The Challenges and Opportunities of Managing Volunteers_MA Thesis_Tewodros Shibru

8/12/2019 The Challenges and Opportunities of Managing Volunteers_MA Thesis_Tewodros Shibru

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The Challenges and Opportunities of

Managing Volunteers

The Case of

Volunteer Resource Management (VRM)

Practices of VECOD

By

Tewodros Shibru

June-2013

Ethiopian Graduate School of Theology

Addis Ababa


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The Challenges and Opportunities of Managing Volunteers:

The Case of Volunteer Resource Management (VRM) Practices of VECOD

By

Tewodros Shibru

Thesis Advisor

Tekeste Teclu (PhD)

Thesis submitted to Ethiopian Graduate School of Theology in partial

fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Masters of Art in Leadership

and Management.

15-June-2013

Ethiopian Graduate School of Theology


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Thesis Declaration and Approval

Declaration

I, Tewodros Shibru, candidate for the Master of Arts Degree in Leadership and

Management at Ethiopian Graduate School of Theology, hereby declare that this thesis,

except the citations indicated in the text, s is my original work.

Tewodros Shibru

_____________________Signature

15-June-2013

Thesis Approval

Thesis Approved by

Tekeste Teclu (PhD)

Thesis Advisor

_______________

Signature

Ledetu Alemu (Dr.)

Thesis Examiner

_______________

Signature


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Abstract

This thesis describes the opportunities that exist in volunteerism and the

challenges encountered by those who want to utilize and manage this immense

resource. The thesis explains the principles, essential elements, best practices and

theories related with volunteerism. The research argues effective utilization of

volunteer resource entails the deliberate adoption of volunteer resource

management principles. To demonstrate this fact, an apparently successful

organization was selected as a case study and an in-depth examination of its

volunteer resource management practices was examined.

The intention was to examine factors that are enabling or disabling in the

recruitment and retention of volunteers. The literature review also scan the

theoretical frameworks, situation and value of volunteerism and its essential

elements and best practices.

This study employed qualitative study using a case study approach. The

researchs finding was in line with the prediction of the assumption that was made

at the outset of the study. It also backed up the theories, best practices and

elements of volunteer resource management in most cases.

The research found that the case under study was able to apply most of the

principles of VRM. It was able to recruit and retain large reservoir of volunteers

implying that other charities can follow suit.


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Acknowledgment

My sincere thanks and appreciation goes to my wife Kelem Bekele (Qaqu) who

actually encouraged me and sent me to join EGST and helped me and stand by

me all the way. Thank you Qaqu! I also like to extend my thanks to my kids-

Iyesusawit and Applos-who were very understanding but eager too to see me

finish so that I can spend more time with them. Thank you both of you.

My deepest appreciation and thanks also goes to Dr. Tekeste Teclu who was my

instructor, course leader and finally a supportive and understanding thesis advisor.

Thank you also for your fatherly concern and all the efforts you have made in

matters of my personal life out of the school businesses. Thank you!

I would like also to thank my immediate supervisor and Retrak Ethiopia Country

Director, Dr. Lynnette Kay for her willingness to support me in my study and this

research and for reading my thesis and providing me with her feedback. Thank

you Dr. Lynn.

My gratitude to Ato Tadele Derseh, Executive Director of VECOD for allowing

me to make this case study on the organization. My appreciation also goes to staff

of VECOD Ato Yonas (Project Coordinator) and Wrt. Birtukan (Training

Coordinator) for their support in this research.

Finally, it is only God who deserves all the glory for everything comes from God

alone. Everything lives by His power, and everything is for His glory. To Him be

glory evermore. (Rom 11:36 TLB)


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Acronym

CSO Civil Society Organization

EPRDF Ethiopian People Revolutionary Democratic Front

ILO International Labor Organization

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

SWVR State of the Worlds Volunteerism Report

TOT Training of Trainers

VRM Volunteer Resource Management

UN United Nations

UPS United Parcel Service

UNV United Nation Volunteers

VECOD Vision Ethiopia Congress for Democracy

VFI Volunteer Functions Inventory

WVS World Value Survey


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Table of Content

Thesis Declaration and Approval .....................................................................................................................................2

Abstract ..........................................................................................................................................................................1

Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................................................2

Acronym .........................................................................................................................................................................3

Table of Content..............................................................................................................................................................4

List of Figures and tables .................................................................................................................................................6

Chapter One: Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................7

1.1 Background....................................................................................................................................................................7

1.2 Rationale ........................................................................................................................................................................7

1.3 Thesis Statement ..........................................................................................................................................................10

1.4 Purpose of the research................................................................................................................................................12

1.5 Objective......................................................................................................................................................................12

1.6 Assumption ..................................................................................................................................................................12

1.7 Scope ...........................................................................................................................................................................13

1.8 Research Questions......................................................................................................................................................13

1.9 Methodology................................................................................................................................................................14

1.10 Criteria for selecting sample ........................................................................................................................................15

1.11 Theoretical Framework................................................................................................................................................15

1.12 Definition of Terms .....................................................................................................................................................17

Chapter Two: Literature Review................................................................................................................................20

2.1 Situation of volunteerism.............................................................................................................................................20

2.2 Volunteerism and Altruism..........................................................................................................................................22

2.3 Types of Volunteerism ................................................................................................................................................23

2.4 Misconceptions and Myths about Volunteerism..........................................................................................................24

2.5 The Value and Benefit of Volunteerism ......................................................................................................................26

2.6 NGOs and Government Role in Volunteerism ............................................................................................................29

2.7 Management of Volunteers..........................................................................................................................................30

2.7.1 Essential Elements and Best Practices...........................................................................................................30

2.7.2 Organizational Variables in Volunteerism ....................................................................................................31

2.7.3 Recruitment ...................................................................................................................................................34

2.7.4 Orientation.....................................................................................................................................................37

2.7.5 Training and Development............................................................................................................................38


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2.7.6 Recognitions..................................................................................................................................................38

2.7.7 Volunteers and Paid Workers Relationships .................................................................................................40

2.7.8 Resignation and Termination of Volunteers..................................................................................................41

2.8 The Level of Adoption of VRM among NGOs ...........................................................................................................42

2.9 The Situation of Charities and Societies in Ethiopia and Volunteerism ......................................................................43

2.10 Theoretical Frameworks ..............................................................................................................................................45

2.10.1 A Sociological Theory of Volunteer Work ........................................................................................................45

2.10.2 Functional Approach to Volunteerism ...............................................................................................................46

Chapter Three: Methodology Design and Data Collection.........................................................................................49

3.1 Introduction: Why Qualitative Study...........................................................................................................................49

3.2 Sampling Technique: Why Mixed Purposeful Sampling ............................................................................................49

3.3 Unit of Analysis: Why Case Study Approach .............................................................................................................51

3.4 Case Data Collection Methods ....................................................................................................................................52

3.5 Sampling for web-based survey...................................................................................................................................53

3.6 Triangulation ...............................................................................................................................................................53

Chapter Four: Case Data Presentation and Analysis .................................................................................................54

4.1 VECODs organizational profile .................................................................................................................................54

4.2 Analysis of organizational capacity on VRM ..............................................................................................................58

4.3 Analysis of response of volunteer managers ...............................................................................................................62

4.4 Analysis of Volunteer Facilitators response ................................................................................................................64

4.5 Content analysis through direct observation................................................................................................................70

4.6 Analysis of interview done with key informants .........................................................................................................71

4.7 Analysis of Documents................................................................................................................................................73

Chapter Five: Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations ....................................................................................74

5.1 Findings .......................................................................................................................................................................74

5.2 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................................76

5.3 Recommendations .......................................................................................................................................................77

Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................................79

Annexes........................................................................................................................................................................83

Annex 1: Questioner to Assess Organizational Capacity on VRM .......................................................................................83

Annex 2: Questioner to Volunteer Resource Managers ........................................................................................................86

Annex 3: Web based survey to volunteers Powered by SurveyMonkey...............................................................................87

Annex 4: Web based survey result ........................................................................................................................................90


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List of Figures and tables

Figures

Figure 1: Louis A. Penners conceptual model on the direct and indirect causes of sustained volunteerism.

