The Children of Abraham The Believers and the Unbelievers Sunday, April 15, 2007 10 to 10:50 am, in the Parlor. Everyone is welcome!

The Children of The Children of AbrahamAbraham

The Believers and the UnbelieversThe Believers and the Unbelievers

Sunday, April 15, 200710 to 10:50 am, in the Parlor.

Everyone is welcome!

Primary ReferencesPrimary References

Three Faiths, One God: The Formative Three Faiths, One God: The Formative Faith and Practice of Judaism, Christianity, Faith and Practice of Judaism, Christianity, and Islamand Islam, Jacob Neusner, Bruce Chilton, , Jacob Neusner, Bruce Chilton, William Graham. Brill Academic Publishers, William Graham. Brill Academic Publishers, 20022002

Christian Theology. An Introduction. Third Christian Theology. An Introduction. Third EditionEdition. Alister E. McGrath, Blackwell . Alister E. McGrath, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, 2001Publishers, Oxford, 2001

Holy One, holy and eternal,Holy One, holy and eternal,awesome, exciting and delightful in your awesome, exciting and delightful in your

holiness;holiness;make us pure in heart to see you;make us pure in heart to see you;make us merciful to receive your make us merciful to receive your

kindness kindness and to share our love with all your human and to share our love with all your human

family;family;then will your name be hallowed on earth then will your name be hallowed on earth

as in heaven.as in heaven.

New Zealand Prayer Book, p. 113New Zealand Prayer Book, p. 113

The Believers and The Believers and the Unbelieversthe Unbelievers

IntroductionIntroduction

Believers and UnbelieversBelievers and UnbelieversIntroductionIntroduction

MonotheismMonotheism (One God, who reveals God’s self to (One God, who reveals God’s self to the faithful), naturally divides humanity into:the faithful), naturally divides humanity into: those who know the One God and respond to Godthose who know the One God and respond to God those who do not (the “idolaters”)those who do not (the “idolaters”)

Attitudes towards the Idolaters:Attitudes towards the Idolaters: Passive:Passive:

Judaism: avoids idolaters, praying that God in the end will bring all Judaism: avoids idolaters, praying that God in the end will bring all to faithto faith

Active:Active: Islam: believers given the task of bringing idolaters to faithIslam: believers given the task of bringing idolaters to faith Christianity: “Go forth and teach all nations. . .”Christianity: “Go forth and teach all nations. . .”


JudaismJudaism

JudaismJudaismThe Seventy NationsThe Seventy Nations

The Gentile nations were known as the “Seventy The Gentile nations were known as the “Seventy Nations” (from the Book of Genesis)Nations” (from the Book of Genesis) “ “the nations” = Hebrew the nations” = Hebrew goyyimgoyyim; Greek “Gentiles”; Greek “Gentiles”

Jews do not seek out converts, for salvation is Jews do not seek out converts, for salvation is considered more difficult for a Jew than a Gentileconsidered more difficult for a Jew than a Gentile Talmud: A Gentile wishing to convert to Judaism must be Talmud: A Gentile wishing to convert to Judaism must be

repelled three timesrepelled three times Gentiles can achieve salvation by following the Gentiles can achieve salvation by following the

Commandments of NoahCommandments of Noah

JudaismJudaismCommandments of the Children of NoahCommandments of the Children of Noah

1. Do not worship idols1. Do not worship idols 2. Do not commit murder2. Do not commit murder 3. Do not commit adultery and incest3. Do not commit adultery and incest 4. Do not eat a limb torn from a living animal4. Do not eat a limb torn from a living animal 5. Do not blaspheme5. Do not blaspheme 6. Do not steal6. Do not steal 7. Live by an adequate system of law and 7. Live by an adequate system of law and

justicejustice

JudaismJudaismA Holy Nation Amid a World of IdolatersA Holy Nation Amid a World of Idolaters

A Holy Nation Set Apart:A Holy Nation Set Apart: ““Now therefore, if you obey my voice and keep my Now therefore, if you obey my voice and keep my

covenant, you shall be my treasured possession covenant, you shall be my treasured possession out of all the peoples. Indeed, the whole earth is out of all the peoples. Indeed, the whole earth is mine, but you shall be for me a priestly kingdom mine, but you shall be for me a priestly kingdom and a holy nation.”and a holy nation.” Exodus 19:5-6 NRSV) Exodus 19:5-6 NRSV)

