The Cold War1945-1952

Postwar Setting, 1945-1946• Demobilization and

Reconversion▫ End of the War

“Alive in ’45” “no boats, no votes” 1947

22nd Amendment to limit presidential terms to 2

▫ Costs Psychological

Divorce rate increased Feared unemployment Women back to “women’s

jobs”▫ Reinforcement of women

in the home

• GI Bill of Rights▫ 1944 Serviceman’s

Readjustment Act▫ Designed to:

Forestall expected recession Reward soldiers Reduce fear of female

competition▫ Gave:

Priority for jobs Occupational guidance Unemployment (52 weeks) Low-interest loans (VA) Paid education

▫ Results: 2.2 million attended college Huge cost to government

Repaid in taxes

Truman’s Domestic Program• Legislation

▫ 21 point program▫ Employment Act 1946

Only legislation passed Committed to economic growth Goal full employment

▫ “Peace is Hell”• Inflation

▫ Demand outran supply▫ Severe problem▫ OPA, Truman lost control▫ Weak measures▫ Labor strikes

United Mine Workers 45 days• Loss of support

▫ “To err is Truman” Everyone against him

Anti-communists Labor Civil Rights Women

• 80th Congress▫ Reversal of New Deal▫ Wagner Act 1935

Restricted unionist activities GOP tore it apart

▫ Taft-Hartley Act Banned closed shop Loyalty oaths “cooling off” periods Labor now special-interest Truman vetoed, Congress wins

• Civil Rights▫ Jackie Robinson▫ 1945 Walter White- NAACP

Wants equality, fair practices▫ “Dixiecrat” Revolt

Democrat convention Leads to Truman’s 1948 executive

order to bar discrimination in federal employment Morgan v. Virginia (interstate

bus) Shelley v. Kraemer (housing)

Threat of Communism• Heading to Cold War

▫ 1946: Destiny of Eastern Europe and Poland in question

• Stalin’s Plans▫ Buffer zone in Eastern Europe▫ Soviet sphere of influence▫ Puppet governments in Albania

and Yugoslavia• Truman’s Plans

▫ Russia in its borders▫ Acceptance of communism

would betray WWI and WWII vets

▫ Didn’t want to be “soft”▫ Demanded free elections in

Poland

• Iron Curtain▫ Satellite nations

Closed to US trade “no lasting peace with

Capitalism”▫ George Kennan

US policy must be to “contain” Impossible to negotiate with

Stalin Military, economic, and

diplomatic strategies to prevent communism from spreading

▫ Churchill 1946 “Iron Curtain” Anglo-speaking alliance

▫ Truman Iran 1946 Cold War begins

Containment• Iran 1946• Greece and Turkey 1947

▫ British needed help▫ George C. Marshall pressured

Congress to help▫ $400 million assistance

• Truman Doctrine▫ Active US engagement to

contain communism▫ Military and financial aid▫ National Security Act 1947

National Security Council CIA Dept of Defense

▫ Marshall Plan Plan to restore European

Economies Resistance to Communism George C. Marshall’s plan successful

• Truman’s Strategy▫ Development of atomic

weapons▫ Strengthen traditional military

power▫ Military alliances▫ Military and economic aid to

allies▫ Espionage network▫ Propaganda offensive

Confrontation in Germany• Stalin’s progression

▫ Hungry/Czechoslovakia 1947/48 Brutal Coup

• Berlin▫ 4 demilitarized zones▫ Allies zones united▫ 1948: Stalin blocks rail and

highway routes into Berlin Trying to force Allies to accept

Communist Berlin• Truman’s response

▫ Operation Vittles Berlin Airlift Hinted use of atomic weapons May 1949 blockade ends

Allies create Federal Republic of Germany

▫ Reaffirms containment

• Alliances▫ North Atlantic Treaty (NATO)

Marked formal end of isolation

Collective security Mutual defense pact 1st peacetime alliance Nuclear umbrella

• Stalin’s Response▫ Created German Democratic

Republic (East Germany)▫ Exploded 1st atomic bomb

1949▫ Warsaw Pact 1955

Alliance of satellite states

Re-election 1948• Inaugural address 1949

▫ Fair Deal Proposed civil rights,

national health care legislation, federal aid to education, etc. Belief in continual

economic growth• Congress

▫ Expanded existing programs Raised minimum wage Increased social security Displaced Persons Act

205,000 Jews▫ Did not accept new programs

• Failure▫ Set US apart from Europe

Cold War in Asia• Japan

▫ Democratic success▫ MacArthur in charge▫ Strengthened Japanese

economy and government ▫ Occupation ended 1952

US retained bases• China

▫ US failed▫ Mao Ze Dong successful▫ People’s Republic of China

“Red China” US refused to recognize Americans shocked

• Indochina▫ France needed help▫ US crushes commies in

Philippines

Nuclear Fear• Soviets even the score

▫ Atomic bomb 1949• American hysteria

▫ Air raid practice▫ Bomb shelters▫ Sky watchers

• Truman’s answer▫ Development of H-bomb▫ “Mike” 1952

10X Hiroshima (Marshall Islands)