___________________________________________________________________________________ 33

Figure 2: Length of Voluntary Service of Respondents (n=16)__________________________________ 65

Figure 3: Respondents' view on friendliness of VECOD staffs towards volunteers __________________ 65

Figure 4: Respondents' view Professionalism on the volunteer recruitment process at VECOD ________ 66

Figure 5: Match between volunteer skill/interest and Assignment _______________________________ 67

Figure 6: Respondents view on the presence of elements of VRM at VECOD ______________________ 67

Figure 7: Reasons for stopping volunteering in previous experiences ____________________________ 69

Figure 8: Overall Satisfaction of Volunteer Facilitators in their engagement at VECOD _____________ 69

Tables

Table 1: Civil society sector workforce as a percent of the economically active population, 1995 -2000: The

Johns Hopkins Centre for Civil Society Studies:_____________________________________________ 29

Table 2: List of Course offered by VECOD in its Leadership and Management Skill Development Training

program____________________________________________________________________________ 57

Table 3: Task description and number of volunteers _________________________________________ 59

Table 4: The level of satisfactions on the recognition activity of VECOD by volunteer facilitators. _____ 68


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Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Background

The origin of this thesis project began through the researchers personal quest that

he encountered in his previous experiences. The researcher has been involved involunteering since his teenage years. Being a volunteer himself, there were times

he was involved in managing and leading a large group of volunteers and paid

staffs. There were times of success and failure. There were times of conflict and

low morale that arose due to unclear boundaries between paid staffs and

volunteers. These and other experiences began a deeply held quest to examine

what went wrong in managing and leading volunteers in many organizations.

Thus, this has become the starting point of his quest to further study the subject in

detail.

The subject under the study is Volunteer Resource Management (VRM).

Particularly it concern with the management practice of homegrown volunteers.

The research is supported with evidence that come from previous research done in

the sector (literature review) and detailed description of the practice done on a

selected organization with a case study method. This research thus assesses the

homegrown volunteers resource management (VRM) practice of an NGO in

Addis Ababa in light of VRM best practices and theoretical frameworks. The case

study is to see whether the selected NGO is familiar with VRM, the level of its

adoption of the VRM practices and whether the elements of VRM have helped the

organization in motivating, recruiting and retaining volunteers.

1.2 Rationale

As part of the human resource, but with a unique nature and value of its own,

there are immense resources in the voluntary work force that is untapped and

unused. This massive resource would be beneficial in the wellbeing of both the

volunteer and the voluntary organization. However, the effective utilization of this

resource requires understanding the unique nature of volunteers and volunteers

resource management that is mostly taken for granted. Voluntarism is valuable for

development, social cohesion, active citizenship, inclusion and participation.


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Nonetheless, according to the researchers view and based on his brief scanning

of Human Resource Management books that are available at his disposal, he

believed that voluntarism is not given due attention in the Human Resource

literature. However, volunteers need support and leadership to be most effective

and to sustain their commitment and involvement like any other requirement of

human resource management for paid workers. Unless volunteer resource

management is widely adopted and practiced, volunteers engagement will further

decline.

The other reason this topic needs to be researched is the deficiency of studies in

this area and thus to contribute knowledge to the sector. The UNs reported on the

State of the Worlds Volunteerism (2011) is the first of its kind with numerous

definitional and methodological issues on volunteerism. This Report recognizes

that research on volunteerism in developing countries still falls far short of hopes

and expectations and it also recommends that the research community needs to

extend its work on volunteerismespecially in the developing world. 1 It also

endorses the need for further study and research to refine our understanding of

the nature and extent of this expression of human endeavor2.The report further

argues that volunteerism has not been fully understood and articulated in the

development debate, hence implying the need for research in the area. In general,

it asserts research on the topic is at an early stage and needs to be intensified3.

The report also cited a survey made in five southern African states on

voluntarism, which found one significant gap in the area: the lack of academic

research4.

The other rationale behind examining this topic in light of non-profit and non-

governmental civil societies is that these organizations are initiated through

volunteers who wanted to solve a certain problem in the society. In this sector,

1 UNV, State of the Worlds Volunteerism Report: Universal Values for Global Well-being, 2011(New

York: United Nations Volunteers, 2011) 90-93

2 UNV, State, xx.

3 UNV, State, 12.

4 UNV, State, 17.


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volunteering is one of the most accessible and effective ways for those who want

to contribute to their society. Even though the sector itself is voluntary, it is

plagued with inadequate ways of providing support for the management of

volunteer resource. According to a research conducted by UPS (United Parcel

Service) in the sector, the primary reason people stop volunteering is because of

poor management.5

Especially charities and societies in Ethiopia need the effective utilization of

volunteers now more than ever. This is due to the Charities and Societies

Proclamation and its accompanying directive that impose restrictions on the

source of income and administrative expenses of every NGO. One coping

mechanism for charities and societies operating in Ethiopia could be adopting

volunteerism. By optimizing investment of volunteer time, civil societies may

build the capacity of the sector. This in turn requires appropriate and effective

management of volunteers by NGOs.

In addition, all major stakeholders such as donors, grant makers, members of non-

profit organizations, beneficiaries in the community and particularly the Ethiopian

government (through the Charities and Societies Agency and Bureaus of Finance

and Economic Development) are all keen to see a low percentage of

administrative expenses. One significant administrative expense that NGOsexpend is personnel expenses for salaries of their paid staffs. Consequently, these

stakeholders are keen to see that an NGO is doing its work with volunteers.

Particularly, donors and grant makers want to see a greater yield on each Birr they

contribute and invest so that the benefit goes to the ultimate beneficiaries to which

the civil society aims to render its services.

The other case for researching volunteer resource management in the non-profit

sector is that volunteerism itself is an expression of a healthy community and the

civil society sector6. Besides, volunteers need well-organized and intentional

management and leadership. However, even more than managing the paid staff,

5 Paige Tucker, A Guide to Investing in Volunteer Resources Management: Improve Your Philanthropic

Portfolio (UPS Foundation, 2003) 3.

6 Tucker,A Guide, 4


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volunteerism has its own unique challenges due to the complex nature of the

environment in which it is exercised. Thus, civil societies in Ethiopia should

enhance their capacity to lead and manage this sector. By doing this, NGOs will

be able to boost their portfolio by increasing the Birr value invested in them and

insuring the communitys involvement.

