing the collections of private collectors. The first imperial catalogue that lists the Imperial Digest is the General Catalogue of the Institute for the Veneration of Literature. The Imperial Digest appears there as the first in the encyclopedia-subcategory and is followed by the Extensive Records, the Models from the Archives and a work now lost, the Imperial Digest of the Tianhe-Hall (Tianhedian yulan), compiled by Yan Shu (991-1055) and others.56 The privately compiled Catalogue of the Suichu Pavilion (late 12th cent.) merely lists the title after the Imperial Digest from the Xiuwen-Hall and the Imperial Digest of the Tianhe-Hall.57 The next bibliographical work to mention the Imperial Digest is another private work, the Catalogue of Books with Explanatory Notes of the

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Zhi Studio (early 13th century), where it appears in between a literary anthology of Tang times and a work on categories of poetry in Song times.58 It is tempting to assume that it took more than a century for private collectors to acquire the Imperial Digest, but as in many other cases the sources are too scarce to allow for such bold assumptions. What we learn, however, is that the work had become part of the inventory of good private libraries; where it would be shelved, that is either between other encyclopedia, or works that may be called books in categories more generally, was a matter of the scope of the libraries and the interests of their owners.

The Models from the Archives

The early reign of Emperor Zhenzong (r. 998-1022), like that of Taizong, saw the end of a major conflict, and gave the emperor a chance to deal with other matters. With the peace treaty of Shanyuan, signed in 1005, Zhenzong ended the war with the Qidan that had ravaged the northern territories since the start of the dynasty. The subsequent period of appeasement with the northern neighbor replaced 30 years of aggressive policy that had not brought the desired recovery of territory in the north lost during the rule of the Later Jin (936-946). Despite the humiliating circumstances of the treaty, Heaven seemed to favor the Song dynasty by emitting the Heavenly Texts (tianshu). These texts which appeared in three 'installments' in 1008 were probably composed by Wang Qinruo (962-1025). The emperor had dreamed about receiving them prior to their arrival, and they prompted him to initiate the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth (fengshan) in Shandong, and to the God of Earth (Houtu) in Shanxi. Since the Heaven and Earth sacrifice for the last time had been performed during the Tang, they were visible proof that the Song, even though defeated by the Liao, still possessed the Mandate of Heaven.

He therefore reacted very positively, and changed the reign title into Dazhong xiangfu (Auspicious Amulet of the August Center, 1008-1016). Having inherited his father Taizong's interest in the imperial book collections and their proper arrangement, Zhenzong took steps to improve them after they had been neglected during the military campaigns. They were again to be the main sources for the material that was used for the compilation of the Models from the Archives. He personally visited the archives to inspect their holdings and their catalogues:

Since the books and records in the Three Institutes and the Imperial Archive had not been ordered for several years, Zhu Ang (925-1007),59 Du Hao and Liu Chenggui (949-1012) received the imperial order of the eleventh month of the first year of the Xianping (998) era, to organize them and simultaneously compile a

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catalogue. On the jiawu day of the third [leap-] month of the second year (29.4.999) the Three Institutes were ordered to submit the titles of the books listed in the Four Classes [in that catalogue] to the ruler. This record was to be kept in the palace, to give the ruler a chance to check the tides.

On the bingwu day of the second month of the third year60 Ang was promoted to Director of the Bureau of Honours in the Ministry of Personnel. Hao entered the Imperial Archive as Subeditor and received the gold on purple.61 Ang and others were ordered to compile the Record of the Charts and Books in the Institutes and the Archive (Guange tuji mulu). Upon finishing it, they reported to the emperor, who gave them rewards.

On the gengxu day of the seventh month of the fifth year (27.8. 1002), the ruler visited the Three Institutes and the Imperial Archive, and read in the books in the Four Classes.

