The Changing Social Characteristics of Skilled Manual Work: The ‘Longue

Durée’ in GB and the USA

Professor Roger PennLancaster University

September 2010

The Nature of the Presentation

• An examination of the changing social characteristics of skilled manual work in Britain and the USA

• The primary focus will be on gender and ethnicity

• Census data form the cornerstone of the analysis

• The scope will be the ‘longue durée’

Previous Research• Skilled manual workers have been a major

component of the stratification systems in the advanced societies of Europe and North America

• There has been a longstanding debate about the overall trajectory of skilled work in the post-1945 period

The Sociological Debate about Skilled Work

• The pessimistic view ~ Marxist theory of deskilling: skilled work is disappearing

• The optimistic view ~ Human Capital/ Post-Industrialism theories: skilled work is

increasing• The compensatory theory of skill ~

developed at Lancaster: some skilled work is disappearing and some is increasing

The New Theory of an ‘Hour Glass’ Economy

Earlier Formulations

The ‘Hour Glass’ Economy/Society I

• This theory argues that a new structure of jobs is emerging

• This is captured by the metaphor of the ‘hour glass’ [egg-timer]

• Jobs are expanding at the top of the occupational hierarchy and at the bottom simultaneously

• Intermediate occupations are disappearing

The ‘Hour Glass’ Economy/Society II

• This model is particularly popular amongst researchers in the field of international migration in the USA

• They see some groups of international migrants [eg Latinos] locked into the lower end of the occupational hierarchy

• The traditional route for social advancement in the USA is seen as unavailable as a result of the disappearance of opportunities within ‘intermediate’ occupational strata

The ‘Hour Glass’ Economy/Society III

• What are intermediate occupational groups?• They refer to jobs which are neither

professional/managerial nor nonskilled• They include skilled manual work ~ these are

entered either via an apprenticeship or through a lengthy internal career ladder

• They also include technicians, semi-professions like nursing and supervisory occupations

• Have they declined in the contemporary era?

Figure 1: Occupational Structure of Jobs in the USA, 1980-2000

Source: US Censuses of Population 1980, 1990 and 2000

Figure 2: Occupational Structure of Jobs in the USA in 3 Groupings, 1980-2000

0 10 20 30 40 50

Managerial/Professional

Intermediate

Service/Operator/Transport& Moving Materials/Others

Year 2000

Year 1990

Year 1980

Source: US Censuses of Population 1980, 1990 and 2000

The ‘Hour Glass’ Economy/Society IV

• It is clear that intermediate occupations remain a central component of the American occupational structure

• It is also apparent that skilled manual workers also remain an important element within this occupational structure [changing definitions of categories make precise delineation in this area difficult]

Skilled Manual Workers I• What have been the social characteristics of

skilled manual workers historically?• They have been overwhelmingly male and

White since the onset of industrialization in the nineteenth century

• This began to change in the USA after the introduction of affirmative action in the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s

• No parallel change took place in Britain between 1951 and 1991

Skilled Manual Workers II• In this presentation we will explore how these

parameters have changed during the 1990s by the use of Census data from the USA [2000] and GB [2001]

Skilled Manual Workers III• The two key questions addressed are:

1.Has the trend in the USA towards greater female and non-White participation in skilled manual work continued during the 1990s?

2.Has the pattern of gender and ethnic exclusivity changed in Britain during the same period?

• The answers to these two questions are situated within longitudinal cross-sectional Census data

Proportion of Skilled Construction Trades by Gender in USA: 1970-2000

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Carpenters Painters Plumbers/Pipefitters Electricians

Occupation

Perc

enta

ge 1970 Female1980 Female1990 Female2000 Female

Skilled Manual Workers & Gender in the USA [1970-2000] I

• The increase in the proportion of female skilled construction workers in the USA has continued during the 1990s in three of the four skilled occupational groups

• The proportion of female skilled construction workers nonetheless remains low

Proportion of Skilled Metal Trades by Gender in USA: 1970-2000

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Machinists Welders/Cutters Tool & Die Makers Sheetmetal Workers