1.3 Thesis Statement

There are opportunities of vast and untapped resources in the form of homegrown

volunteerism that are ready to get involved and contribute to the development of

the country.7 Volunteerism has proven value and benefit for the health and well-

being of the individual volunteer, the voluntary organization and the community

as a whole.

Although volunteers consider their involvement and contribution to their

community as a rewarding activity by itself, volunteers need support and

leadership to be most effective and to sustain their commitment 8. As one study

found no matter how well intentioned volunteers are, unless there is an

infrastructure in place to support and direct their efforts, they [ volunteers] will

remain ineffective at best or, worse, become disenchanted and withdraw,

potentially damaging recipients of services in the process.9

Thus, effective utilization of volunteer resource requires the deliberate adoption

of volunteer resource management principles. This is because volunteers need

every kind of support and leadership they get just like paid workers or even better.

In addition, volunteers have peculiar characteristics that distinguish them from

paid workers thus requiring a different set of human resource management

practices i.e. volunteer resource management.

Mostly, however, there are large gaps in our knowledge on the subject of

volunteerism in general and volunteer resource management in particular that

7 UNV, State, 93.

8 Tucker,A Guide, 4

9 Mark A. Hager and Jeffrey L. Brudney. Volunteer Management Practices and Retention of Volunteers.

(Washington: The Urban Institute, June 2004) 3


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1.4 Purpose of the research

In this study, the researcher intends to make an in-depth examination of the

volunteer resource management practices of a selected NGO. The purpose is to

find out factors that may be prohibiting or facilitating the effective utilization of

the volunteers. The findings help readers and NGO leaders to run effective

volunteer programs that boost the capacity and health of civil society.

1.5 Objective

The research intends to find out the obstacles and contribution of volunteerism

and produce a result and recommendations that challenge and encourage civil

societies to systematically exploit the vast volunteer resource for their advantage

through adoption of volunteer resource management principles. In addition, theresearch will serve as a guide or resource on how to manage and lead volunteers

for organizations interested in involving volunteers.

1.6 Assumption

This study assumes that

a. There is a vast, willing and ready homegrown human resource in voluntary form.

b. The service of these volunteers is needed among NGOs since these organizations

are voluntary in their nature

c. Volunteerism, however, requires a peculiar management strategy to be effective.

The assumption is that misconception, unfavorable environment and poor

volunteer resource management in the voluntary (non-profit) organizations

undermine this enormous resource and take it for granted or under-utilize it. If

leaders and managers adopt the right practice of volunteer resource management,

organizations harvest from this vast resource and all involved benefit from

volunteerism. This paper assumes that the above-mentioned factors could be the

principal reasons organizations fails to utilize and retain volunteers.


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1.7 Scope

There are myriads of variables as to why individuals do or do not volunteer. This

study does not intend to make a survey of that. There are also many organizations

that are using volunteer resources such as government organizations, formal and

informal community based organizations (such as Eddir, Mahiber, Debo &Iqub),

formal and informal types of volunteering, local and international NGOs, different

religious institutions, local churches and their respective denominations.

Delimitations: However, the scope of this assessment is l imited to formal

volunteering in a selected NGO and its effort to utilize a homegrown

volunteerism. Although a larger proportion of volunteer action occurs in informal

volunteering, this assessment concentrates on examining the practice of formal

volunteering in the NGO setting that exemplify the practice of VRM in which

volunteering is undertaken on a regular basis.

There are also myriads of activities and functions that managers and leaders of

organizations perform for both paid and volunteer workers. However, this

research is limited to volunteer recruitment, motivation, benefit, developmentand

retention as factors to be assessed for effective volunteer involvement. It is also

obvious that there are clear limits (considering the size of assessment and the

extent of findings) in how the research can be extrapolated to reflect the national

practice.

1.8 Research Questions

i. What are the factors that enabled (or disabled) organizations to recruit and retain

their volunteers and that keep them motivated as they continue volunteering?

ii. What elements of volunteer resource management do civil societies need to adopt

to boost their capacity in effective program delivery for their beneficiaries?

iii. What kind of resources, infrastructure and benefits enable civil societies to recruit

and retain their volunteers?


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1.9 Methodology

This research employs a qualitative research method particularly a case study

method. The assessment largely depended on data collection from primary

sources solicited through interviews (including key informants); semi structured

questionnaires and web based survey. A purposefully selected NGO is assessed

concerning its practices, challenges, and aspirations for their volunteer programs.

This selected NGO is Vision Ethiopia Congress for Democracy (VECOD).

The researcher utilized the case study method to assess current management

practices and/or challenges in this selected NGO. Depending on their availability,

the assessment also analyzed content of various documents such as human

resource manuals, plans, and articles of association, reports, etc on the intention

and actual level of utilization of volunteers. In addition, the research was

complemented by the use of secondary sources on volunteerism from elsewhere

in the globe, due to its universal nature and trends of volunteerism (although

conclusions from other contexts may need to be contextualized to the Ethiopian

context).

The research also adopted an assessment tool developed by UPS14 to assist in

assessing the overall capacity of a civil society in support of volunteering. This

tool includes

i. Benchmarking tools: that ensure the effective volunteerism in an organization or a

community

ii. Questions to assess organizational capacity: used to assess an organizations

overall capacity to manage volunteer resources and volunteer based projects

iii. Elements of Volunteer resource management: basic components for successful

volunteer involvement which help to identify the strengths and weakness of the

infrastructure that support the organizations volunteer effort

The UN General Assembly resolution 56/38 recognizes that there is not one

universal model of best practice, since what works well in one country may not

14 Tucker,A Guide,9


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work in another with very different cultures and traditions15. Since there is no

agreed methodology for measuring the extent of voluntary engagement, this

assessment attempted to find out what kind of volunteerism and its management

works well in the Ethiopian context.

1.10 Criteria for selecting sample

In order to select an organization for a case study, the following criteria are set in

place:

i. Organizations involving volunteers on regular basis,

ii. Charities or societies legally registered in Ethiopia and

iii. NGOs that have operated in Ethiopia for more than three years.

On the other hand, in order to conduct interviews of individual volunteers to

assess their experience of volunteering and volunteer resource management in

NGOs, the following criteria was set i.e. interviewees must have been involved in

formal volunteering for a period of more than six months in one NGO.

1.11 Theoretical Framework

The literature review mainly focused on providing a theoretical framework and

general assessment of the important components of the topic.

General Assessment: The literature review, in this section, examines previous

research done so far on this topic based on the literature listed in the

Bibliography. In this section, the researcher tried to examine the situation and

unique nature of volunteers and volunteer resource management. Distinguishing

particulars of the challenges of volunteer resource management are identified and

the vast opportunities that exist in volunteerism and its global trend will be

assessed. The review also examines best practices of leadership in leading

volunteers and discerns the value and benefit of volunteerism for all involved in

the sector.

15 United Nations General Assembly,Resolution 56/38, 3.


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Theoretical Framework: As previously stated, the concept of volunteerism is one

area in which there is a lack of academic research. The concept is not fully

articulated and is in need of refinement. Despite these facts, the available

theoretical frameworks are used as a lens to view the practice. Consequently, the

research tested the theories themselves. To this end, this research used three

frameworks, the Six Themes of Effective Volunteer Involvement, Sociological

theory and a Functional Approach to volunteerism. This research adopted the six

themes that UPS16 research developed in evaluating an effective volunteer

involvement in the non-profit sector.