Soviet’s answered with own H• NSC-68

▫ Emphasised Soviet strength and aggressive intentions “world domination”

▫ Urged military defense Increase army Increase nuclear arsenal 4x defense budget Increase CIA actions

Korean War 1950-1953• June 24, 1950

▫ North Korea invades South▫ 38th parallel

• “Greece of the East”▫ Step up to Communism▫ Didn’t seek congress▫ UN authorized action

• War Action▫ MacArthur in charge▫ Crosses into North Korea▫ Tide turns when China enters

war▫ stalemate

• Attempt at Peace▫ Spring 1951▫ MacArthur criticizes Truman▫ April 10, 1951 MacArthur fired

• Armistice not signed until 1953▫ Korea divided

• Consequences▫ Lives

54, 246 US dead 103,284 US wounded

▫ Money $54 billion

▫ Politics Accelerated NSC-68

Defense budget spending increased

Atomic stockpile increased Worldwide military bases Indochina

Enhanced powers of Presidency Precedent for war Second economic boom

Anti-Communism Hysteria• Loyalty and Security

▫ Widespread Fear US Communist Party Amerasia incident Canada exposes network

▫ Executive Order 9835 Federal Employee Loyalty

Program Barred members of

Communist Party• Crusade

▫ Hoover Colleges center of “red” prop. “Zeal for Democracy”

campaign▫ 1947 House Un-American

Activities Committee (HUAC) Attacked Hollywood Prosecuted leaders of US

Communist Party

• Alger Hiss▫ Symbol of liberal establishment

Accused by Whittaker Chambers

▫ Questioned by Sen. Richard Nixon Claimed to be innocent Indicted for perjury

“Pumpkin Papers”• Rosenbergs’

▫ Feb 1950▫ Klaus Fuchs arrested, atomic

secrets▫ Trail led to Rosenbergs▫ Found guilty March 1951

Executed June 19. 1953• McCarthyism

▫ List of “205” officials▫ Symbol for personal attacks on

individuals by means of indiscriminate allegations

Hysteria subsided• McCarthy’s end

▫ challenged Army▫ Edward R. Murrow attacks▫ Hearings proved he was a

fraud• Results

▫ 1950 McCarran Internal Security Act Vetoed by Truman Forced organizations deemed

communist to register with Dept. of Justice

Authorized arrest and detention during National emergency

▫ McCarran-Walter Immigration Act and Nationality Act of 1952 Vetoed by Truman Maintained quotas

Prevented homosexuals from entering country

Power to deport those suspected of communism

Election of 1952• Public apprehension

▫ Loyalty in government▫ Korea stalemate

• We want Ike!!▫ Democrats

Ike didn’t agree with domestic solutions

Nominated Adlai Stevenson Out of touch with people Truman shadow

▫ Republicans Nominates Dwight D. Eisenhower

War hero Pledged to end stalemate

Running mate Richard Nixon “Checkers” speech

• Results▫ Wins white house▫ Narrow Republican control of

houses▫ Ends 1st phase of Cold War

Eisenhower Presidency• Modern Republicanism

▫ Domestic program Resisted

national health care Civil rights Federal aid to education “Eisenhoover” nickname

Successes Large tax cut for wealthy and

business Increased funding for public

housing Increased minimum wage Extended social security Construction of St. Lawrence

Seaway Interstate Highway System

▫ Great domestic achievement▫ 40,000 miles

• Election of 1956▫ Democrats

Adlai Stevenson▫ Ike

“Everything booming but the guns” Landslide victory

Jim Crow in Court• Chief Justice Earl Warren

(1953)▫ Jencks v. United States 1957

Accused has right to inspect government files used by prosecution

▫ Yates v. United States 1957 Overturned convictions of

Communist party officials under Smith Act

“Impeach Earl Warren”▫ Brown v. Board of Education of

Topeka 1954 NAACP Thurgood Marshall Reversed Plessy v. Ferguson Federal district judges to

monitored South vowed resistance Ike wouldn’t force White resistance increased

• Resistance climaxed▫ Sept. 1957 Little Rock, Ark.

