46
The Citric Acid Cycle Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

  • Upload
    others

  • View
    0

  • Download
    0

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Page 1: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

The Citric Acid Cycle

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 2: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Introduction

✓ Also called citric acid cycle or the Krebs cycle

(after its discoverer, Hans Krebs).

✓ TCA cycle is a series of reactions catalyzed by differentenzymes in which acetyl CoA is oxidized into CO2, H2Oand energy.

✓ It occurs in the mitochondrial matrix aerobically.

✓ The enzymes involved in the TCA cycle are present in themitochondrial matrix either free or attached to the innersurface of the mitochondrial membrane.

Page 3: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

✓ The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for theoxidation of fuel molecules:amino acids, fatty acids and carbohydrates.

✓ Most fuel molecules enter the cycle as acetyl coenzyme A.

✓ The function of the citric acid cycle is the harvesting of high-energy electrons from carbon fuels.

Continue..

Page 4: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Continue..

✓ The citric acid cycle itself neither generates a large amountof ATP nor includes oxygen as a reactant.

✓ Instead, the citric acid cycle removes electrons from acetylCoA and uses these electrons to form NADH and FADH2.

✓ The citric acid cycle includes a series of oxidation-reductionreactions that result in the oxidation of an acetyl group totwo molecules of carbon dioxide.

The citric acid cycle oxidizes two-carbon units, producing

two molecules of CO2, one molecule of GTP, and high-

energy electrons in the form of NADH and FADH2.

Page 5: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

The amphibolic nature of TCA cycle

✓ The citric acid cycle is the gateway to the aerobic metabolism ofany molecule that can be transformed into an acetyl group.

✓ The cycle is also an important source of precursors, not only forthe storage forms of fuels, but also for the building blocks of manyother molecules such as amino acids, nucleotide bases, cholesterol,and porphyrin.

This pathway is utilized for both catabolicreactions to generate energy & anabolicreactions to generate metabolicintermediates for biosynthesis.

Page 6: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Metabolic pathway

▪ In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons released in thereoxidation of NADH and FADH2 flow through a series ofmembrane proteins to generate a proton gradient across themembrane.

▪ The citric acid cycle, in conjunction with oxidativephosphorylation, provides the vast majority of energy usedby aerobic cells in human beings, greater than 95%.

✓ In TCA, the removal of high-energy

electrons from carbon fuels.

✓These electrons reduce O2 to generate a

proton gradient .

✓Which is used to synthesize ATP .

Page 7: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

The TCA Cycle Has Eight Steps

Page 8: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Reactions of Citric Acid Cycle

1. Citrate synthase: Formation of Citroyl CoA intermediate.

2. Binding of Oxaloacetate to the enzyme results in conformational

change which facilitates the binding of the next substrate, the acetyl

Coenzyme A. There is a further conformational change which leads to

formation of products. This mechanism of reaction is referred as

induced fit model.

Page 9: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

2. Aconitase: This enzyme catalyses the isomerization reaction by

removing and then adding back the water ( H and OH ) to cis-

aconitate in at different positions. Isocitrate is consumed rapidly

by the next step thus deriving the reaction in forward direction.

Page 10: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

3. Isocitrate dehydrogenase: There are two isoforms of this

enzyme, one uses NAD+ and other uses NADP+ as electron

acceptor.

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 11: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

4. a-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase: This is a complex of different

enzymatic activities similar to the pyruvate dyhdogenase complex.

It has the same mechanism of reaction with E1, E2 and E3 enzyme

units. NAD+ is an electron acceptor.

Page 12: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

5. Succinyl CoA synthatse: Sccinyl CoA, like Acetyl CoA has a

thioester bond with very negative free energy of hydrolysis. In this

reaction, the hydrolysis of the thioester bond leads to the

formation of phosphoester bond with inorganic phosphate. This

phosphate is transferred to Histidine residue of the enzyme and

this high energy, unstable phosphate is finally transferred to GDP

resulting in the generation of GTP.

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 13: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:
Page 14: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

6. Succinate Dehydrogenase: Oxidation of succinate to fumarate.

This is the only citric acid cycle enzyme that is tightly bound to the

inner mitochondrial membrane. It is an FAD dependent enzyme.

Malonate has similar structure to Succinate, and it competitively

inhibits SDH.