On the bingzi day of the fourth month of the third year of the Jingde era (24.4.1006), the ruler betook himself to the Institute for the Veneration of Literature and inspected the books and records in the four magazines. [...]62

It is very probable that the relevant officials had stopped giving full and careful attention to the collection of the books held by the Three Institutes and the Imperial Archive after Taizong died. This is why Zhu Ang and his colleagues had to check the conditions of the book collections. Simultaneously, they had to compile a catalogue of the holdings that apparently until then had not existed. The catalogue once compiled primarily served the interest of the emperor, and was at first only accessible to members of the palace bureaucracy. Availability of sources and accessibility to them were as important for the compilation of the Models from the Archives, as they had been for the compilation of the Imperial Digest.

Zhenzong certainly was very relieved after the successful negotiations at Shanyuan, and it is exactly after Shanyuan that he started to think about compiling an encyclopedia in earnest and putting the re-ordered library to good use. In Liu Yun's biography in the Official History of the Song we find the following entry:

When the arms were put to rest at the borders and the empire was recovering, the emperor thought about books. He began to gather scholars and had them thoroughly inspect the historical literature, to produce a reference book for his reign.63

The 'reference book' alluded to here of course was the later Models from the Archives. In this entry its compilation is directly linked to the successful peace negotiations at Shanyuan.64 Zhenzong might have been considering the idea for some time, since in the year 1000 Tian Xi, whom we have met earlier in a discussion with Taizong, approached him as follows:

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Since Your Majesty accessed the throne, which principles have you employed to rule the empire? I would like You to rule with the principles of kings and emperors. In the past there was the Imperial Digest [of the Reign of Great Tranquillity], but [the way] it listed its topics and categories, did not follow the Classics, the Histories, the Masters, and the Belles-Lettres.65 1 ask to excerpt [books in] the Four Classes and produce another Imperial Digest in 360 juan. If You read one juan per day, then You will have finished it within one year. Moreover I want to pluck essential words from the Classics and the Histories, to produce an Imperial Screen (Yupianfeng) in 10 juan, which put up next to the throne, consequently can serve as a mirror of order and disorder [in government], rise and fall [in dynasties], and can always be observed.66

Tian's plan fell somewhat short of the goal, since his Imperial Digest in the end only comprised 30 juan, and the text for the screen a mere five juan. However, we can discern here, a decade only after the presentation of the Imperial Digest, a sign of the dissatisfaction some scholars had with this work. Tian criticized the ways this earlier work had arranged knowledge, and though we cannot know what exactly he is referring to, it is clear that it had to do with the sequence of Classics, Histories, Masters, and Belles-Lettres. With the Imperial Screen, Tian evoked the historical example of Emperor Xianzong (r. 806-820) of the Tang. In 809, this emperor had composed a text in fourteen paragraphs, entitled Records of Relations Between Rulers and Officials in Past Generations (Qiandai junchen shiji), which was to be known and respected by his officials.67

Wang Yinglin provides more relevant information on the imperial attitude by quoting the preface to the work that Zhenzong himself composed:68

Emperor Taizong first had trivial talk (xiaoshuo) compiled and thus the Extensive Records came about; he had the Hundred Masters (baishi)69 assembled and thus the Imperial Digest came about; he had sentences and expressions gathered and thus the Finest Flowers from the Preserve of Letters was produced; he had all medical recipe books registered and thus the General Life Saving Recipes of the Divine Doctor (Shenyi pujiufang) was compiled. Then he re-edited the "Nine Classics" with detailed commentaries; he checked the "Three Histories" for omissions and shortcomings, he compiled epigraphic works on the great and the small seal script, and gathered things profound from Buddhist and Daoist scriptures.

This extensive enterprise is a great manifestation of [Taizong's] abilities to bring affairs to an end. We follow respectfully the plans of Our Predecessor and begin correspondingly to stir Our literature.