Idolatry – rebellious arrogance against God – makes Idolatry – rebellious arrogance against God – makes one unclean:one unclean: ““And he should not pass underneath it, but if he And he should not pass underneath it, but if he

passed underneath it, he is unclean.”passed underneath it, he is unclean.” (Abodah (Abodah Zarah 3:8, Halakhah on idolatry)Zarah 3:8, Halakhah on idolatry)


A Holy Nation Set Apart:A Holy Nation Set Apart: Israel must be a nation where the One God rules, Israel must be a nation where the One God rules,

free of idolatryfree of idolatry Although Israelites may exist in a world dominated Although Israelites may exist in a world dominated

by gentiles (idolaters), they are free to make by gentiles (idolaters), they are free to make choices (for example, in trade and services) that choices (for example, in trade and services) that will keep their nation free of the contamination of will keep their nation free of the contamination of idolatryidolatry


A Blessing to the Nations:A Blessing to the Nations: God, speaking to Abraham:God, speaking to Abraham:

““by your offspring shall all the nations of the by your offspring shall all the nations of the earth gain blessing for themselves, because you earth gain blessing for themselves, because you have obeyed my voice.”have obeyed my voice.” (Genesis 22:18 NRSV) (Genesis 22:18 NRSV)

Jacob Neusner:Jacob Neusner:

““Israel … forms the center and heart of humanity, Israel … forms the center and heart of humanity, and the gentiles circle in their orbits round and the gentiles circle in their orbits round about.”about.”


A Blessing to the Nations: How does Israel (the A Blessing to the Nations: How does Israel (the Jews), a holy nation, a priestly kingdom, serve as a Jews), a holy nation, a priestly kingdom, serve as a blessing for humanity?blessing for humanity? God’s mercy and sustaining of creation depends on the God’s mercy and sustaining of creation depends on the

faithfulness of Jews to the Torahfaithfulness of Jews to the Torah They teach God’s law by the example of their livingThey teach God’s law by the example of their living They perform acts of goodness to others. An ethical deed They perform acts of goodness to others. An ethical deed

for a gentile is an act of for a gentile is an act of Kiddush haShemKiddush haShem = “sanctification = “sanctification of the name of God”of the name of God”

If free to do so, they extend the social principles of the If free to do so, they extend the social principles of the Torah in the life of the nation in which they liveTorah in the life of the nation in which they live

JudaismJudaismJudaism and the Monotheistic ReligionsJudaism and the Monotheistic Religions

Jewish views on Christianity and Islam are Jewish views on Christianity and Islam are mixed. Maimonides (1135-1204):mixed. Maimonides (1135-1204): there is a divine design in Christianity and Islam in there is a divine design in Christianity and Islam in

their:their: spreading monotheism through the worldspreading monotheism through the world preparation of the world for the messianic time to comepreparation of the world for the messianic time to come


Maimonides: Maimonides:

“…“…it is beyond the human mind to fathom the it is beyond the human mind to fathom the designs of the Creator, for our ways are not designs of the Creator, for our ways are not His Ways, nor our thoughts His thoughts. All His Ways, nor our thoughts His thoughts. All these matters, relating to Jesus of Nazareth these matters, relating to Jesus of Nazareth and the Ishmaelite [Muhammad], who came and the Ishmaelite [Muhammad], who came after him, only served to clear the way for the after him, only served to clear the way for the King Messiah, to prepare the world for the King Messiah, to prepare the world for the worship of God with one voice.”worship of God with one voice.”


Rabbi Jacob Emden (1697-1776):Rabbi Jacob Emden (1697-1776):

““The founder of Christianity has given the The founder of Christianity has given the world a twofold blessing: He strengthened world a twofold blessing: He strengthened the Torah of Moses by emphasizing its the Torah of Moses by emphasizing its eternally binding power; in addition, he eternally binding power; in addition, he brought blessings to the heathen, as he brought blessings to the heathen, as he removed idolatry from their midst and removed idolatry from their midst and imposed upon them the higher moral imposed upon them the higher moral obligations that are contained in the Torah of obligations that are contained in the Torah of Moses. Moses.