The research by UPS found that effective volunteer involvement in civil society is

expressed by:

1. leverage and improved grant making2. Corporate community involvement.

3. supports business objectives.

4. strengthens the sector by increasing capacity to deliver services.

5. requires organizational and community infrastructure.

6. requires training and development.

7. contributes to maintaining a civil society

John Wilson and Mark Musick proposed a Sociological Theory of Volunteer

Work. The theory adopted the perspective that, like other forms of work,

volunteers demand resource17 such as material incentives, solidarity incentives

and purposive incentives. The underpinning principle of this theory is

volunteerism requires resources.

Another similar theoretical framework considered in this research is a Functional

Approach to Volunteerism. According to this theory matching volunteer

motivations to the benefits, that volunteerism provides results in positive

volunteer outcomes. Thus, the theory suggests that if an organization makes

available an array of tasks that satisfy varying functions, it would be able to

recruit from a larger pool of individuals.18 Therefore, the approach theorizes that

16 Tucker,A Guide, 5.

17 Wilson and Musick, Toward, 709.

18 Barbara J. Houle, Brad J. Sagarin, and Martin F. Kaplan. "A Functional Approach to Volunteerism: Do

Volunteer Motives Predict Task Preference?" Basic and Applied Social Psychology (Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates, Inc., 2005) 343.


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letting volunteers perform tasks with benefits that match their primary motives

should result in a positive volunteer experience, an outcome favorable to all

involved.

In relation to the literature review in particular and the thesis in general, the

researcher has listed in the Bibliography all materials that he has reviewed and

found to be relevant for this discussion.

1.12 Definition of Terms

Volunteer, volunteerism and volunteer work

Different authors have defined the terms volunteer, volunteerism and volunteer

work in many different ways. The researcher listed some of them here and lastly

he tried to adopt one working definition for this paper. Thus, some of the

definitions forwarded by different authors are listed below:

i. unpaid work provided to parties to whom the worker owes no contractual,

familial, or friendship obligations19

ii. A desire to contribute to the common good, out of free will and in a spirit of

solidarity, without expectation of material reward.20

iii. According to UNV, volunteerism is a basic expression of human relationships that

people need to participate in their societies and to feel that they matter to others.

Consistent with this definition are the values of volunteerism which embrace

solidarity, reciprocity, mutual trust, belonging and empowerment, all of which

contribute significantly to quality of life. In addition, volunteerism has the

following components that define it. Volunteerism should be performed out of

own free will (and should not as an obligation stipulated by law, contract or

academic requirement) without primarily financial reward. (However, this

definition recognizes the reimbursement of out of pocket expenses incurred by


20 UNV, State, iv.


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volunteers such as transport to be justified). Volunteerism also should be for the

common good.21

iv. Another author defined Volunteerism as long-term, planned, pro-social behaviors

that benefit strangers and occur within an organizational setting. Based on this

definition, volunteerism has four salient attributes: longevity, planfulness,

nonobligatory helping, and an organizational context.22

v. The ILO manual on measuring volunteer work provides a working definition for

volunteer or volunteer work as unpaid non-compulsory work; that is, time

individuals give without pay to activities performed either through an

organization or directly for others outside their own household.23

vi. Yet for another author, volunteerism, unlike the labor market and the informal

sector, is uncommodified24; unlike household labor, it is freely undertaken. Thus,

volunteering is identified as a type of work in which human effortadds value to

goods and services25

vii. The UN General Assembly recommends the use of the terms volunteering,

volunteerism and voluntary activities to refer to a wide range of activities,

including traditional forms of mutual aid and self-help, formal service delivery

and other forms of civic participation, undertaken of free will, for the general

public good and where monetary reward is not the principal motivating factor.26

Based on the above definitions, the researcher adopts the following working

definition for this paper. Volunteerism or volunteer work is unpaid and non-

compulsory work provided to a third party (either through an organization or

directly for others outside their own household). Volunteerism is performed

without any obligations and out of free will that emanates from a desire to

21 UNV, State, xx.

22 Louis A. Penner, Dispositional and Organizational Influences on Sustained Volunteerism: AnInteractionist Perspective. Journal of Social Issues 58 (2002) 448

23 ILO,Manual, 13

24 Commodification is the transformation of goods and services, as well as ideas or other entities (that

normally may not be considered goods) into a commodity. Thus by uncommodified it means volunteer

work is not being used or transformed into a commodity that is for sale.




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contribute to the common good in a spirit of solidarity, without expectation of

material or financial reward. Monetary reward is not the principal motivating

factor. However, a reasonable reimbursement of out of pocket expenses incurred

by volunteers such as transport is justified but by no means equates to or

substitutes for a monetary value for the volunteer work.

Formal and Informal volunteering Formal volunteering is typically carried out

in the context of organizations; informal volunteering (which in this context

means helping friends, neighbors, and kin living outside the household) is more

private and is not organized27



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Chapter Two: Literature Review

2.1 Situation of volunteerism

The situation of volunteerism is widely assessed by the UN State of Worlds

Volunteerism Report 2011, which emphasized the untapped potential ofvolunteering. It understood volunteerism to be a massive but largely invisible and

untapped resource28. It also states that volunteerism is an enormous reservoir of

skills, energy and local knowledge for peace and development 29. This massive

resource is still miscomprehended and undervalued. The Report argues that this is

the right time for the contribution of volunteers to be understood as one of the

missing components of a development paradigm that still has economic growth at

its core30. Currently, volunteerism has not been articulated in the development

debate, particularly in the context of the Millennium Development Goals and is

largely absent from the peace and development agenda.31

The UNV report cites the survey of World Value Survey (WVS) 32 in assessing

the situation of volunteerism and to the surprise of the researcher, East Asia and

Africa are on the top of the list for volunteerism and the lowest levels of voluntary

work were found in Western Europe. 33

Actually, however, there are no comprehensive surveys on the situation of

volunteerism at global level in general and in the developing world in particular.

Only some developed nations have done their own survey.34 Australia is among

the few nations that has done a survey on volunteerism. Therefore, the researcher

28 UNV, State, xxiii.

29 UNV, State, 3.

30

UNV, State, xx.31 UNV, State, xx.

32 The WVS is an ongoing longitudinal and cross-cultural survey covering public attitudes and behaviors

and undertaken on a five yearly basis. The minimum sample size is 1000 but larger sample sizes are

desirable. The WVS employs face-to-face interviews in the interviewees own environment. Survey

findings are publically available on the study website. The 1999-2004 study was the most recent WVS

wave employing a detailed questionnaire on volunteerism.33 UNV, State, 20.

34 UNV, State, 3.


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assumes reviewing the survey done in some developed countries may reveal

information about the situation of volunteerism in Ethiopia and the global trends.