Today We have given all scholars and all authorities once more the order for a compilation. For it is said that there are no books on: the succession of legitimate and illegitimate dynasties; the relations between rulers and ministers; the administration of the state; changes in music and rituals; leniency and severity of

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laws; discussions and disputes brought forth by officials; exemplary behavior of officials.70

In this preface, Zhenzong honoured his father's efforts and achievements in the areas of literature, history and philosophy. Taizong had been instrumental in recovering and re-establishing texts and books that were indispensable to the cultural traditions. However, Taizong's efforts had not gone far enough - they had ignored those topics Zhenzong was interested in. The preface is a clear statement as to what he intended to achieve with the new encyclopedia. He understood the Models from the Archives as an essential politico-historical guide that focused on the more profound matters of practical government. The practicality of the new guide certainly also implied the impracticality of the encyclopedia his father had commissioned. In contrast to the older encyclopedia that attempted to make information available on the known world, the new encyclopedia concentrated on one topic only, the government. Zhenzong also renounced the idea of an encyclopedia that was compiled by one man only, like the one that Tian Xi had authored some years earlier. Apparently it was important to engage not just one scholar but a whole group of officials in the new endeavor. Not only could the work be done much quicker, but more details could be taken into consideration as well, especially since the participants were all selected from among the highly educated staff of the library.

Cheng Ju, in his work on the imperial libraries under the Northern Song, provides the most detailed and earliest surviving information on the compilation of the Models from the Archives and its compilation team:

In the ninth month of the second year of the Jingde era (October 1005) an order to compile the Records of Relations Between Rulers and Officials in Past Dynasties (Lidai junchen shiji) reached Wang Qinruo, Vice Director of the Ministry of Justice and Academician in the Zizheng Hall, and Yang Yi (974-1020), Remonstrator to the Right and Drafter. Qinruo submitted a memorial, in which he requested the [following officials] for the compilation: Qian Weiyan (962-1034), Vice Minister of the Court of the Imperial Stud and Auxiliary Academician in the Imperial Archive; Du Hao, Director of the Criminal Administration Bureau, Auxiliary Academician in the Imperial Archive and Edict Attendant in the Dragon Diagram Hall; Diao Kan (945-1013), Vice Director of the Bureau of Equipment and Auxiliary Academician in the Imperial Archive; Li Wei (ca 985-1034), Vice Director of the Ministry of Revenue and Auxiliary Academician in the Academy of Scholarly Worthies; Qi Lun (954-1021), Exhorter to the Right, Subeditor in the Imperial Archive and Edict Attendant in the Dragon Diagram Hall; Wang Xiyi (fl. 998-1013), Erudite of the Court of Imperial Sacrifices and Auxiliary Academician in the Institute of Historiography; Chen Pengnian (961-1017) and Jiang Yu, Aides in the Palace Library and Auxiliary Academicians in the Institute of

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Historiography; Song Yixu, Grand Master Admonisher to the Right; Chen Yue (973-1012), Assistant Editorial Director and Auxiliary Academician in the Institute of Historiography.

In the beginning Weiyan and the others were asked to draft tables of contents, which they submitted to Qinruo [and Yi]71 for close inspection. Qinruo [and Yi] [on this basis] established [the structure] for the compilation and submitted it to the emperor. Consequently, what had been outlined by Qinruo [and Yi] was laid down. Those parts that were not yet completely drafted they were ordered to supplement. Furthermore Liu Chenggui (949-1012), Commissioner of Palace Halls and Parks, Prefect of Tengzhou and concurrent Manager of the Capital Security Office, as well as Liu Chongchao, Eunuch of High Rank and concurrent Supervisor of the Collections in the Three Institutes and the Imperial Archive, were ordered to control the compilers. [...]72

Originally the Models from the Archives was understood as a mirror of the relations between ruler and officials which is reflected in its working title Records of Relations Between Rulers and Officials in Past Dynasties. Only after the completion of the compilation that lasted for over eight years (1005- 1013), the new encyclopedia was given the final title Models from the Archives. When this re-titling occurred is not known. Xia Song (985-1051) for his part, asked in an undated memorial for an imperial preface to the Records of Relations Between Rulers and Officials in Past Dynasties. After the emperor had accepted, Xia Song thanked him in another memorial.73