There are many Christians of the highest There are many Christians of the highest qualities and outstanding morality. Would qualities and outstanding morality. Would that all Christians lived by their own that all Christians lived by their own commandments. They are not obligated, as commandments. They are not obligated, as are the Jews, to fulfill the law of Moses, nor are the Jews, to fulfill the law of Moses, nor do they commit a sin, if they associate other do they commit a sin, if they associate other beings to God as His partner, in worshipping beings to God as His partner, in worshipping the triune God. They will receive their reward the triune God. They will receive their reward from God for spreading the faith in Him from God for spreading the faith in Him among peoples that never before had even among peoples that never before had even heard of His Name, for He looks into the heard of His Name, for He looks into the heart”heart”


Poem “The Royal Crown” by Solomon ben Poem “The Royal Crown” by Solomon ben Judah Ibn Gabirol (11Judah Ibn Gabirol (11thth century) recited on the century) recited on the eve of Yom Kippur:eve of Yom Kippur:

““You are God! All creatures are Your You are God! All creatures are Your servants, serving You in worship. Your servants, serving You in worship. Your honor is not diminished through those honor is not diminished through those serving another next to You, for all serving another next to You, for all seek to attain to You.”seek to attain to You.”


However, Christianity and Islam are in error:However, Christianity and Islam are in error: The Messiah has The Messiah has not not yet comeyet come Belief in the incarnation and divinity of Jesus is Belief in the incarnation and divinity of Jesus is

strictly forbiddenstrictly forbidden


Maimonides (1135-1204):Maimonides (1135-1204):

““Has there ever been a greater stumbling block Has there ever been a greater stumbling block than this? All the prophets affirmed that the than this? All the prophets affirmed that the Messiah would redeem Israel, save them, Messiah would redeem Israel, save them, gather their dispersed, and confirm the gather their dispersed, and confirm the commandments. But he [Jesus] caused Israel commandments. But he [Jesus] caused Israel to be destroyed by the sword, their remnant to to be destroyed by the sword, their remnant to be dispersed and humiliated. He was be dispersed and humiliated. He was instrumental in changing Torah, causing the instrumental in changing Torah, causing the world to fall into error and serve another world to fall into error and serve another besides God.”besides God.”

JudaismJudaismJudaism and the Other ReligionsJudaism and the Other Religions

Regarding other faiths (such as Hinduism, Regarding other faiths (such as Hinduism, Buddhism …) the rabbis in the Tosefta Buddhism …) the rabbis in the Tosefta Sanhedrin 13:21 note:Sanhedrin 13:21 note:

““the righteous of all the nations of the the righteous of all the nations of the world have a share in the world to world have a share in the world to come.” come.”


IslamIslam

IslamIslamSalvation HistorySalvation History

From the beginning, God has given humanity From the beginning, God has given humanity clearclear signs of His sovereignty over creation: signs of His sovereignty over creation: in the wonders and beauty of creationin the wonders and beauty of creation in direct revelations through God’s messengers in direct revelations through God’s messengers

and prophetsand prophets Abraham: first Muslim, submitting with unconditional Abraham: first Muslim, submitting with unconditional

faith to the Living Godfaith to the Living God The revelation of the Qur’an, received through The revelation of the Qur’an, received through

Muhammad, was the final, culminating revelationMuhammad, was the final, culminating revelation


Therefore, unbelief is a perversity, for every Therefore, unbelief is a perversity, for every community had received God’s direct community had received God’s direct revelations, but then failed as “believers” in revelations, but then failed as “believers” in not preserving and living by themnot preserving and living by them For example: Jews and Christians had distorted or For example: Jews and Christians had distorted or

tampered with the revelations of their messengerstampered with the revelations of their messengers kafirskafirs = “those who ungratefully reject [God]” Not = “those who ungratefully reject [God]” Not

merely unbelievers, but merely unbelievers, but willful willful unbelieversunbelievers


Qur’an makes a distinction between:Qur’an makes a distinction between: 1. the “People of the Book” (1. the “People of the Book” (ahl alkitabahl alkitab)) 2. the idolatrous polytheists (2. the idolatrous polytheists (mushrikunmushrikun, “those , “those

who associate [partners with God]”)who associate [partners with God]”) For the early Muslim community or Umma, during the For the early Muslim community or Umma, during the

time when the Qur’an was still being revealed, these time when the Qur’an was still being revealed, these were typically pagan Arab tribeswere typically pagan Arab tribes