Gov. Orval E. Faubus Mobilized National Guard to

block desegregation of Central High

Court ordered withdrawl of Guard

Eisenhower forced to back federal laws Cold war issue

• 1956 Campaign▫ Civil Rights act of 1957

Established permanent commission

▫ Civil Rights act of 1960 No protection for voting

Phase 2 of the Cold War• Ike and Dulles

▫ Ike appoints John Foster Dulles as Secretary of State To appease GOP

▫ Threatened “instant, massive retaliation” to Soviet Eisenhower not happy No response to uprisings in East

Germany (1953) or Hungary (56)• “Atoms for Peace”

▫ Idea for both superpowers to contribute fissionable materials to a new U.N. agency for industrial progress

• Spirit of Geneva▫ 1955, suspension of further

atmospheric tests- 1958• Dulles’ “pactomania”

▫ Mutal defense pacts with 43 nations▫ “new look” defense program

More nucs Reduce conventional forces Early Distant warning system- Alaska Cheyenne Mountain Operations

Center

• CIA▫ Allen Dulles, head of CIA▫ Covert actions to prevent

communism TR’s grandson “Operation Ajax” Overthrow of Iran 1953

Sowed seeds of hatred▫ Philippines

▫ Guatemala Operation pbsuccess Mercenaries overthrew the

government• Vietnam Domino

▫ Most expensive operations▫ Ike refused to send troops▫ French surrendered 1954

Vietnam divided▫ “Domino Theory”

All of SE Asia would follow US refused Geneva Peace Accords Created SEATO CIA installed South Korean

government

Troubles in the Third World• Middle East

▫ 1954 Nasser/Egypt US tried to “woo” with

building Aswan Dam Recognized China instead Nationalized the Suez Canal Joint attack of British, French

and Israeli forces 1956 Did not consult Ike

Eisenhower’s response Withdraw troops Anti-western sentiment in

Middle East• “Eisenhower Doctrine”

▫ US would send military aid to any country threatened by communism Lebanon 1958

▫ Anti-America Peru/Venezuela 1958 Fidel Castro/Cuba 1959 Breakdown of peace

Spy plane/Russia 1960

Eisenhower Legacy• Warning to Americans

▫ Threat to traditional military life

▫ “military industrial complex” • Tried to prevent war

Affluent Society• Coined by John Kenneth

Galbraith 1958• 1950’s fulfillment of American

Dream▫ 60% owned homes▫ 75% owned cars▫ 87% owned one T.V.▫ GNP up 50%

Despite debt 3 recessions

▫ Highest standard of living in US ever “people of plenty”

Industry and Computers• Federal spending major

source of economic growth▫ Doubled in 1950s

• Public spending▫ Roads, airports, home

mortgages, supported farm prices, stipends for education

▫ Electronics Consumption tripled Oil replaced coal as nation’s

industry source• ½ of budget went to defense

industries▫ R & D

New Industries Plastics, chemicals,

general dynamics

• 1944▫ International Business Machines▫ Mark I calculator▫ 500 miles of wiring

• 1946▫ US Army▫ ENAIC, 1st electronic computer▫ “debugged”▫ Led to development of programs

• Changed economy like 1st steam engine, electric motor▫ Sales to Industry and

government▫ Crucial to IRS▫ 30,000 by mid 1960s for banks,

hospitals, universities, etc.▫ Silicon Valley 1951

Stanford Industrial Park

Costs of Big Business• Rapid technological advances

accelerated power of big “B”▫ 1950: 20 firms over $1 billion▫ Massive oligopolies formed

TV, Auto Companies▫ New multinational enterprises▫ “executives” replaced capitalists

• Success required conformity▫ “the Lonely Crowd” 1950

No creativity• Changes in agricultural

▫ Scientific and mechanized▫ Technology cut hours▫ Factories in the fields

More machines, more chemicals

• Changes to the Environment▫ “Silent Spring” 1962 Rachel

Carson Poisons

DDT

• Blue-Collar Blues▫ Consolidation transformed

Labor Movement 1955 merger of AFL and CIO

85% of union members▫ Higher wages, shorter

workweeks, paid vacations, health-care coverage, automatic wage hikes

▫ Fewer strikes▫ Decreased in numbers

Automation New jobs in service sector

▫ 1956 White-collar workers

outnumber blue collar for 1st time US now “post-industrial”

society

Prosperity and the Suburbs• Real income rose

▫ More income spent on luxuries Credit installment plan

1st credit card: Diner’s Club Card 1950

Indebtedness rose Advertisement increased

▫ 58 million new cars purchased in 1950s Flashier models

• Exodus to the suburbs▫ Highways constructed▫ Income tax stimulated home sales▫ Low interest loans (FHA, VA)▫ 98% white▫ 85% of homes built in 1950s

Embodiment of American dream▫ Greatest internal migration in US

history 20 million Sunbelt and Cali profited

Consensus and Conservatism• “Togetherness”

▫ 1954 McCall’s Magazine▫ Ideal couple/family▫ Wed younger, children younger▫ Fertility rate rose▫ Increase in population