Zhenzong viewed the Records of Relations Between Rulers and Officials in Past Dynasties as the continuation of Taizong's projects. The title Records of Relations Between Rulers and Officials in Past Dynasties is of course reminiscent of the above-mentioned work from the Tang, the Records of Relations Between Rulers and Officials in Past Generations. The example shows that the Models from the Archives certainly stood in a tradition of works that illustrated the relations between rulers and their officials with historical precedents. Interestingly, Sima Guang's (1019-1086) annalistic history of China, covering the years from 403 BC to 959 AD, entitled Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government (Zizhi tongjian) also carried the draft title Records of Relations Between Rulers and Officials in Past Dynasties before it was given its final title by emperor Shenzong (r. 1068- 1085).74

When the original compilers Wang Qinruo and Yang Yi realized that they were insufficient to proceed with the compilation, they asked for more collaborators. With the exception of Wang Qinruo and Yang Yi, most of these occupied posts within the Three Institutes. Zhenzong followed the progress of the work very closely, but nevertheless had two palace eunuchs report to him continuously.

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In the following year (1006), Zhenzong visited the Institute for the Veneration of Literature, to read in the Records of Relations Between Rulers and Officials in Past Dynasties, that was being compiled at that time. Wang Qinruo and Yang Yi presented several juan of the rough draft for inspection. After he had scrutinized these, the emperor ordered [Yang] Yi to explain the principles according to which the categories and topics of the compilation had been arranged.

The emperor said: "You and the others have perused a great number of books while compiling this work, and used their merits for expounding [things in detail]. This book has nothing in common at all with the Imperial Digest and Extensive Records that were praised in the past." Yi replied: "The Imperial Digest only reports on past events without differentiating between good and bad. The Extensive Records is nothing more than trivial talk and insignificant gossip. That is where these two books differ from the present book."

The emperor consequently ordered the compilers to wholeheartedly tackle difficult problems while compiling the work. He personally changed and corrected the sequence of the topics which had not yet been decided upon. In addition he said: "We are compiling this book, because We want to emphasize meritorious and good affairs between rulers and officials of preceding dynasties and make them into future law. Reading this book to inquire about history is also useful for scholars." From that day onwards, two chapters of the draft were submitted daily to the emperor. The emperor read through them carefully and by the next day he unavoidably had noted the mistakes.75

It is clear that Zhenzong wanted to have direct access to the work, and was not content to just listen to reports by the compilers. It was important for him to create a new encyclopedia which was very different from everything his father had compiled. His interest extended even to the categorization of the work. He had made it clear that he wanted a guide in government, therefore the definition of the categories and their arrangement were very important to him. His anxiety about this issue is reflected by Yang Yi, who apparently was able to read the emperor's mind quite well. Thus Yang condemned both the Imperial Digest and Extensive Records for their poor quality. His criticism of course was not directed against Taizong, but against the officials he had employed to do the work. Thus he implied that, since Zhenzong looked much better after the project than Taizong after his, the final result would definitely be much better as well.

It is in this early stage of the manuscript that we can discern the motivation for the writing of the Models from the Archives. It is nothing less than a handbook for proper government, which in the form of an encyclopedia guides the emperor and his officials in their decisions by referring to historical precedents. In imitation of his father, Zhenzong also read the manuscript at a daily rate of two juan, in order to supervise and control the compilation and

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its contents. During a visit at the compilation office (22 September 1007) he specified his ideas regarding the book:

We had this book compiled because We want to record and display the sincere and good affairs of rulers and officials through successive dynasties, for the orientation of future generations. This book is not only conceived for people who open it to read about the past, but especially for people, who make a living by acquiring knowledge.76

With the Models from the Archives, the emperor pursued an aim very different from that of his father's Imperial Digest. While the latter had been obviously fascinated by the task of recovering lost traditions and rearranging materials that had been disregarded and neglected during the preceding decades, Zhenzong was interested in the practical application of knowledge and the experiences history had to offer. History in China apart from being a contemplation of things past was always regarded as a vast reference source for dealing with political, administrative, and other problems faced by imperial governments.77 Historical precedents served as lessons for the solution to contemporary problems. This does not only explain the inclusion of history in the official examinations, but also the creation of an Institute of Historiography, that managed the history of the Chinese empire.78