IslamIslamQur’an and the People of the BookQur’an and the People of the Book

The Qur’an provides mixed messages about The Qur’an provides mixed messages about the “People of the Book”the “People of the Book”

Some passages recognize their piety and faith:Some passages recognize their piety and faith: ““The [Muslim] believers, the Jews, the The [Muslim] believers, the Jews, the

Christians, and the Sabians – all those Christians, and the Sabians – all those who believe in God and the Last Day and who believe in God and the Last Day and do good – will have their rewards with their do good – will have their rewards with their Lord.”Lord.” (Qur’an 2:62) (Qur’an 2:62)


Some passages recognize their piety and faith:Some passages recognize their piety and faith: [Muslim believers should][Muslim believers should] “argue only in the “argue only in the

best way with the People of the Book, best way with the People of the Book, except with those of them who act except with those of them who act unjustly. Say, ‘We believe in what was unjustly. Say, ‘We believe in what was revealed to us and in what was revealed to revealed to us and in what was revealed to you; our God and your God are one [and you; our God and your God are one [and the same]; we are devoted to Him.’”the same]; we are devoted to Him.’” (Qur’an (Qur’an 29:46)29:46)


Some passages suggest certain groups of the Some passages suggest certain groups of the “People of the Book” lack true faith:“People of the Book” lack true faith: ““Some of the People of the Book would Some of the People of the Book would

dearly love to lead you [believers] astray, dearly love to lead you [believers] astray, but they only lead themselves astray …”but they only lead themselves astray …” (Qur’an 3:69)(Qur’an 3:69)

““Those who disbelieve among the People Those who disbelieve among the People of the Book and the idolaters will have the of the Book and the idolaters will have the Fire of Hell, there to remain. They are the Fire of Hell, there to remain. They are the worst of creation.”worst of creation.” (Qur’an 98:6) (Qur’an 98:6)


Some passages praise Christians while Some passages praise Christians while condemning Jews:condemning Jews: ““You You [Prophet][Prophet] are sure to find that the are sure to find that the

most hostile to the believers are the Jews most hostile to the believers are the Jews and those who associate other deities with and those who associate other deities with God; you are sure to find that the closest God; you are sure to find that the closest in affection towards the believers are in affection towards the believers are those who say, ‘We are Christians,’ for those who say, ‘We are Christians,’ for there are among them people devoted to there are among them people devoted to learning and ascetics …”learning and ascetics …” (Qur’an 5:82) (Qur’an 5:82)


And some passages criticize all the “People of the And some passages criticize all the “People of the Book” who have not recognized Islam as the Book” who have not recognized Islam as the fulfillment of their faith:fulfillment of their faith: ““Say, ‘People of the Book, why do you reject Say, ‘People of the Book, why do you reject

God’s revelations? God witnesses everything you God’s revelations? God witnesses everything you do.’ Say, ‘People of the Book, why do you turn the do.’ Say, ‘People of the Book, why do you turn the believers away from God’s path and try to make it believers away from God’s path and try to make it crooked, when you yourselves [should be] crooked, when you yourselves [should be] witnesses to the [truth]? …’”witnesses to the [truth]? …’” (Qur’an 3:98-99) (Qur’an 3:98-99)


Qur’anic passages have been used to justify:Qur’anic passages have been used to justify: toleration of Jews and Christians, ortoleration of Jews and Christians, or belligerence towards thembelligerence towards them

Tolerance: Tolerance: “There is no compulsion in “There is no compulsion in religion: … whoever rejects false gods religion: … whoever rejects false gods and believes in God has grasped the and believes in God has grasped the firmest hand-hold, one that will never firmest hand-hold, one that will never break.”break.” (Qur’an 2:256) (Qur’an 2:256)


Belligerence: Belligerence: “The Sword Verses”“The Sword Verses” “… “… wherever you encounter the idolaters, kill wherever you encounter the idolaters, kill

them, seize them, besiege them, wait for them at them, seize them, besiege them, wait for them at every outlook post….”every outlook post….” (Qur’an 9:5) (Qur’an 9:5)

““Fight those of the People of the Book who do not Fight those of the People of the Book who do not [truly] believe in God and the Last Day, who do [truly] believe in God and the Last Day, who do not forbid what God and His Messenger have not forbid what God and His Messenger have forbidden, who do not obey the rule of justice, forbidden, who do not obey the rule of justice, until they pay the tax and agree to submit.”until they pay the tax and agree to submit.” (Qur’an (Qur’an 9:29)9:29)