Here it may be appropriate to see a national survey of volunteering issues done in

Australia by Volunteering Australia in 2009. The survey showed that among the

respondents, 37% were male and 63% were female volunteers. Among these, the

highest proportions were aged 55-64 followed by 45-54 age groups. In addition,

half of the respondents were employed (either full time or part time). 35 However,

the Report also acknowledges one exceptional country when it comes to

volunteerism survey. Bangladesh took the first ever-comprehensive national

volunteerism survey in 2010. This was the first of its kind ever carried out in the

country. The survey addressed all kinds of volunteering. One important finding in

this survey was that nearly 80% of volunteering occurred outside of formal

organizations.36

In Volunteering Australia survey, a more relevant part of the review is the survey

of volunteer involving organizations and their volunteer management practice,

particularly the management and support given to volunteers. The survey assessed

the struggle of volunteer involving organizations to recruit, support and sustain

volunteers in their organization. The survey found that the adoption of volunteer

resource management process was highly related with the presence of a paid

manager dedicated to manage volunteers. Respondents gave the following

responses as to the important reasons for their decision to volunteer:37

1. Knowing that my contribution would make a difference (80%)2. Personal belief in a cause (67)

3. Location (65%)4. Organizational values and principles (62%)5. What I would get out of the role (54%)

There was only a slight change to the ranking when respondentswere asked to choose one that is most important to their volunteering

now1. Knowing that my contribution would make a difference (38%)2. Personal belief in a cause (19%)

35 Volunteering Australia.National Survey of Volunteering Issues 2009 (Melbourne: Volunteering Australia

Inc., 2009) 3-8

36 UNV, State, 17.

37 Volunteering Australia,National Survey, 3-8


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3. What I would get out of the role (13%)4. Organizational values and principles (12%)

5. Location (6%)

Another survey made in Canada on managers of 6,152 voluntary organizations

found that managers of volunteers were experiencing more difficulty recruiting

and retaining volunteers especially volunteers willing to make long-termcommitments and/or take on leadership roles and were very concerned that

they would lose their small core of dedicated volunteers to burnout. Changes in

volunteerism have led to increased interest in management principles and

practices that can be applied to the voluntary sector , and to increased

awareness of the importance of good volunteer management.38

Regarding the Current Trends, Volunteering Australia indicated trends in

volunteering include the lack of time for volunteering due to pressures on the

paid workforce, greater professionalism among volunteers, the need for more

formal requirements in the management of volunteers and the replacement of

positions previously undertaken by volunteers with paid positions. Another

prominent trend in volunteerism is professionalization. Volunteer organizations

are increasingly applying the management techniques used by human resources

departments to volunteers. The professional development of volunteers is

recognition that the volunteer contribution is comparable to that of paid staff. In

many countries, the position of volunteer manager has become a career role.

The other trend includes student volunteers, older people as volunteers and

internet volunteering (or virtual volunteering).39

2.2 Volunteerism and Altruism

Managers often presuppose altruism to be the only motive of volunteering.

Understanding the true motives of volunteers has however a detrimental effect on

sustained utilization of volunteers for managers of volunteers and volunteer

involving organizations. Even volunteers themselves might not describe their true

38 Fataneh Zarinpoush, Cathy Barr and Jasson Moreton.Managers of Volunteers: A Profile of he Profession

(Ontario: Imagine Canada, 2004) 7

39 Volunteering Australia. Working, 6


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motive and mystify it with altruism. When volunteers were asked why they

volunteer, people often speak in terms of ethics: I feel it is important to help

others; I feel compassion toward people in need; I can do something for a

cause that is important to me. Volunteers may use this vocabulary of motives.

These words may describe their behavior inspired by ulterior purposes, such as

advancing their career. Whatever the motives of the volunteer may be (be it

altruistic or not), volunteer work means that people give their time to others.40 It is

also equally important to recognize individuals are not motivated by self-interest

alone but also by their deeply held values and beliefs.41 Generally, however, and

as noted earlier, the working definition for volunteerism is not primarily about the

motive of a volunteer (except the motivation to get a monetary reward out of it)

2.3 Types of Volunteerism

There are different types of volunteerism. These include traditional forms of

volunteerism (such as mutual aid and self-help), formal forms of volunteerism

(such as formal service delivery and other forms of civic participation) to

economic and social development, benefiting society, communities and the

individual volunteer.42

In addition to the above broad classification of volunteerism, the current trend is

developing new faces of volunteerism. These includes

i. Online volunteering:

ii. Voluntourism: a form of tourism in which travelers participate in voluntary work,

typically for a charity

iii. Diaspora volunteerism: in which experts from emigrant communities undertake

short-term assignments to transfer knowledge to their countries of origin.

iv. Employer-supported volunteerism: There is a growing trend of long-term

collaboration between private sector enterprises and local NGOs. 43


41 UNV, State, 12.


43 UNV, State, 12. UNV, State, xxii.


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Formal and Informal Volunteerism: The other type of classification is between

formal and informal volunteer work. Formal volunteering is typically carried out

in the context of organizations. While informal volunteering is more private and

not organized. In formal volunteer work, volunteers have no obligation to a

particular person but to a certain organization. For these volunteers it is important

to help others in general, but they do not feel obligated to give a specific service

to a specific individual 44. While in the case of informal helping, the donor and

recipient are likely to already have a relationship that entails obligations45.

Formal volunteerism is expressed as the provision of a service to a third party by

UNV. In this form of volunteerism, there may be an agreement about the terms

of engagement between the person volunteering and the organization concerned,

which includes an element of training. Recognition schemes may also exist in the

form of stipend or reimbursement of expenses.46

2.4 Misconceptions and Myths about Volunteerism

Regardless of a growing body of empirical and anecdotal evidence, there are

number of misconceptions and myths that cloud a proper understanding of

volunteering. These misunderstandings have to be changed so that the true nature

of volunteerism is revealed and to make it possible to analyze its contributions.47

UNV in its SWVR 2011 and Volunteering Australia in its Working with

Volunteers hope to shed light on views as to what volunteerism is and what it

achieves, in keeping with realities on the ground as follows.

Misconception 1: Volunteering occurs only through legally recognized, formal

and structured NGOs, usually in developed countries, with some type of

agreement between the volunteer and the organization. Nonetheless, as the UNV

44 Robert Wuthnow,Acts of Compassion (New Jersey: University of Princeton Press, 1991) 95: as quoted

in Wilson and Musick, Toward, 700.

45 Paul Amato, Personality and Social Network Involvement as Predictors of Helping Behavior in

Everyday Life. Social Psychology Quarterly 53 (1990) 31: as quoted in Wilson and Musick, Toward, 700.

46 UNV, State, 5.

47 UNV, State, 8-12.


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report shows much of the volunteerism takes place in small local groups, clubs

and associations.

Misconception 2: Volunteerism takes place only in the civil society sector. But

volunteerism is also found in nationwide government social programs in such

fields as immunization and literacy.

Misconception 3: Volunteerism is the preserve of the well off and well educated

those who have disposable time and income. In fact, an expanding body of

empirical research indicates that volunteerism is prevalent among the income poor

who undertake voluntary work to benefit themselves and their communities.

Misconception 4: Volunteerism is the domain of amateurs who are unskilled

and inexperienced. This misunderstanding arises from the perception thatprofessionalism, both in knowledge and behavior, is exclusively associated with a

paid job.

Misconception 5: Young people do not volunteer. On the contrary, young

people are not a passive group waiting for resources and opportunities to be

handed to them. The fact is young people are actively engaged in the development

of their societies in a vast range of actions.