Zhenzong hoped that it would not only be used by officials for practical purposes such as solving problems, but also that it would be read by people interested in history, especially those who made a living out of knowledge like scholars and teachers. The direct imperial participation in the creation of the work was necessary to guarantee the correct and accepted view of history. Before the new encyclopedia was completed, a change in the compilation committee occurred, and additional men were hired:

The original order [for the compilation] had been given to [Wang] Qinruo, [Yang] Yi and others, but abruptly Chen Congyi (7-1031), an Assistant Director of the Palace Library, as well as Liu Yun (970-1030), a Subeditor in the Imperial Archive, were recruited. After [Wang] Xiyi's79 death and [Song] Yixu's demotion80, Zha Dao (955-1018), an Auxiliary Academician in the Institute of Historiography, and Wang Shu (963-1034), an Erudite of the Court of Imperial Sacrifices, were selected as collaborators. Again some time later Xia Song, an Auxiliary Academician in the Academy of Scholarly Worthies, was enlisted, and finally Sun Shi (962-1033), Vice Director of the Bureau of Operations, was ordered to compose the phonetic commentary.

Altogether the work spread over a period of nine years and it was completed comprising 1.000 juan in the sixth year of the Dazhong xiangfu era (1013), when it was submitted to the throne. It consisted of 31 categories, which all were introduced with a general preface, while each of the 1.104 subcategories also had

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their own preface. Moreover, there was a table of contents and a phonetic commentary, that also comprised 10 juan each. The ruler read the work for some time and conferred the title Models from the Archives on to it.81

The replacement personnel were once again selected from officials working in the Three Institutes and the Imperial Archive. Among them Sun Shi deserves special attention, for he was given the specific task within the compilation team of creating the phonetic commentary, necessary for the correct pronunciation of characters. He was already quite experienced in this sort of work having participated in the collation of the commentaries to all canonical texts, and having revised the Zhuangzi and the Approaching Elegance. He himself also wrote a phonetic commentary to the Mengzi, and another work dealing with phonetic commentaries in general.

The Models from the Archives is the only one of the big compendia for which we have information concerning rewards for the compilers. These were quite generous according to the following entry:

On the bingzi day an imperial decree conferred an official position on one son each [of the following officials]: Wang Qinruo, Military Affairs Commissioner; Chen Pengnian and Li Wei, Hanlin Academicians; Du Hao, Longtuge Academician; Qian Weiyan, Drafter in the Imperial Secretariat; Sun Shi and Diao Kan, Edict Attendants in the Dragon Diagram Hall. Yang Yi, Vice Minister of the Court of Imperial Sacrifices, was made Director of the Palace Library in the Western Capital (Luoyang) as he had been before. Diao Kan, Director in the Ministry of Justice and Auxiliary Academician in the Imperial Archive, was made Director in the Ministry of War. Jiang Yu, Vice Director of the Bureau of Sacrifices and Auxiliary Academician in Institute of Historiography, was made Vice Director of the Revenue Section. Xia Song, Assistant Director of the Palace Library and Auxiliary Academician in the Academy of Scholarly Worthies, was made Exhorter to the Left and as before filled the position of Vice Director of the Palace Administration. Liu Yun, Subeditor in Imperial Archive, was made Exhorter to the Right and Auxiliary Academician in the Institute of Historiography. All received presents and money according to their rank to reward them for their compilation work. 82

The bestowal of an official position meant that the sons of the officials mentioned did not have to take the exams that in the Northern Song were the normal route to a bureaucratic position. As for the other officials, they received their new posts in addition to those they already held, and thus acquired more prestige within the bureaucracy.

The work that they had submitted was similar in structure to earlier encyclopedias. It is obvious, however, that the Models from the Archives more closely resembled the structure found in handbooks and collections of statutes

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like the Institutions of the Five Dynasties Period (Wudai huiyao, 961). This work arranged information in topics similar to those found in the new encyclopedia. The encyclopedia of course covered all dynastic periods, while the latter work dealt with the Five Dynasties and Ten States exclusively, and could thus not be used as a historical guide.