““Taking all the diverse qur’anic Taking all the diverse qur’anic statements about the people of statements about the people of Scripture together, it is impossible to Scripture together, it is impossible to ascertain a single clear ‘line’ regarding ascertain a single clear ‘line’ regarding their proper treatment at the hands to their proper treatment at the hands to Muslims”Muslims” (William Graham, in (William Graham, in Three Faiths, Three Faiths, One GodOne God))

IslamIslamModern Attitudes to People of the BookModern Attitudes to People of the Book

In the modern age, with the experiences of:In the modern age, with the experiences of: the Christian Crusadesthe Christian Crusades the Ottoman-Christian state rivalriesthe Ottoman-Christian state rivalries European colonialismEuropean colonialism

Muslim attitudes to Christian and Jews have Muslim attitudes to Christian and Jews have tended to be more intolerant or belligerent tended to be more intolerant or belligerent because of perceived threatsbecause of perceived threats

IslamIslamEarly Islam and People of the BookEarly Islam and People of the Book

In the early Islamic states, there was remarkable tolerance In the early Islamic states, there was remarkable tolerance towards Christians and Jewstowards Christians and Jews

Covenant of Umar: Covenant of Umar: People of the Book were given People of the Book were given “protected status” or “protected status” or dhimmi,dhimmi, and could practice their religion and could practice their religion within limits. They:within limits. They: could not publicize or proselytize their religioncould not publicize or proselytize their religion could not built new houses of worship, but could repair existing could not built new houses of worship, but could repair existing

structuresstructures had to wear distinctive clothinghad to wear distinctive clothing had to pay a poll tax had to pay a poll tax jizyajizya (in lieu of the (in lieu of the zakatzakat for Muslims) for Muslims) had to treat Muslims with respect and deferencehad to treat Muslims with respect and deference could not bear arms, ride horses, or serve in the militarycould not bear arms, ride horses, or serve in the military

IslamIslamIdolatrous PolytheistsIdolatrous Polytheists

There was no tolerance towards the polytheists There was no tolerance towards the polytheists (in early Islam, these were typically the pagan (in early Islam, these were typically the pagan Arab tribes)Arab tribes)

The polytheists were enemies of GodThe polytheists were enemies of God

IslamIslamIdolatrous PolytheistsIdolatrous Polytheists

Polytheists were to be fought wherever they were Polytheists were to be fought wherever they were encountered if they did not convert:encountered if they did not convert: Muhammad, quoted in the hadith Muhammad, quoted in the hadith al-Bukharial-Bukhari 56:22:1: 56:22:1:

““Paradise lies in the shadows of swords”Paradise lies in the shadows of swords” Muhammad, quoted in the hadith Muhammad, quoted in the hadith al-Bukhari al-Bukhari 56:102:5:56:102:5:

““I have been commanded to fight people until I have been commanded to fight people until they say, “There is no god but God.” And whoever they say, “There is no god but God.” And whoever says “there is no god but God,” his life and his says “there is no god but God,” his life and his property shall be kept inviolate by me, save for property shall be kept inviolate by me, save for his lawful due, and his accounting will be with his lawful due, and his accounting will be with God.”God.”

IslamIslamThe Natural Predisposition To IslamThe Natural Predisposition To Islam

Every person is born Every person is born muslimmuslim, submissive to , submissive to God. There is a natural predisposition (God. There is a natural predisposition (fitrahfitrah) ) to the true faithto the true faith

Every infant born is born with the Every infant born is born with the fitrahfitrah; then ; then his parents make him a Jew or a Christian or a his parents make him a Jew or a Christian or a Magian [Zoroastrian] (Sahih 45:22 Hadith)Magian [Zoroastrian] (Sahih 45:22 Hadith)

IslamIslamThe Natural Predisposition To IslamThe Natural Predisposition To Islam

Because of this, there is a tendency to see all Because of this, there is a tendency to see all unbelievers as potentially reclaimable unbelievers as potentially reclaimable monotheists, so long as they do not monotheists, so long as they do not ungratefully reject:ungratefully reject: the clear signs of God in the world around themthe clear signs of God in the world around them the clear revelations of God in His final Scripture, the clear revelations of God in His final Scripture,

the Qur’anthe Qur’an da’wahda’wah = “calling” to repentance and true faith = “calling” to repentance and true faith