Antibiotics• Baby Boom

▫ 1946-1964▫ Concern of child-rearing

Dr. Benjamin Spock Don’t work Breastfeed Less scolding/spanking

▫ Trend 1950’s schools construction 1970’s homes

• Domesticity▫ Pop culture glorified marriage

Doris day, Debbie Reynolds▫ Despite, increasing #s in workforce

Laid groundwork for 1960’s feminism

• Religion▫ Church attendance up

Cold war anxieties▫ Surge of religious activity

Evangelist: Billy Graham RC Bishop: Fulton J. Sheen Prot. Minister: Norman Vincent

Peale▫ Pop Culture

Movies Ben Hur, Ten Commandments

Songs “I believe”, “Man Upstairs”

Congress Added “under God” to pledge Added “In God we Trust” to

currency Books

Bible sales all time high• Education

▫ Enrollment increased▫ Progressive educators promoted

socialibility Self-expression over math/science “well-rounded” students

Culture of the 1950s• Reflected prosperity and fear of Cold War

▫ Art New York/ Modernism Jackson Pollack

▫ Literature Dissatisfaction with jobs and homes

John Clecter’s “The Wapshot Chronicles” 1957

John Updike’s “Rabbit Run” 1960 African-American Culture

James Baldwin’s “Go tell it on the Mountain” 1953

Ralph Ellison’s “Invisible Man” 1951 Jewish Culture

Bernard Malamud’s “The Assistant” 1957

Philip Roth’s “Goodbye Columbus” 1959 Southern Culture

William Faulkner’s “The Town” 1957, “The Mansion” 1960

Eudora Weltly’s “The Ponder Heart” 1954

▫ Hollywood Diminished interest in political issues

Westerns, musicals, spectacles Working women replaced with dumb

blondes Minorities invisible Movie attendance down 50%

• Message of Medium: TV▫ 1946: 1 in 18,000 had a TV▫ 1960: 9 out of 10▫ Radio stations transitioned

ABC, CBS, NBC▫ TV Guide, TV Diners▫ Retail

Davy Crockett 1955 Coonskin hats

• TV Culture▫ At 1st showcased creativity and talent

Opera Documentaries Sitcoms with ethnic families

▫ As price decreased demand for mass appeal increased Few with conflict or controversy

Exception “The Honeymooners” “I love Lucy” controversy

“Leave it to Beaver” the norm▫ Difficult to assess impact

Racial and gender stereotypes reinforced

Virtually ended network radio Changed political life

McCarthy Trials, Checkers speech

The Other America• Poverty and Urban Blight

▫ 35 million below poverty line▫ Bulk lived in inner-city slums

African-Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans

▫ Michael Hummington’s “The Other America, Poverty in the United States” 1962 Poor trapped in vicious cycle Need for low-cost housing

• Black’s struggle for justice▫ 1954 Brown decision sparked new

civil rights movement Non-violent resistance

▫ Rosa Parks Dec. 1, 1955 Montgomery bus boycott Challenged in Supreme Court 1957 SCLC

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

• Latinos and Latinas▫ Inadequate schools and housing▫ Loss of culture

Puerto Ricans Mexican-Americans

▫ 1951 Bracero program reintroduced 7.5 million new irrigated acres in

SW▫ Operation “wetback” 1953-1955

Deportation of illegal immigrants▫ Supreme Court Decision

Banned exclusion of Mexican-Americans from juries (1954)

▫ Breaking boundaries 1st Mexican-American mayor 1958 Roberto Clemente

• Native Americans▫ Poorest minority▫ 1954-1962: 12 Termination bills of

reservations passed 60.000 relocated

Seeds of Disquiet• Sputnik

▫ October 4, 1957▫ 1st artificial satellite launched

by Soviet Union▫ Nov 3, 1957

Launched another satellite, this time with a dog inside

▫ US response Dec 6. 1957 “flopnik” Doubled funds for missiles

development Lead to creation of NASA

1958▫ New focus on education

National Defense Education Act 1958 Math, science, and foreign

languages new focus College enrollment increased

1.5 billion in new funding

Seeds of Disquiet• Social consequences

▫ Juvenile delinquency▫ Rock-n-Roll

1950’s Alan Freed Bill Haley’s “shake, rattle, and

roll” 1954 First white Rock-n-Roll hit

Corruption of youth, delinquency, mix races, devil’s music

• Elvis Presley▫ Embodied new Rock-n-Roll

movement▫ Record sales tripled ▫ “American Bandstand” 1960▫ Outsiders

Buddy Holly Frankie Lymon Richie Valens

• Portents of Change▫ Movies

Marlon Brando in “ The Wild One” 1954

James Dean in “Rebel without a Cause” 1955

▫ Beatniks Revolt against middle-class

America Allen Ginsberg’s “Howl”

1956 Jack Kerouac’s “On the

Road” 1957 Scorned conformity and

materialism “square” America Romanticized outcasts Reaction

Scorned by Mass media Admired by college youth

End of the “Nifty 50’s”• Revolution on the way