Misconception 6: Volunteering takes place face-to-face. The new development

in the information communication technology is rapidly enabling larger numbers

of people from broader cross-sections of the population to engage on a volunteer

basis.

Misconception 8: Volunteerism should be off-limits for state intervention. It is

evident that a growing number of policies and laws are being adopted by

governments to encourage volunteerism. Some governments are encouraging

volunteer action by safeguarding the rights of volunteers.

Misconception 9: Volunteerism is free. Volunteering requires investment in

infrastructure to ensure effective contributions. Infrastructure includes the

establishment and running of volunteer centers, volunteers management, training


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and recognition, and costs associated with the proper functioning of volunteers

such as transportation, meals and stipends.

Myths about Volunteerism: Working with Volunteers also briefly discusses the

common myths of volunteering such as viewing volunteers as unskilled, older

people, unemployed, and women . The other myth is that volunteer programs do

not need resources and the assumption that volunteer programs just happen. One

of the stereotypes attributed to the volunteer sector is that the management of

volunteers is somehow less important or less demanding than management of the

paid workforce. However, with the boundary between what constitutes a

volunteer position versus a paid position becoming increasingly indistinct,

volunteer management should be considered as another arm of human resources.48

2.5 The Value and Benefit of Volunteerism

The UN report tries to make a case for the recognition of volunteerism as an

essential component for the sustainable, equitable progress of communities and

nations. SWVR 2011 shows why volunteerism is crucial to human development.

The report also asserts the contribution of volunteerism to peace and development

and the well-being of individuals, communities and civil societies. The report also

recognizes the change in volunteerism as being the backbone of many national

and international non-governmental organizations.49

SWVR 2011 gives special emphasis to the value of volunteerism as an instrument

that enhances the well-being of the most vulnerable. It is also one of the

mechanisms of reducing social exclusion. There is mounting evidence that

volunteer engagement is promoting civic values and social cohesion by mitigating

violent conflicts and fostering reconciliation.50 Extensive studies have

demonstrated that there is a positive relationship between volunteerism and well-

48 Volunteering Australia, Working, 8

49 UNV, State, v-xx.

50 UNV, State, xxiii.


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being.51But what is well-being? To answer this question, the report defines it in

the following manner:

Well-being has been described as feeling good and doing well both

physically and emotionally.52

At the heart of well-being is the sense ofhaving what you need for life to be good.

53For our purposes, we add the

idea of social well-being as a sense of belonging to our communities, a

positive attitude towards others, a feeling that we are contributing tosociety and engaging in pro-social behavior, and a belief that society iscapable of developing positively.

Some contemporary initiatives are challenging the understanding of the economic

paradigm by considering well-being to be the ultimate goal of any development

endeavors. The new paradigm is that a strong and healthy economy is desirable as

long as it leads people to well being. Among the important values in well-being,

that this report identified, is the need people have to give back to society.54 As

noted earlier, volunteering is one of the most accessible platforms to give back to

society.

Individual Wellbeing and Volunteerism

At the level of the individual, volunteer action can help people with feelings of

personal isolation, stresses or reduced self-worth to overcome these feelings.

Volunteering also enables individuals to interact with others face-to-face and

enhance feelings of belonging and of contributing. It also can tackle the

underlying causes of social exclusion such as lack of employment. It improves

employability. When volunteer work is recognized, it creates belongingness in the

individual. Especially young people, who represent a huge potential for

development and are the most susceptible to social exclusion, are able to enhance

their employability through volunteerism. Volunteerism provides the first

experience of a work setting for these young people. SWVR 2011 cites mounting

evidence to demonstrate that generally people who volunteer are more likely to

51 UNV, State, 86.

52 F. A. Huppert, Psychological Wellbeing: Evidence Regarding Its Causes and Consequences. (State-of-

Science Review: London, Government Office for Science, 2008): as quoted by UNV, State, 84.

53 S.C. White, Bringing Wellbeing into Development Practice (WeD working paper 09/50: Bath,

University of Bath, 2009) 3 as quoted UNV, State, 84.

54 UNV, State, 84.


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report being happy. Researchers have recorded volunteers testimony that as a

result of their volunteer action in helping others, they experience a warm glow,

health, happiness, strength, energy, self-growth, personal development, feelings of

reward and a sense of making a difference.55

Community Wellbeing and Volunteerism

Volunteerism also has a significant positive impact on community well-being.

Since volunteerism is a social behavior, neglecting to include volunteering in the

design of policies could entail the risk of overlooking a valuable asset and

undermine traditions of cooperation that bind communities together.56 In general,

volunteerism is intrinsically linked to our well-being.57 Not counting its strict

economic impact, volunteer work also brings about significant additional benefits

to society and to the volunteers themselves. Some of them are:

a. It provides important employment training and access to the laborforce.

b. It is a crucial resource for addressing the Millennium DevelopmentGoals.

c. It can offer services not easily provided by paid workers in theform of mentoring and role models, for example.

d. It enhances social solidarity, social capital, political legitimacy and

the quality of life in a society.e. It can help to promote social inclusion and integration.f. It gives the volunteers themselves a sense of personal satisfaction,

fulfillment, well -being and involvement in society.58

Particularly in the context of NGOs, volunteerism has also the following benefits

as noted by one document.59

Volunteers can lighten staff workload and improve employee satisfaction

Some work is best performed by volunteers60

55 UNV, State, 52-6156 United Nations General Assembly,Resolution 56/38, 3.

57 UNV, State, 89-90.

58 ILO,Manual on the Measurement of Volunteer Work, ( Geneva: International Labour Office, 2011) 4

59 Corporation for National and Community Service, Volunteering Reinvented: Human Capital

Solutions for the Nonprofit Sector (Washington: Corporation for National and Community

Service, 2007) 3


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2.6 NGOs and Government Role in Volunteerism

Volunteers provide a sizable workforce for the NGO sector. This was revealed by

the data generated by the Johns Hopkins Comparative Nonprofit Sector Project

that was done in 37 countries. The survey revealed that volunteers account on

average for 45 per cent of the NGO workforce in the countries under the study.

For instance, Sweden has as high as 76 per cent of the workforce through

volunteers in the NGO sector.61 The number of volunteers is much higher than the

paid workforce in Sweden. The following table demonstrates civil society sector

workforce (disaggregated into paid staff and volunteers) as a percent of the

economically active population of the whole country. The researcher picked 15 of

them among the 36 selected countries in the survey.

Country Paid staff Volunteers Total

Egypt 2.73% 0.08% 2.81%

Mexico 0.26% 0.13% 0.39%

South Korea 1.88% 0.55% 2.43%

India 0.60% 0.76% 1.36%

Kenya 1.29% 0.82% 2.11%

Japan 3.19% 1.02% 4.21%

Uganda 0.92% 1.33% 2.25%

Israel 6.61% 1.40% 8.01%

South Africa 1.84% 1.59% 3.43%

Australia 4.43% 1.90% 6.33%

Germany 3.54% 2.33% 5.87%

United States 6.28% 3.49% 9.77%

United Kingdom 4.84% 3.63% 8.47%

Netherlands 9.21% 5.07% 14.28%

Sweden 1.74% 5.11% 6.85%

Table 1: Civil society sector workforce as a percent of the economically active population, 1995 -2000:

The Johns Hopkins Centre for Civil Society Studies62

:

60 Volunteering Reinvented noted that volunteers may know a communitys assets, key players andunderlying challenges better than any paid staff person at a given nonprofit. They may have the skills,

expertise, and community connections that would take years of experience for a staff person to gain. They

often come with the built in credibility and trust that opens doors in the community, which is priceless to an

organization. Moreover, some community problems require volunteers as part of a solution and any

intervention simply cease to exist if volunteers are not involved.

