The Chain of European Humanism

In Greek mythology, PROMETHEUS brought aspark of heavenly fire to earth for man, hiscreation, thus making him the ruler of the

elements. He was punished by being chained tothe Caucasian mountains. However, the greatstep forward into civilization had been taken bymeans of the glowing pith of a torch, made froma giant fennel stalk, which had been lighted atthe fiery chariot of the sun. Following on fromthese mythical conceptions of ancient days, thefire that was brought down from heaven becamea representation of reason and enlightenment, offreedom and the creative ability of the humanrace as a whole. In this case, too, Greek mythologyhas created1 an effect which can hardly beencompassed and whose influence can be seen inthe Olympic ceremonies.

At the ancient festivals held in honour ofPROMETHEUS in Athens, the craftsmen, particularlythe potters, honoured their patron with a torch relayfor which new fire from the altar of PROMETHEUS wasbrought into the City.2 This custom was "somewherebetween a procession and an athletic competition"3 andwas held, too, in connection with the Panathenaia,

the Hephaistia, but also in honour of ARTEMIS

BENDIS. The variation of a torch ride can be tracedback to Thracian influences.4 JÜTHNER describesthe torch relays as "essentially a matter of cult, onlysecondarily a matter of sport."5 This ambivalence alsomarks the modern re-enactments and probablyhas a direct effect on their power of fascination. Itserves, moreover, to reinforce the separate natureof the Olympic Festival as a whole.

"The opening ceremonies, including the lightingof the sacred flame at Archaia Olympia and itsrelay to the 'New Olympia' are rites of separationfrom ordinary lire, initiating the period of publicliminality."6

The torch as a symbol and personification inancient and Christian mythology and art canmerely be mentioned here. Its widespread use andits ambiguity are signs of a universal semiotics offire.7 Like the PROMETHEUS myth as a whole, theancient torch relays - the lampadedromia - havebecome a metaphor with a power that is all-embracing and is still active today.

* Introduction from BORGERS, Walter, Olympic Torch Relays 1936-1994, Kassel 1996, pp. 7-42

JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)228

Prometheusbound, besidehim the torchas symbol ofhis sacrilege

The Chain of European HumanismExamples of this metaphoric tradition can befound in the use of emblems in the Renaissanceand Baroque periods which show the struggle oflife, based on ancient models, as a face along arace-course. The torch, which is passed on or takenover, appeals in the early humanist writings as arepresentation of the chain of life and death and ofthe succession of the generations which carry thelight of the spirit further.8 In the poetry and art ofEuropean classicism the ancient models are takenup again, whereby "Philhellenism [...] produces thesame results in France and England as in Germany."9

The programmatic words of Andre CHENIER inhis didactic poem "L'invention", in which the"Greek author of the French nation" formulated alaw of classicism at the end of the 18th Century,are famous:

"Allumons nos flambeaux a leurfeux poetiques;Sur des penseurs nouveaux faisons des vers

antiques."10

Ernst CURTIUS, the excavator of Olympia, alsosaw himself as a link in a chain reaching back intoancient times. In a poetical review of his life's work

by the seventy-year-old CURTIUS which his pupil,Alfred SCHIFF11, quoted in 1895 at the unveiling ofthe bust dedicated to the excavator of Olympia inthe museum of Olympia, the image of the torchthat is passed on is used.

"My work does not end with that which (Imodestly felt),

I began so timidly when I spread the seed.See how hand joins hand in a row as links in a

chainWhich brings up pure water from the depths of

the spring,And the torch of light is handed, burning, from

neighbour to neighbour,The gleam is as bright as day.You could not wreath your friend's forehead in

a lovelier way,Could not better revive failing courage.The younger ones thus step in chorus up to the

side of old age;A life is fulfilled by transitoriness,Immortal life blooms where the power of Death

normally reigns,And each solitary thing joins up to form a never-

ending ring."12

29JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2

Handing over of the torch, antique vase (Musee du Louvre, Paris); Victor of an antique torch relay receiving the trophy,vase from the Necropolis of Spina (Museo Nazionale di Ferrara)