Categories in the Outstanding Models

Emperor and kings (diwang) Illegitimate dynasties (runwei) Usurpers (jianwei) Rulers of states (lieguojun) Crown princes (chugong) Imperial family (zongshi) Relatives (waiqi) Chancellors (zaifu) Generals and marshals (jiangshuai) Department of state affairs (taisheng) State plans (bangji) Censors (xianguan) Admonishments (jianzheng) Literati officials (cichen) State history (guoshi) Conduct of ceremonies (zhangli) Schools (xuexiao) Law (xingfa) Ministers and directors (qingjian) Imperial guards (huanwei) Selection of officials (quanxuan) Examinations (gongju) Embassies (fengshi) Eunuchs (neichen) Governors and prefects (mushou) District magistrates (lingzhang) Palace officials (gongchen) Prefectural subordinates (mufu) Officials of tributary states (peichen) General record (zonglu) Foreign tributaries (waichen)

All the topics so fascinating to modern readers, like those dealing with plants, animals and so forth, that is phenomena of the natural world, have been left out of consideration. All sections focus on topics directly related to the administration of the empire, to bureaucracy and to the imperial family.

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The Sea of Jades quotes from a memorial written by the compilers that not only gives the exact day of the official presentation of the work to the throne (September 20, 1013), but also names the models upon which the Models from the Archives was based.83 These older works were all imperially commissioned encyclopedias, starting with the oldest, The Emperor's Mirror from the 3rd century, The Wide Ranging and The Essential in Literary Thought of the early Tang, as well as the Pearls and Blossoms of the Three Teachings64 of the mid-Tang. The latter work was adopted as the model for the formal structure, evidence for which is difficult to provide since the work is no longer extant. The Emperor's Mirror and The Wide Ranging and The Essential in Literary Thought served as models for the terminology and vocabulary. The Models from the Archives here deviates again from the Imperial Digest, which even though it had made use of The Wide Ranging and Essential in Literary Thought, relied upon the Imperial Digest from the Xiuwen-Hall and the Literary Material Arranged by Category.

Texts that were deemed incongruent with the Classics and the Histories by Yang Yi,85 such as the Miscellanies of the Western Capital (Xijing zaji, c. 500) or the Miscellaneous Records of Emperor Minghuang (Minghuang zalu, c. 850) from the Tang, which had formed part of the material for the Imperial Digest as well as for the Extensive Records, were not used as references for the new encyclopedia. Since the Models from the Archives was to be a practical guide, works that appeared to be anecdotal in character played no role in its compilation. For Yang Yi the Extensive Records was no more than a haphazard collection of texts that could not be used as historical measures; since the Imperial Digest also included the same anecdotal material, it lacked any relevance as a handbook and guide to political matters too.

The canonical scriptures as well as the official dynastic histories constituted the textual basis for the Models from the Archives. These two text groups were guaranteed to transmit, on the one hand, knowledge directly derived from the ancient sages, and on the other, to supply information on the historical circumstances of the Chinese empire since its founding in 221 B.C. Apart from these, only the classical texts of pre-Han and Han times, such as the Discourses of the States (Guoyu), the Intrigues of the Warring States (Zhanguoce), External Commentaries to the Han Odes (Hanshi waizhuan), the Spring and Autumn Annals of Master Lii (Ltishi chunqiu), the Guanzi, the Spring and Autumn Annals of Master Yan (Yanzi chunqiu), the Han Feizi, the Mengzi and the Huainanzi were used as reference works. In addition to this the encyclopedia Imperial Digest from the Xiuwen-Hall was consulted.86 It is quite probable that Yang Yi was guided in his selection of texts by an imperial remark. When Zhenzong visited his newly established archive, the Yuchen-

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Hall, he stated that it would only store "the correct Classics and the correct historical works, that had been checked several times, but not trivial talk and other such books".87