Occupation

Perc

enta

ge 1970 Female1980 Female1990 Female2000 Female

Skilled Manual Workers & Gender in the USA [1970-2000] II

• There has been an increase in the proportion of female skilled metalworkers during the 1990s in three of the four skilled trades

• The proportion of female skilled metalworkers workers remains low but is higher than for construction trades

Proportion of Other Skilled Trades by Gender in USA: 1970-2000

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Auto Mechanics Aircraft Mechanics Telephone LineInstallers

Telephone Installers Mining MachineOperators

Typesetters/Compositors

Occupation

Perc

enta

ge 1970 Female1980 Female1990 Female2000 Female

Proportion of Other Skilled Trades by Gender in USA: 1970-2000

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Auto Mechanics Aircraft Mechanics Telephone Line Installers Telephone Installers Mining MachineOperators

Occupation

Perc

enta

ge 1970 Female1980 Female1990 Female2000 Female

Skilled Manual Workers & Gender in the USA [1970-2000] III• The pattern amongst these other six skilled trades is more

complex• Typesetters/compositors have been significantly

feminized over the period ~ although the trend reversed between 1990 and 2000

• Auto mechanics and mining machine operators remained overwhelmingly male

• Aircraft mechanics are proportionately more female than auto mechanics ~ this is probably due to the impact of the US military

• The proportion of female Telephone Installers and Telephone Line Installers both significantly increased between 1970 and 2000 but the trend reversed during the 1990s ~ the former trend was mainly the result of affirmative action suits during the 1970s

Skilled Manual Workers & Gender in the USA [1970-2000]: Summary of Changes

• TABLE HERE

Proportion of Skilled Construction Trades by Ethnicity in USA: 1980-2000

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Carpenters Painters Plumbers/Pipefitters Electricians

Occupation

Perc

enta

ge

1980 Black1990 Black2000 Black1980 Hispanic1990 Hispanic2000 Hispanic

Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] I

• The proportion of skilled construction workers from Black and Latino backgrounds was much higher than the proportion of females in these occupations

• The proportion of Latino skilled construction workers had increased rapidly, particularly during the 1990s

• The proportion of Black skilled construction workers had not increased markedly: indeed in two instances it had fallen between 1970 and 2000

Proportion of Skilled Metal Trades by Ethnicity in USA: 1980-2000

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Machinists Welders/Cutters Tool & Die Makers Sheetmetal Workers

Occupation

Perc

enta

ge

1980 Black1990 Black2000 Black1980 Hispanic1990 Hispanic2000 Hispanic

Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] II

• The same pattern was evident amongst skilled metalworkers

• The proportion of Latino skilled metalworking workers had increased rapidly

• This was particularly the case during the 1990s for welders/cutters and sheetmetal workers

• The proportion of Black skilled metalworkers had not increased in most instances: indeed in three of the skilled metalworking trades it had fallen between 1970 and 2000

Proportion of Other Skilled Trades by Ethnicity in USA: 1980-2000

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Auto Mechanics Aircraft Mechanics Telephone LineInstallers

Telephone Installers Mining MachineOperators

Typesetters/Compositors

Occupation

Perc

enta

ge

1980 Black1990 Black2000 Black1980 Hispanic1990 Hispanic2000 Hispanic

Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] III

• A similar pattern was evident amongst the other six skilled trades examined

• In all cases the proportion of Latinos increased over the period between 1970 and 2000 and in most cases [5] it accelerated during the 1990s

• The proportion of Blacks increased during the period between 1970 and 2000 in five of the skilled trades

• But in two cases [aircraft mechanics & mining machine operators] it fell during the 1990s

Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000]: Summary of Changes

Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] IV

• Overall it is clear that skilled manual workers remained predominantly White and overwhelmingly male during the period between 1970 and 2000

• Affirmative action in the USA has had a greater impact upon ethnic exclusivity than on gender exclusion