61 ILO,Manual, 3

62 Lester M. Salamon, et al, Global Civil Society: Dimensions of the Nonprofit Sector, Volume Two

(Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press, 2004) as quoted by ILO,Manual, 3


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Although this study is concerned about volunteerism in NGO sector, it is

important to recognize the role of government in the development of

volunteerism. The United Nations General Assembly recommends that

governments have the responsibility of furthering their support to voluntary

activities by creating a favorable environment. To maximize volunteerism,

governments also need to provide adequate human and physical infrastructure for

volunteering. The Resolution also commends that the achievement of sustainable

development goals involves integrating volunteerism into national development

planning and by recognizing the potential contribution of volunteerism.63

2.7 Management of Volunteers

2.7.1 Essential Elements and Best Practices

The following section deals with Volunteer Resources Managements (VRM) essential

elements and best practices. As noted earlier in the introduction, the UPS sponsored

research on volunteer resource management found six key elements in effective volunteer

resource management. These are:-

1. Effective volunteer involvement leverages and improves grant makingand corporate community involvement: the finding in this component state

that volunteer involvement boosts the organizations financial and material

resources. This give the organization an advantage of higher dollar value

invested in it by lowering its administrative costs.2. Effective volunteer involvement supports business objectives.

3. Effective volunteer involvement strengthens the sector by increasing

capacity to deliver services. Volunteers invest their time, skill andknowledge to augment the service delivery of the NGO they are working

with.

4. Effective volunteer involvement requires organizational andcommunity infrastructure. Unless there is an infrastructure and competent

support staff to support volunteers, the NGO will be in a difficult position

to tap in to the resources of volunteers.5. Effective volunteer involvement requires training and development.

Training helps staff, management and leadership of the organization to see

the value of a well managed volunteer program in increasing theorganizations service delivery and fundraising capacity. In addition,

volunteers need training on the task and organizational values before they

begin the assigned volunteer task.

63 United Nations General Assembly,Resolution 56/38, 3-4.


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6. Effective volunteer involvement contributes to maintaining a civilsociety. Volunteering is most likely to happen when people clearly knowthe available tasks for volunteering. If volunteers know they can make a

meaningful contribution they are more likely to get involved. These

elements are among the major factors that sustain volunteerism in theorganization. Sustained volunteerism in turn creates a persistent NGO

involvement in the community.64

In similar fashion, the Urban Institute made a survey of charities and

congregations based on nine recommended best practices for volunteer

management. These nine principles of Best Practice of volunteer resource

management in the study were65:

1. Supervision and communication with volunteers,2. Liability coverage for volunteers,3. Screening and matching volunteers to jobs,

4. Regular collection of information on volunteer involvement,5. Written policies and job descriptions for volunteers,6. Recognition activities,7. Annual measurement of volunteer impact,8. Training and professional development for volunteers, and

9. Training for paid staff in working with volunteers

The Urban Institute also cites other studies that echo similar views on the

elements of effective best practice that support the recruitment, placement,

development and retention of volunteers. These are:66

1. Screening potential volunteers to ensure appropriate entry and placementin the organization;

2. Orientation and training to provide volunteers with the skills and outlook

needed; and3. Management and ongoing support of volunteers by paid staff to ensure

that volunteer time is not wasted

2.7.2 Organizational Variables in Volunteerism

When volunteerism occurs in an organizational setting, Louis A. Penner argues,

that there are certainly organizational variables that affect the engagement and

sustained service of the volunteer besides the individual volunteers personal

64 Tucker,A Guide, 5-7

65 Hager and Brudney, Volunteer, 1-8

66 Jean Baldwin Grossman and Kathryn Furano,Making the Most of Volunteers (2002) as quoted in Hager

and Brudney, Volunteer, 3


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disposition. However, the author recognizes that neither individual disposition nor

organizational variables provide a whole set of explanations for sustained

volunteering. He also acknowledges that the two variables may also influence

each other in both ways.

When considering the organizational variable component, the volunteer

perception of the organizations treatment and the organizations volunteer

management practice are the two significant variables in influencing the volunteer

sustained behavior. The author also cites different authors in the field to ascertain

that satisfaction of volunteers and their commitment to the organization in which

they are willing to volunteer is related to length of time they spent as volunteer. 67

Conceptual Model for Sustained Volunteerism

In this regard, Penner developed a Conceptual Model for Sustained Volunteerism

to demonstrate determinants of decision to volunteer and its sustained behavior.

These determinates are social pressure, situational factors, demographic

characteristics, personal beliefs/values, pro-social personality, volunteer-related

motives, organizational attributes & practices and relationship with the

organization. Penner cites several other studies on how people make a decision to

volunteer. People are exposed to various social pressures and these pressures are

factors in an individuals decision to volunteer. The other variable is

organizational attributes and practices that influence and determine the likelihood

of attracting volunteers more than others. These two variables are of particular

interest to this research. However, both the social pressure and organizational

attribute/practices coupled with various factors listed earlier also create pressure

on the rest of the volunteer journey. The next step on this journey that is shaped

by Initial Volunteerism is Volunteer Role Identity.

Volunteer Role Identity is the extent to which this role and the relationships

associated with it become part of a persons self-concept reinforced by high

levels of activity as a volunteer. This has a direct and substantial contribution to

sustained volunteerism. In addition, the conceptual model also recognizes that

67 Penner, Dispositional, 449-458


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other determinants have a direct influence on the sustained behavior of

volunteerism. Nevertheless, the influence of the Initial Volunteerism is paramount

on Sustained Volunteerism. That is the role volunteers occupy in the organization

and their perception have the most compelling and unwavering impact on the

sustainability of volunteerism.68

Figure 1: Louis A. Penners conceptual model on the direct and indirect causes of sustained volunteerism.69

The author contests that the model presented in Figure 1 can be empirically tested.

In addition, the conceptual model also offers an explanation of how volunteer

involving organizations attract and sustain volunteers. According to this article,

the implications of this model include70:


69 Penner, Dispositional, 461



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1. Recruitment should appeal to what motivates potential volunteers

2. Connecting volunteers with what motivates them as they execute their role in the

organization

3. Understanding that the decline or lack of volunteers is primarily caused by their

early experience (initial volunteerism) with the organization

4. Without denying the attribution of dispositional factor, it is important to recognize

the considerable part organizational variables/factors play in the sustained use of

volunteers

5. Volunteers may consider that their contribution as a reward in itself; however,

volunteer managers must deploy volunteer management practices for even more

sustained results that capitalize on this attitude of altruism or any other similar

attributes

6. Volunteer managers first must work to maintain the initial level of volunteering to

make it as exciting and engaging as possible so that new volunteers identify their

role identity and develop it. This role identity by itself is a factor for the sustained

contribution of volunteers.