ChristianityChristianity

ChristianityChristianityChristian Approaches to Other ReligionsChristian Approaches to Other Religions

1. Particularism1. Particularism 2. Inclusivism2. Inclusivism 3. Pluralism3. Pluralism

ChristianityChristianityParticularismParticularism

““God has revealed the Way and the Truth and God has revealed the Way and the Truth and the Life in Jesus Christ, and wills this to be the Life in Jesus Christ, and wills this to be known throughout the world”known throughout the world” (Hendrik (Hendrik Kraemer, 1888-1965)Kraemer, 1888-1965)

The revelation of Christianity is in a category of its The revelation of Christianity is in a category of its own. It is a unique, and distinctive faith. The own. It is a unique, and distinctive faith. The “revelations” found in other religions are inauthentic, “revelations” found in other religions are inauthentic, purely human inventionspurely human inventions

Another term: Another term: exclusivismexclusivism


Two camps of Two camps of ParticularistsParticularists:: 1. There is 1. There is nono knowledge of God to be found knowledge of God to be found

outside of Christ (Karl Barth, 1886-1968)outside of Christ (Karl Barth, 1886-1968) 2. God’s self-revelation 2. God’s self-revelation maymay occur outside of occur outside of

Christianity, but Christianity, but can only be interpreted correctlycan only be interpreted correctly in the light of the revelation of God in Jesus Christ in the light of the revelation of God in Jesus Christ (Hendrik Kraemer, 1888-1965)(Hendrik Kraemer, 1888-1965)


Criticism of Particularism:Criticism of Particularism: Inconsistent with the God’s desire to save all Inconsistent with the God’s desire to save all

human beings. human beings. What of those who have not heard the gospel, or What of those who have not heard the gospel, or

choose to reject it?choose to reject it?


Fulgentius of Ruspe, a disciple of St. Fulgentius of Ruspe, a disciple of St. Augustine 4th century, wrote:Augustine 4th century, wrote: ““The holy Roman Church firmly believes, The holy Roman Church firmly believes,

professes and proclaims that none of those who professes and proclaims that none of those who are outside of the Catholic Church – not only are outside of the Catholic Church – not only pagans, but Jews also, heretics and schismatics – pagans, but Jews also, heretics and schismatics – can have part in eternal life, but will go into can have part in eternal life, but will go into eternal fire, ‘which was prepared for the devil and eternal fire, ‘which was prepared for the devil and his angels,’ unless they are gathered into that his angels,’ unless they are gathered into that Church before the end of life.”Church before the end of life.”


Karl Barth (1886-1968):Karl Barth (1886-1968): Knowledge of God and salvation are possible Knowledge of God and salvation are possible onlyonly

through Christthrough Christ However, at the end of history, grace will triumph However, at the end of history, grace will triumph

over unbelief, and all will come to faith in Christover unbelief, and all will come to faith in Christ The particularity of God’s revelation through Christ is The particularity of God’s revelation through Christ is

thus compatible with belief in universal salvationthus compatible with belief in universal salvation

ChristianityChristianityInclusivismInclusivism

Most significant advocate: Jesuit theologian Karl Most significant advocate: Jesuit theologian Karl Rahner (1904-1984). In volume 5 of Rahner (1904-1984). In volume 5 of Theological Theological InvestigationsInvestigations he makes these points: he makes these points: 1. 1. “Christianity understands itself as the absolute “Christianity understands itself as the absolute

religion, intended for all people, which cannot religion, intended for all people, which cannot recognize any other religion beside itself as of recognize any other religion beside itself as of equal right.”equal right.”

2. revelation of God in Christ took place at a specific time in 2. revelation of God in Christ took place at a specific time in history. Those who lived before, or who have not yet heard of history. Those who lived before, or who have not yet heard of it, would therefore seemed excluded from salvation. But this it, would therefore seemed excluded from salvation. But this is incompatible with God’s will to save all.is incompatible with God’s will to save all.