• There is strong evidence that skilled manual work offers considerable opportunities for Latinos in the USA ~ many of whom are international migrants or the children of international migrants

• It offered less opportunities for Latinas

Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] V

• Nonetheless, the proportion of Latino skilled workers in 2000 only exceeded their percentage in the overall population [12.5%]* in four cases ~ carpenters, painters,welders/cutters and auto mechanics

• The proportion of Black skilled workers never exceeded their overall percentage in the overall population in 2000 [12.3%]

Gender and Skilled Work in GB, 1951-2001

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

% F

EM

ALE

C arpenters & joiners

P ainters & dec orators

S heetmetal workers

Toolmakers

Welders

E lectric ians

Motor mechanics

Gender & Skilled Work in GB, 1951-2001

• Most skilled manual workers have been male throughout the post-war period in Britain

• The proportion of carpenters/joiners, toolmakers and motor mechanics who were female has risen slightly between 1951 and 2001 but remains less than 2% in all three cases

• The proportion of female sheetmetal workers fell significantly during the period ~ the 1951 figure was a residue from World War II when women were allowed entry into this previously ‘male’ occupation

• The proportion of female painters/decorators, welders and motor mechanics fell during the 1990s

Skilled Workers x Ethnicity:1991 GB Census [Two Measures]

White Black SouthAsian

Chinese

Total 95.8 1.3 2.2 0.3Social Class: Skilled Manual 96.4 1.3 1.8 0.2Socio-Econ Group: Skilled Manual 96.7 1.3 1.7 0.03Source:1991 Census Ethnic Group and Country of Birth Table 16

Ethnicity and Skilled Work in GB [1991]: I

• In 1991 almost all skilled manual workers in GB were White

• Skilled work was disproportionately White ~ Blacks were not under-represented but South Asians were

Ethnicity x Skilled Groupings: 1991 GB Census [%]

Black Caribbean

South Asian

Total 1.0 2.0

Construction 0.7 0.5Metalworking 0.8 1.1Electrical/ Electronic 1.4 1.5

Welding/ Metal forming 1.1 1.0

Vehicle 1.3 1.7Printing 0.9 1.3Source: 1991 Census of Great Britain Table DGM2 ‘Ethnic Group by Occupation Minor Groups and Sex [10% Sample]

Ethnicity and Skilled Work in GB [1991]: II

• Afro-Caribbeans are somewhat under-represented in construction and metalworking trades but over-represented in electrical/electronic, welding/metal forming and vehicle trades

• South Asians are under-represented in all trades but this varied across the spectrum of skilled work

Proportion of Skilled Occupations by Ethnicity in GB: 2001

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

Occupation

Perc

enta

ge Black

South Asian

Ethnicity and Skilled Work in GB [2001]: I

• Blacks were under-represented* in most trades [apart from telephone engineers]

Ethnicity and Skilled Work in GB [2001]: II

• South Asians* were also under-represented in almost all areas of skilled manual work

• The exceptions was once more as telephone engineers

• This under-representation amongst South Asians was most marked in mining and painting & decorating

Overall Conclusions I• Skilled manual workers remain an

important element in the stratification systems of the USA and GB

• The ‘hour glass’ economy is a myth• Skilled work remains overwhelmingly

male and predominantly White in the USA and GB

Overall Conclusions II• The trend towards greater female and non-White

participation in skilled manual work in the USA has continued in some cases during the 1990s but not in others

• Around half the skilled trades had become less female during the 1990s

• The proportion of Latinos in skilled work had accelerated during the 1990s but the proportion of Black skilled workers had fallen in xxx cases

Overall Conclusions III• There was a marked asymmetry between

Latinos and Blacks• These results indicate that skilled work

continued to offer increasing opportunities for Latinos in the US labour market ~ many of whom are international migrants or their children

Overall Conclusions IV• The picture in Britain was one of

powerful structural inertia ~ skilled work remained overwhelmingly male and predominantly White

• South Asians were markedly more under-represented in skilled work than Blacks ~ a situation of marked ethnic asymmetry