At the beginning of the 20th Century a 'ThirdHumanism" was developed in the European arts.In connection with statements about Hellenism asa "basic fibre" in the German character, WernerJAEGER, one of the leading exponents of this newlyidealistic movement, uses the torch relay as animage to illustrate the never-ending chain of thehuman spirit:

"The generations hurrying past one anotherthrow the burning torch back and forth and hewho catches the torch with his lithe fist swingsit high above him and carries it forward a littleway until he hands it over to the next man. Letus differentiate between the essence and theappearance of this sacred competition. Onlyseemingly is it a constant 'passing on' from handto hand. The meaning of the run is the keepingalive of the sacred flame of the spirit which wasbrought down from heaven to the darkearth by the Titan Prometheus asthe original spark of all the arts forhis favourites, the on-day race ofmankind."13

The torch metaphor is extendedby JAEGER to illustrate the culturaltradition "of the chain of the revivalsof the experiences of ancient times."14

His "Hellenocentric"15 approach,which allocates a considerableeducational and political task to the"coming Third Humanism "16, was not withoutinfluence on DIEM, who reports that he "listeneddiligently"17 to JAEGER at the Berlin University. Apoem (see next page) in DIEM'S Poesie des Sports(The Poetry of Sport) also shows this connection.18

DIEM'S contributions to the design of the Olympicfestival, too, should be considered against thebackground of Third Humanism as propagatedby JAEGER. The concept itself, however, comesfrom the circle surrounding Stefan GEORGE withwhom JAEGER is connected by the "Hellenisticallyoriented will to reform coming from a conservativemind."19 JAEGER'S concept of forming is used by

DIEM in the theory and practice of sport and of theOlympic idea.20

Olympic HumanismPierre de COUBERTIN can be cited with referenceto sport pedagogy and Olympic philosophyunderstood in this way. His works contain themetaphorical use of the ancient torch theme invarious places, among others in the ceremoniouswords spoken at the banquet at the end of theStockholm Olympic Games on 27 June 1912, whenhe looked forward to the 1916 Berlin Games andexplained:

"And now, Gentlemen, through our mediationa great people has received the torch of theOlympiads from your bands, and has therebyundertaken to preserve and if possible to quickenits precious flame."

21

Instead of stressing the succession of thegenerations, COUBERTIN stresses the

changing of the nations who passon the Olympic Flame:

"Lest our youth shouldtemporarily let the OlympicTorch fall from their hands, otheryoung people on the other side

of the world would be prepared topick it up again."22

COUBERTIN'S maxim, "May the OlympicTorch follow its course throughout the ages for

the good of a humanity ever more ardent, courageousand pure,"23 was written on the Scoreboard as afinal tableau in Los Angeles in 1932, thus lookingback to Athens and forward to Berlin.

In a transferred sense, COUBERTIN can be calledthe "re-igniter" of the Olympic Fire. It has notbeen possible, however, to identify whose idea itwas to have an Olympic Fire burning during theGames.2 4 For the first time in the history of themodern Olympic Games the fire burned at theAmsterdam Stadium in 1928 as a symbol of moralpurity just as it had in ancient Olympia on the

Torch rider, coinfrom Tarent 3rd

century B.C.


Stadium withtorch runners,16th centuryemblem

altar of HESTIA in the Prytaneion. The architect ofthe trend-setting Amsterdam Olympic Stadium,Jan WILS, bad been given the building contract andan Olympic Gold Medal for Architecture partly"because his idea of constructing a tower on which theOlympic Fire burned won over the jury".25 The fire,

however, was lit at the opening ceremony withoutany special ritual. Symbolising the Olympic Fire,the reverse side of the commemorative medal ofthe 1928 Olympic Games in Amsterdam shows aman and a woman holding a torch over a burningtripod.