Most significant advocate: Jesuit theologian Karl Most significant advocate: Jesuit theologian Karl Rahner (1904-1984). In volume 5 of Rahner (1904-1984). In volume 5 of Theological Theological InvestigationsInvestigations he makes these points: he makes these points: 3. Knowledge of God, and God’s saving grace must 3. Knowledge of God, and God’s saving grace must

therefore be available outside Christianity, including other therefore be available outside Christianity, including other religions, despite their errors and shortcomings religions, despite their errors and shortcomings

4. Faithful adherents of non-Christians religions should be 4. Faithful adherents of non-Christians religions should be regarded as “anonymous Christians”regarded as “anonymous Christians”

5. Religious pluralism will always be part of human 5. Religious pluralism will always be part of human existenceexistence


To summarize Karl Rahner (1904-1984):To summarize Karl Rahner (1904-1984): Christianity and Christ have a unique and exclusive status Christianity and Christ have a unique and exclusive status

that other religions do not share. Other religions are not that other religions do not share. Other religions are not equal to Christianityequal to Christianity

Nevertheless:Nevertheless: knowledge of God and God’s self-revelation may be present in knowledge of God and God’s self-revelation may be present in

other religionsother religions the grace of God and even salvation may be present in other the grace of God and even salvation may be present in other

religionsreligions God’s grace might be mediated by the lifestyle other religions evoke, God’s grace might be mediated by the lifestyle other religions evoke,

e.g. selfless lovee.g. selfless love

ChristianityChristianityPluralismPluralism

Pluralism: each religion is a distinctive yet Pluralism: each religion is a distinctive yet equally equally valid understanding of God or ultimate valid understanding of God or ultimate realityreality

Most significant advocate: John Hick (b. 1922) Most significant advocate: John Hick (b. 1922) God and the Universe of FaithsGod and the Universe of Faiths (1973) (1973) The Second ChristianityThe Second Christianity (1983) (1983)


John Hick (b. 1922): we must distinguish John Hick (b. 1922): we must distinguish between:between: the ultimate spiritual, transcendent reality the ultimate spiritual, transcendent reality

underlying the various religious systems, andunderlying the various religious systems, and the perceptions of this reality within the various the perceptions of this reality within the various

religions (shaped by culture and historical religions (shaped by culture and historical accidents)accidents)


John Hick (b. 1922): John Hick (b. 1922): The same spiritual reality lies at the heart of every The same spiritual reality lies at the heart of every

religion, yet religion, yet “their differing experiences of “their differing experiences of that reality, interacting over the centuries that reality, interacting over the centuries with the different thought-forms of with the different thought-forms of different cultures, have led to increasing different cultures, have led to increasing differentiation and contrasting differentiation and contrasting elaboration”elaboration”

Differences should be regarded as “both-and” Differences should be regarded as “both-and” rather than “either-or”rather than “either-or”


Criticism of Criticism of PluralismPluralism:: Some differences between the various religions Some differences between the various religions

cannot be reconciled in a “both-and” manner. They cannot be reconciled in a “both-and” manner. They are clearly contradictoryare clearly contradictory

Sets aside a major Christian conviction: that Jesus Sets aside a major Christian conviction: that Jesus Christ is a unique revelation of God. This point of Christ is a unique revelation of God. This point of view therefore cannot be considered a “Christian” view therefore cannot be considered a “Christian” perspectiveperspective

ChristianityChristianitySummarySummary

The revelation of The revelation of God in Jesus Christ God in Jesus Christ

is unique and is unique and reveals most fully reveals most fully the true nature of the true nature of

God God

God’s self-God’s self-revelation and grace revelation and grace are present outside are present outside

of Christianity of Christianity

Particularism Particularism YesYes NoNo

Inclusivism Inclusivism YesYes YesYes

Pluralism Pluralism NoNo YesYes

Primary ReferencesPrimary References

Three Faiths, One God: The Formative Three Faiths, One God: The Formative Faith and Practice of Judaism, Christianity, Faith and Practice of Judaism, Christianity, and Islamand Islam, Jacob Neusner, Bruce Chilton, , Jacob Neusner, Bruce Chilton, William Graham. Brill Academic Publishers, William Graham. Brill Academic Publishers, 20022002

Christian Theology. An Introduction. Third Christian Theology. An Introduction. Third EditionEdition. Alister E. McGrath, Blackwell . Alister E. McGrath, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, 2001Publishers, Oxford, 2001

Documents

The Children of Abraham The Believers and the Unbelievers Sunday, April 15, 2007 10 to 10:50 am, in the Parlor. Everyone is welcome!