Conclusion

The Imperial Digest was not so much to be used as a practical reference work in the strict sense of the word. It served quite different functions and played a role very different from that of its successor, the Models from the Archives. At the time of the compilation of the Imperial Digest, the dynasty was still young, and the parts of the empire that had been separated for half a century had to be united physically as well as intellectually. The Imperial Digest and the other works that were written under imperial patronage in fact proclaimed a new era. The whole compilation enterprise can be regarded as one grand public relations enterprise that was initiated to bring southern and northern officials within the bureaucracy together for one common goal. Here again was an emperor who was willing to invest time and manpower into major literary activities that had been neglected since the first century of the Tang, and especially during the preceding six decades of the Five Dynasties and Ten States. The practical application of the Imperial Digest as a guide in government was secondary to the aim of establishing Taizong and the Song dynasty as a worthy direct successor to the Tang, leapfrogging the Five Dynasties.

Zhenzong's reign, in contrast to Taizong's, marks the beginning of the taking over of the administrative control of the empire by the scholar- officials; simultaneously direct imperial control over the state decreased.88 No emperor of the Northern Song after Zhenzong was able to rule without the approval of the highest official dignitaries. He possessed the means to handle the bureaucracy, whereas his successors would be handled by the bureaucracy. His idea of his status is evident in the very structure of the Models from the Archives. While the Imperial Digest placed the category Heaven (tian) first, in the Models from the Archives the first category has been assigned to the rulers (diwang).*9 This clearly emphasized the status of the emperor in all under heaven, and placed things metaphysical in a lower position. At the same time, the re-arrangement took recourse to older encyclopedia such as the Excerpts from Books in the Northern Hall (Beitang shuchao) that was compiled under the Sui (589-617), which had unified the empire after another period of disunion. The Excerpts from Books in the Northern Hall illustrated the re-discovered authority of the emperor and his claim to rule all under heaven by putting the category 'ruler' first.

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The Models from the Archives constitutes the last evidence of independent imperial power, since it was ordered and regularly inspected by the emperor. Zhenzong, who was eager to prove himself as a worthy successor to Taizu and Taizong, and as a sovereign ruler in his own right, had the Models from the Archives printed almost as soon as the manuscript had been submitted to the throne. A first printed edition was completed and presented to the throne in 1016. The earliest surviving printed editions all date from the Southern Song, while the edition that is accessible today was printed in the late Ming.90

In the years after the first three reigns, the control and preservation of the literary traditions gradually slipped away from imperial control into the hands of private scholars. This is especially true for the Southern Song period where imperial power in almost all areas was comparatively weak, and it is in that period that scholars took over the encyclopedia-business for the furthering of their ideas and philosophies.91

Notes

1. This essay is largely based on my Das Kompilationsprojekt Song Taizongs (reg. 976- 997) (Bern: Lang, 2003). Preliminary findings leading to this monograph have been published as "The Politics of Collecting Knowledge: Song Taizong's Compilations Project", in T'oung Poo 87.4-5 (2001): 289-316.

2. The classic study on the Four Books is Guo Bogong's Song sidashu kao (Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1940).

3. For an example of how to make good use of the conservative function of the Imperial Digest see Glen Dudbridge, Religious Experience and Lay Society in Tang China: A Reading ofTai Fus Kuang-i chi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); for a polemic against the Taiping yulan as a work of significance at the time of its compilation, see John W Haeger, 'The Significance of Confusion: The Origins of the T'ai-p'ing yti-lan", in Journal of the American Oriental Society 88 (1968): 401-410.

4. A good survey of the development of the leishu genre is provided by Hu Daojing, Zhongguo gudai de leishu (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1982). See also Wolfgang Bauer, "The Encyclopedia in China", Cahiers d'histoire mondiale 9.3 (1966): 665- 691.

5. On the organization of the imperial libraries of the Tang see Jean-Pierre Drège, Les Bibliothèques en Chine au temps des manuscrits (jusqu'au Xe siècle), Paris: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1991, 48-137.