Poem by an anonymous member of the Stefan George Circle, reprinted several times by Carl Diem in his Olym-pic writings


Pierre deCoubertin

In the Steps of CoubertinCOUBERTIN found in Carl DIEM a congenial fellowon behalf of his efforts to combine the OlympicGames with art and literature, as he had firstattempted at the 'Conference Consultative' inParis (23-25 May 1906). He, himself, had drawnattention to the possibility of heightening the effectof sporting festivals by means of "pyrotechnics",the use of fire and torches.26 Even before therebirth of the Olympic Games, on the occasionof the "Congres International de Paris pour leRetablissement des Jeux Olympiques" on 17 June1894, a "Fete de Nuit" staged "Courses a piedaux flambeaux" (150 m, 500 m, 200 m, steeple),possibly as copies of ancient models.2 7

Thirty years later, in formulations for a closingspeech at the Berlin Olympic Games, he drewthe connecting line between his early efforts, theBerlin opening ceremony and the "Course of thesacred torch [...] works conceived by my brilliant andenthusiastic friend, Carl Diem".28 In DIEM'S handsthe flame turned into "wildfire". It is due to hisOlympic vision and organisational talent that anancient myth was brought back to live by means ofthe torch relay. In his "Olympische Verknupfung",D I E M used formulations, in 1936, which are verysimilar to those of the neo-humanist JAEGER. Herethe torch relay appears as the connection betweenHellenism and Germanism (Athens and Berlin),between the old and the new world. Like JAEGER'S

Third Humanism and the tendency to imitateclassical forms in art and architecture, DIEM'S

plans for the Berlin Olympic Games were alsopart of a neo-classical trend, the effectiveness ofwhich was not confined to Germany and the effect

of which cannot simply be reduced to rituals ofsacrifice and subjugation under a totalitarianclaim to power.29 A study of the effects of this neo-classicism in the fields of sport and its culture ina European context, at the end of the 19t h and inthe first half of the 20t h Century, would surely beworthwhile.

In DIEM'S representation of the cultic originsof sport, the interpretation of the cult of fire atthe ancient Olympic Games appears as 'pars prototo' of these 'professions of belief in live' evolvingfrom memorial services. The "celebrations dedicatedto immortal youth" pass on the fire, as a symbol ofpurity and strength, to the following generationsin a 'never-ending chain'.30 As the successor to thePhil-Hellenist COUBERTIN, who helped to createan Olympic festival in the 'Spree Athens' of Berlin- characterized by Karl Friedrich SCHINKEL'S

buildings - DIEM put his idea of an Olympic TorchRelay from Olympia to Berlin into practice, basedon a cultural tradition which also constitutes thecrucial motive behind his practical-educationaland his scientific activity. The combination ofindividual sporting performances, nationalrepresentation in an international context and asymbolic presentation of an ancient myth in thetorch relay is connected with a general conceptwhich MENZE characterized as being the "attemptat a productive appropriation and transfer of originalGerman Humanism to physical education and sportin his time".31 With the fire a symbol of universaleffectiveness was introduced into the Olympicceremonies in 1928 and then developed into aceremonial prologue in 1936, which - as shownin 1968 by the connection with elements of theAztec cult of the sun in Mexiko and as proved byMACALOON in detail using the example of Korea32

- can also be applied to non-European culturesor can be transformed into new, particular formsof other cultures. DIEM'S achievement was that,with the torch relay, he created, a symbol of theOlympic spirit which brings home to worldopinion the connection between classical antiquityand modern times, particularly the closeness ofthe nations in the Olympic community. Just likeCOUBERTIN, Diem dared to make the decisive leap"from the museum path to the creative act".33

Since the French Revolution and its hugespectacles (fetes)34 the symbolism of fire has becomean element of the national festivals that developedthroughout Europe and also in Germany. JAHN

already took up the idea in his plans for nationalfestivals commemorating the Battle of the Nations(Volkerschlacht) near Leipzig that was staged bythe Berliner Turngesellschaft 18 to 19 October 1814:

"On top of a climbing tower of 65 feet a signalfire was burning; on the ground additionalfires were lit, 'to its highly mounting glow' theTurners stroke up patriotic songs and finallystarted a foot-face up the hills (Rollberge)."35


International Olympic Committee on 18May, 1934 in Athens. DIEM personallyinformed COUBERTIN of the results ofthe Athens meeting.39 In December1933, DIEM had already heard abouta torch relay in Bulgaria, as he wrotein his diary on 3 December 1933:

"We have been told of a pleasant relaythat was run for patriotic reasons:for the 1,000th anniversary of itsgreatness, fire was brought from theformer capital city, Prjeslaw, to thepresent capital, Sofia, by three routesand used to light a sacred flame in thecastle chapel which is still burningtoday."40