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 15: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

7. Fumarase: Hydration of Fumarate to malate: It is a highly

stereospecific enzyme. Cis-Maleate (the cis form of fumarate is not

recognized by this enzyme.

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 16: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

8. L-Malate dehydrogenase: Oxidation of malate to oxaloacetate: It is

an NAD+dependent enzyme. Reaction is pulled in forward direction

by the next reaction (citrate synthase reaction) as the oxaloacetate

is depleted at a very fast rate.

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 17: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Products of Kreb’s Cycle

▪ 2 CO2

▪ 3 NADH

▪ 1 ATP Per 1 Acetyl CoA (double for 1 glucose)

▪ 1 FADH2

▪ ATP Yield:

• Each NADH yields 3 ATP

• Each FADH2 yields 2 ATP

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 18: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Summary of total energy yield of complete oxidation of 1 glucose molecule

Step Coenzyme

Yield

ATP

Yield

Source of ATP

Glycolysis –Stage 1 - 2 Phosphorylation of glucose and

fructose uses 2 ATP

Glycolysis –Stage 2 4 Substrate level phosphorylation

2 NADH 6 Oxidative phosphorylation

Pyruvate metabolism 2 NADH 6 Oxidative phosphorylation

TCA cycle 2 Substrate level phosphorylation

6 NADH 18 Oxidative phosphorylation

2 FADH2 4 Oxidative phosphorylation

Total Yield 38 ATP

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 19: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Citric Acid Cycle

Page 20: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

ATP from glucose

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 21: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

ATP

Page 22: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

ATP

Page 23: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 24: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

ATP

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 25: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

ATP

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 26: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Citric Acid Cycle

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 27: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

148

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 28: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

149

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 29: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Respiratory chain السلسلة التنفسية

تفاعالت األكسدةتعتمد السلسلة التنفسية على مجموعة من إنزيمات األكسدة واالختزال التي تحفز تفاعالت خاصة تدعى

وعلى هذا األساس فان . وتعمل في أزواج حيث يكون أحد المركبات معطي لاللكترونات واآلخر مستقبل لهاواالختزال

.يقصد بها فقد االلكترونات من المركب وانتقالها إلى مركب آخر يتم اختزالهاألكسدة

المؤكسدة FAD+ و NAD+ فمركبات . يتم فيها نقل االلكترونات عبر ذرات الهيدروجينفاألكسدة الحيويةوبصفة عامة

oxidized form وبنقلها إلى السلسلة التنفسية لتعاد أكسدتها FADH2 و NADH يتم اختزالها في دورة كربس إلى

.( وتعود مرة أخرى لتحمل بااللكترونات( H+( (أي أنها تفقد الكتروناتها المكتسبة من دورة كربس على هيئة بروتون

Respiratory chain complexes معقدات السلسلة التنفسية

يوجد أربع مجموعات من اإلنزيمات المعقدة والداخلة في تركيب الغشاء الداخلي للميتوكوندريا وتعمل هذه المجموعات

:على هيئة سلسلة متتابعة لنقل االلكترونات من مادة الوقود إلى األكسجين وهي كما يلي

Complex (1) المعقد األول -أ

الناتج NADH وينحصر دوره في نقل االلكترونات من NADH-Co-enzyme-Q-oxidoreducatase يدعى

في مرحلة تحلل الجلوكوز في الخاليا الهوائية عن طريق إدخال مكافئ له إلى الميتوكوندريا أو الناتج من بوابة التنفس

.الموجود كأحد عناصر السلسلة التنفسية Co-enzyme- Q أو من دورة كربس إلى Aerobic gateway

Complex (2) المعقد الثاني-ب

إلى Succinate وهذا المعقد اإلنزيمي يؤكسد ال Succinate-Coenzyme-Q-oxidoreducatase يدعى

.Co-enzyme- Q وتنقل االلكترونات إلىFumarate

Complex (3) المعقد الثالث-ج

وهذا المعقد اإلنزيمي يستخدم مركب Reduced Coenzyme-Q-Cytochrome C-oxidoreductase يدعى

.Cytochrome C المختزل كمادة تفاعل وتنقل االلكترونات منه إلى Co-enzyme- Q

Page 30: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Complex (4) المعقد الرابع-د

ويعتبر آخر اإلنزيمات المؤكسدة ويعمل على نقل االلكترونات من السيتوكروم Cytochrome oxidase يدعى