6. The Left Shenglong Gate was a minor gate in the eastern part of the inner southern palace walls. See Songshi 85.2097.

7. Xu zizhi tongjian changbian, comp. by Li Tao (Zhongguo xueshu mingzhu), 19.2b-3a (225).

8. Zhu Zundu (fl. mid- 10th cent.) possessed one of the largest private libraries of his time and was therefore also known as Ten-thousand-books Zhu (Zhu Wanjuan). Two anthologies that he compiled may well have served as textual quarries for the Finest Flowers of the Preserve of Letters, namely the Beautiful Flowers from a Multitude of

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Books (Qunshu lizao) in 1.000 juan and the Record of the Progress of Learning (Hongjian xue ji) in 1.000 juan. See Kurz, Kompilationsprojekt, 101-103.

9. This was the regulation in 994 according to the Historical Precedents from the Pavilion of the Unicorn (Lintai gushi). See Lintai gushi canben, comp. by Cheng Ju (1078-1144) in Lintai gushi jiaozheng (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2000), 2.257. In 1018, 800 juan from a family library in Changle were received, for which a reward of 300,000 cash was given. See Lintai gushi canben 2.268.

10. In 998 an inspection found 460 juan of books missing from the libraries, which prompted Zhenzong to order them replaced with copies taken from the princely libraries in the palace grounds. See Lintai gushi canben 2.259.

11. Lintai gushi canben 2.255. 12. Official titles are translated according to Charles O. Hucker, A Dictionary of Official

Titles in Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985). 13. This position was first filled in 983 according to the Classification and Explanation

of Government Posts (Zhiguan fenji). See Sun Fengji (1135-1190), Zhiguan fenji (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1988), 15.81b (375).

14. Songshi 164.3873. Additional information is found in the Monographs in the Comprehensive Treatise (Tongzhiliie). See Tongzhiliie, comp. by Zheng Qiao (1104- 1162) (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1990), "Monograph on the Bureaucracy (zhiguanliie)" 4, 432-434.

15. Pan Shenxiu hailed from Putian in Fujian. After the annexation of the empire of Min by the Southern Tang in 945, his father entered the service of the second ruler of the Southern Tang. Pan Shenxiu himself started his career as an official of the last emperor of the Southern Tang, Li Yu (r. 961-975). He impressed Taizong with his masterly skills in the weiqi (go) -game, and after they had played once, Pan submitted a treatise on the game, entitled On weiqi (Qishuo). See Songshi 296.9874-9875.

16. Du Hao, son of an influential official at the Southern Tang court, was responsible for the revision of the Classic of the Way and Integrity (Daodejing) in 1003. He dropped out of the compilation of the Models from the Archives to revise the Zhuangzi (1008) and possibly the lexicon Approaching Elegance (Erya) as well. See Kurz, Kompilationsprojekt, 117-119.

17. Shu Ya was also involved in the revision of the Comprehensive Compendium (Tongdian), a work written in the Tang dynasty dealing with government institutions. For more on Shu see Kurz, Kompilationsprojekt, 84-86.

18. Songshi 266.9176-9177. 19. Tian Xi was an erudite scholar who worked as censor and also as scholar in the

Historiography Institute according to his biography both in the Summary of Events in the Eastern Capital and the Official History of the Song. See Dongdu shiltie, comp. by Wang Cheng (1-ca 1200) (Taibei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1979), 39.601-608, and Songshi 293.9785-9792.

20. Yuhu qinghua, comp. by Wenying (fl. 11th cent.), 4.41, in Xiangshan yelu, xulu, Yuhu qinghua (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1984). The anecdote in the Elegant Sayings in Yuhu (Yuhu qinghua) is also found in another work that categorized historical events during the Northern Song dynasty, entitled Collection of Famous Words and Deeds in the Song Dynasty (Songchao shishi leiyuan, 1145). See Songchao shishi leiyuan, comp. by Jiang Shaoyu (ca 1115- after 1145) (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1981), 17.203.

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21. See the Record of Various Items Pertaining to Politics of the Reign of Great Tranquility (Taiping zhij