2.7.3 Recruitment

To discover the key challenges faced by managers of volunteers, the authors of

Managers of Volunteers: A Profile of the Profession asked respondents (managers

of volunteers) to list their three biggest challenges. The most frequently

mentioned challenge was volunteer recruitment (cited by 32% of respondents as

their biggest challenge). The five top challenges reported were: volunteer

recruitment (32%), time constraints (14%), assigning volunteers to tasks (4%),

lack of funds or money (4%), and volunteer retention (4%).71

71 Zarinpoush, Barr and Moreton.Managers of Volunteers: A Profile of the Profession (Ontario: Imagine

Canada, 2004) 19


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Volunteer recruitment is both the top responsibility and the top challenge of

managers of volunteers. Given this, it is not surprising that recruitment was

also cited by over a quarter of the survey respondents when asked what type of

training would be most useful to them.72

Volunteer resource recruitment is important when organizations are aware of

the reasons people are motivated to volunteer. This attentiveness to the motives of

volunteers allows an organization to plan a program that accommodates the

varying needs and expectations of volunteers. An important element of volunteer

recruitment is ensuring that volunteers are placed only in volunteer designated

positions. Issues such as what motivates current volunteers, flexibility of work

time and the degree of formality in the process will all affect volunteer

recruitment. While starting an intense program to attract volunteers to an

organization, it is important to remain selective. Inappropriate appointments

create their own problems that may be more difficult to deal with than the original

shortage of volunteers. Alternatively, effective selection procedures can

contribute to a generally positive experience, thereby helping in the retention of

volunteers. Depending on the organization, recruitment may take place on a

oneonone basis or in a group situation.73

Another author, Sandy Adirondack, examined volunteers recruitment in avoluntary organization. The section Volunteers Recruitments and Placement

describe how volunteers come into organization. Volunteers come into different

organizations either to do specific tasks or to do tasks defined by the volunteer or

organization to use a specific skill of the volunteer or even for the volunteer to do

anything. However, the author noted and recommended that most volunteers want

to do something for a good cause and are not clear about what they can offer or

what the organization might need. In this case, it is important to have someone in

the organization with specific responsibility for getting the best from volunteers. 74

72 Zarinpoush, Barr and Moreton,Managers, 24


74 Sandy Adirondack, Just About Managing: Effective Management for Voluntary Organization and

Community Group (London: Voluntary Service Council, 1998) 115


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An understanding of why people volunteer includes intrinsic rewards, helping

others, meeting people, developing a social network, concern for others, giving

something back to acknowledge advantages in life, refreshing or developing skills

and meeting a need.. In the same manner, it is important to understand why

people do not volunteer. Among the reasons are: lack of information about what

volunteer positions are available, misunderstanding about what volunteering

means, not having enough time, fear of commitment, undervaluing, or failing to

recognize their skills and cultural diversity.

During recruitment, organizations should also consider such factors as safety,

skills and commitment. For instance, organizations working with vulnerable

groups primarily consider safety issues. Many mentoring and other volunteer

programs require references and conduct police background checks.75

Recruitment Methods

In addition, some of the recruitment methods include:

i. By word-of-mouth from existing volunteers whose experience has been positive.

ii. Referrals for volunteer positions,

iii. Addressing community groups about the facts and benefits of volunteering,

iv. Seeking smaller volunteer groups that may welcome the advantages of merging

with a larger group,

v. Distributing volunteering information brochures/leaflets in the neighborhoods,

vi. Placing notices in the newsletters of local organizations, involving the media,

particularly local and community newspapers,

vii. Inviting the public to attend an open day and

viii. Using the internet are some of the methods listed in the book.

Maintenance of a stable, longterm volunteer workforce should be a major goal ofvolunteer management. This enables the organization to save time in recruiting

and training and to retain the confidence of paid staff in the volunteers. However,

75 Jean Baldwin Grossman and Kathryn Furano.Making the Most of Making Volunteers.(London: Public/Private Ventures, 2002) 4


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the approach to achieving this goal should not preclude or discourage volunteers

from entering and leaving the system to accommodate their lifestyles. Some of

the reasons why people cease volunteer activities include:

i. Over-commitment,

ii. Disenchantment due to lack of worthwhile activities, stimulating activities,

support, training, recognition and

iii. Changes in personal circumstances.

Another important element in recruiting volunteers is the use of Interview. A

well-conducted interview can help to create a good match between a volunteer

and a job.76

Mobilization as factor for voluntarism: One study on citizenship, civicengagement and civic voluntarism in Britain, examined a number of variables

underlying the civic voluntarism. These variables were personal efficacy, free

time, household income and mobilization. The study found that mobilization

(being invited to participate) stood out among others and was a significant factor

compared with other variables mentioned earlier. Based on the finding the authors

concluded that mobilization is a very consistent influence 77 on civic

volunteerism. The authors suggested that if people are asked to embark on a

certain activity, they are more likely to be active than those who are not asked.

They emphasized that this would particularly be more significant if they are asked

by a close acquaintance.78

2.7.4 Orientation

Induction, orientation and training of volunteers: An organization and members

of its volunteer program will benefit from formalizing the arrangement between

the individual and the organization. One way to achieve this is via a Statement of

Understanding for the volunteer to consider, discuss with the volunteer manager


77 Charles Pattie, Patrick Seyd, and Paul Whiteley, Citizenship and Civic Engagement: Attitudes and

Behaviour in Britain (Political Studies 2003 VOL 51, March 2003) 461

78 Charles, Seyd and Whiteley, Citizenship 459-462


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and sign before taking up a position. Volunteers entering a new program will

benefit from a well-conceived introduction to the organization, the volunteer

management system and the practical aspects of joining a new workplace. During

the orientation process, volunteers should gain the sense that they have a special

place in the organization and that their skills are valued.79

2.7.5 Training and Development

No program can expect volunteers to just walk on the job without any

instruction. Nevertheless, a mistake that far too many programs make is to

underestimate the training needs of their volunteers. Volunteers initial

understanding of program goals and their role in achieving those goals shapes the

way in which they interact in their task.80

Volunteers need to obtain the knowledge and skills about the work to carry out

their responsibilities. Initially the organization should have methods for

identifying the training and development needs of its volunteers. The organization

also has to provide volunteers with written and verbal instruction on:

i. How to perform their tasks and responsibilities to the standards specified by the

organization;

ii. The relationship between their tasks and responsibilities and the overall goals or

mission of the organization;

iii. The implications of poor work performance on the customer and the organization

iv. In addition, there should be procedures that ensure that volunteers remain up to

date and fit for the purpose, with the necessary the skills and knowledge.81

2.7.6 Recognitions

Recognition of volunteers contribution is one salient feature that appears in much

of the literature as a determining factor in running volunteer programs. Charities

interested in increasing retention of volunteers should invest in recognizing

79 Volunteering Australia, Working, 30-32

80 Grossman and Furano,Making, 6

81 Volunteering Australia, National Standards for Involving Volunteers in Not-for-Profit

Organisations. 2nd ed. (Melbourne, Australia: Volunteering Australia Inc., 2001) 40-42


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volunteers, providing training and professional development for them, and

screening volunteers and matching them to organizational tasks. 82

Some of the ways to recognize volunteers contributions in either formal and

informal ways include the following: Encouragement to contribute to decision

making processes, developing volunteer roles, awards or certificates, thank you

letters, announcements in local newspapers, radios or