المختزل إلى األكسجين ويعتبر إيقاف نشاط هذا اإلنزيم السبب األساسي للتسمم بالسيانيد الن السيانيد يمنعه من القيام

.وبالتالي يتوقف إنتاج الطاقة وتحدث الوفاة كنتيجة نهائية O2 بدوره في نقل االلكترونات إلى

Oxidative phosphorylation األكسدة الفسفورية

األكسدة الفسفورية هي عملية حيوية للحصول على أكبر قدر من الطاقة االيضية وجعلها متاحة في صورة مركب الطاقة

.الذي يستخدم النجاز عمليات فسيولوجية في الخلية الحية ATP

في الحاالت الطبيعية تتزامن األكسدة مع الفسفرة وهذا يعني أن الحاجة إلنتاج كمية من الطاقة يتطلب زيادة األكسدة

لمواد الوقود المتاحة وهذه ترتبط بزيادة معدل استهالك األكسجين

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 31: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

أكسدة

اختزال

ADP +Pi

ATP

2H + O = H2O

ATP

ATP

ADP +Pi

ADP +Pi

NADH

dehydrogenase

FAD

Cyt.b

Cyt.c1

Cyt.c

Cyt.a

Cyt.a3

Coenzyme Q

FADH2

2e-

2e-

2H+

أكسدة

أكسدة

أكسدة

أكسدة

أكسدة

أكسدة

اختزال

اختزال

اختزال

اختزال

اختزال

اختزال

2H

NAD+NADH + H+

2H+

2H+

2e-

2H

Page 32: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Electron transport chainالسلسلة التنفسية

التى ( نواتج دورة كربس NADH or FADH2 (من( فى ازواج)هى عملية نزع ذرات الهيدروجين•

مركبات )يصاحبها انتقال لاللكترونات المحملة عليها عبر سلسلة خطية من مركبات ناقلة لاللكترونات

تحول من رات الحديد وإثناء مرور االلكترونات تذالسيتوكرومات التى هى عبارة عن جزيئات تحتوى على

وبانتقال االلكترونات تفقد طاقتها على مراحل ( -Fe++ ➔Fe+++ , eالحديدوز الى الحديديك

ومجموعة الفوسفات ADPعن طريق الجمع بين ATPوتستخدم الطاقة المنطلقة فى تكوين مركب الطاقة

Piالغير عضوية

فى المرحلة االخيرة يتم نقل االلكترونات الى االكسجين ويتكون الماء•

Oxidative phosphorylationباالكسدة الفسفورية ATPتسمى عملية تكوين •

•Acetyl-Coenzyme Aعربة نقل الدخال ذرتين من الكربون الى دورة كربس

تعمل كعربة نقل لاللكترونات من دورة كربس الى السلسلة NADH or FADH2المرفقات االنزيمية •

التنفسية

Oxidativeفى هذة السلسلة يتم الربط بين انتقال االلكترونات وتكوين مركبات الطاقة بواسطة •

phosphorylation

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 33: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

ATP Electron Transport

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 34: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 35: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 36: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Bypassing the proton pumps leads

to production of heat instead of ATP

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 37: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 38: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Functionally, transport of OH- out is the same as

transport of H+ in.Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 39: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 40: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Liver, kidney,

and heart

Results in

NADH in the

matrix

Complicated, but free!

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 41: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Complicated, but free!

Liver, kidney,

and heart

Results in

NADH in the

matrix

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 42: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Electrons enter at Q.

Skeletal muscle and

brain

Easier, but costly!

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 43: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Regulation

Coordinated Control

Page 44: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Summary of total energy yield of complete oxidation of 1 glucose molecule

Step Coenzyme

Yield

ATP

Yield

Source of ATP

Glycolysis –Stage 1 - 2 Phosphorylation of glucose and

fructose uses 2 ATP

Glycolysis –Stage 2 4 Substrate level phosphorylation

2 NADH 6 Oxidative phosphorylation

Pyruvate metabolism 2 NADH 6 Oxidative phosphorylation

TCA cycle 2 Substrate level phosphorylation

6 NADH 18 Oxidative phosphorylation

2 FADH2 4 Oxidative phosphorylation

Total Yield 38 ATP

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 45: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Taha Mohammed

Page 46: The Citric Acid Cycle - Al-Mustansiriya University › media › lectures › 6 › 6... · The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules:

Citric Acid Cycle