In the Official Report on the BerlinOlympic Games there is thefollowing unclear presentation ofthe discussion of the torch relay planduring a meeting of the propagandacommittee under the chairmanshipof Ministerialrat HAEGERT on 8February 1934:

Torch relays have been found in very few caseswithin the frame of festivals in modern times.With the expansion of the symbolic OlympicFire to the ritual of the Olympic Torch Relay theambiguity and overdetermination of symbols thatare "reality themselves or part of the reality, which isexpressed by them"36 has also been transferred tothis spectacular event that leads the public of theworld to the Olympic arenas.

"From Ministerialrat Haegert'sproposal to organize an OlympicRelay, the Secretary-General's planto have a torch relay from Olympiato Berlin was developed, based on the

recollection of an ancient relief in the PalazzoColonna in Rome which shows the torch relay ofEros figures."41

Idea and PlanningThe first torch relay to be found in connectionwith Carl DIEM was staged by students of theDeutsche Hochschule fur Leibesubungen in 1922 tocommemorate his 40th

birthday and simultaneouslythe beginning of the Deutsche Kampfspiele whichwere a kind of national Olympics.37 In DIEM'S

estate there are various documents relating to thebeginning of the planning for an Olympia-Berlintorch relay. The earliest date can be found in theguest book of his friend, Walther F. KLEFFEL, inwhich the comment is written: "On the birthday of anew plan"38 on 25 August 1931, and which is signedby Carl DIEM. In a text of Carl DIEM'S from 1956the idea is connected with the 1932 Los AngelesOlympic Games and historical studies are referredto. The references to COUBERTIN'S "full approval"in a conversation on 31 July 1933 and BAILLET-

LATOUR'S "warm approval" can also be foundhere and are designated as the basis on which theproposal was introduced at the meeting of the

Programme ofthe CongresInternationalde Paris pour leRetablissementdes JeuxOlympiques

While disregarding other sources, this passagehas served several sport historians as proofthat the torch relay was a production of thePropaganda Ministry.42 This is contradicted notonly by the aforementioned documents, but alsoby the reception given to the event by the pressas DIEM'S achievement and by many of DIEM'S

correspondences referring to his authorship.43

In correspondence shortly before the OlympicGames between the President of the OrganisingCommittee, Theodor LEWALD, and COUBERTIN therewas some discussion about the authorship, amongother things, in connection with COUBERTIN'S

message to the torch relay runners. On 30 June,LEWALD complains to COUBERTIN that his plannedmessage does not refer to the German origin of theidea ("I am obliged to object to that") and he insists:

"I am pleased that you want to present thisGerman idea and organization to the participantswith all the authority and admiration which youpossess, but it is necessary to say emphaticallythat the idea and the organization areGerman"44


Text by CarlDiem from

the Olympia-Pressedienst,

30 May 1934

"I tell you frankly that I find itincomprehensible that the plan ofyour message should have beenfound too pro-German; for Germanyis not mentioned at all."46

On the eve of the Games alldifferences had clearly been sortedout and LEWALD gent COUBERTIN

a torch-holder, but not withoutreferring once more to DIEM'S ideaand the magnificent way in which itwas being put into effect, which "thegreat film director Leni Riefenstahl" hadalso told him about on her returnfrom Athens.47

Exactly what happened at thepassing of the resolution by the IOChas become, in retrospect, the subjectof a discussion which was sparkedoff by a commemorative plaque inTegea. This plaque had been set upon 17 August 1936 by the circle of thepeople of Tegea to commemorate thefounding of the torch relay and hadlater fallen into oblivion. DIEM hadalready heard about the setting upof the plaque train the archaeologistWREDE in a letter dated 16 August1936:

"I have thought about you a lotrecently, especially when I, withthe film expedition, accompaniedthe torch relay tram Olympia toDelphi. What we experienced there,in the Arcadian mountains and atParnassus, among the peasants andshepherds was simply touching.Tomorrow a commemorative plaqueis to be set up at the birthplace of theidea, at Tegea. The secretary has beeninvited to it."48

On 5 July COUBERTIN reacted to this and to theinformation concerning DIEM'S authorship with arather surprising query:

"You reproach me with not having designatedDiem as the author of the idea; but how couldI know this when an Athenian newspaper hasannounced that the author of the idea was theGreek archaeologist Philadelpheus"45

COUBERTIN had clearly omitted, in the first versionof his message, to draw attention to the originof the idea, as he felt open to the criticism ofacting in a manner that was "too pro-German"("trop pro- allemand"). LEWALD reacted to acommunication which related to this with a lackof understanding:

On 8 October 1936 DIEM visited Tegea while on hisjourney through Greece following the OlympicGames. In his diary he describes the plaque there,which "carries the five rings with a torch passedthrough", and he repeats the text. His commentarygives information on how the setting up of thecommemorative plaque came about:

"On 22 May 1934 the IOC ate lunch here, in theshade of old plane-trees, with lots of good wine.In festive mood they also talked about the torchrelay. The people of Tegea now thought that thetorch relay was first thought up here and so, on17 August, they set up a marble plaque on thewall of the very grotto where we ate [...]. I wasextremely pleased, in peace and unrecognized,to see the plaque of my work there and to take aphoto of it"49


In 1961, the chancellor of the IOC heard aboutthe "commemorative plaque" from Jean KETSEAS

and published the supposed new discovery in theOfficial Bulletin of the IOC.50 With the help of DIEM

and of the IOC member Karl RITTER von HALT,the exact details were then cleared up by meansof correspondence. They appear to have beenas follows: the actual approval of the proposaltook place at the meeting in Athens on 18 May1934, when questions concerning the dedicationceremonies as a means of regulating the time werediscussed, too. On 22 May, in Tegea, the enthusiasticOlympic Committee talked over the plan and on23 May at the banquet at Olympia, details of itsimplementation were resolved, especially with theHellenic Olympic Committee.51 The course of eventsas presented here was also published by HenriPOURET in 1974 in the Revue Olympique, using thedocuments that were available to him.5 2

At the evening banquet of the IOC membersin Olympia the approval of the Greeks was alsocertain. The IOC President handed over an olivebranch with a blue and white ribbon to the mayorof Olympia, which was to be sent with a relay toBerlin in 1936 "as a dedication of these Games tramtheir home country"

53 According to the first editionof the 1934 announcement, the olive branch wasto be transported in a "specially adapted case [...]to be carried on the back and passed on from man toman."54 This plan was changed and the branch wastransported by a Lufthansa aeroplane. SpiridonLouis, the legendary winner of the 1896 Athensmarathon who, according to an early plan55, shouldalso have been the first torch-bearer to receive theOlympic Flame from the bands of COUBERTIN,handed the branch to the "Fuhrer" in Berlin on 1August 1936 at 17:25.56

The Liturgy of the Olympic FireThe method of initial ignition of the fire, basedon an ancient model, was imported by JeanKETSEAS, DIEM'S friend and ally in the creation ofthe Olympic Academy, on the basis of studies ofPLUTARCH:

"The method of lighting the Olympic Flamewas fixed after I wrote to my friend, Dr. Diem,that while reading Plutarch's verses (The Life ofNuma Pompilius) I had found the description ofthe way in which the Ancient Greeks re-ignitedthe sacred fire (when it chanced to go out),by putting a piece of wood into the focus of aconcave mirror that was exposed to the rays ofthe sun."57

The ancient model, therefore, also remainedeffective as far as lighting the fire was concernedand established an Olympic tradition which is stillfollowed today The concave mirror was suppliedby the firm of Zeiss (see below) in 1936.

Ancient models were also studied in order tofind a design for the torch-holder, both during the

Text by CarlDiem, written1956 commen-ting on the his-tory of the torchrelay includingan excerpt fromthe protocol ofthe IOC-SessionAthens 1934


Carl Diem (centre) together with his colleagues from the Organizing Committee (f.l.t.r.) Heinrich Meusel, Werner Klinge-berg, Gerhard Krause and Bill Henry, the Secretary General of the 1932 Olympic Games in Los Angeles

Diary ofCarl Diem,May 1934


tour of Greece following the Athens meeting andat other times. In the museum at Eleusis, DIEM andLEWALD found columns in the shape of torcheswhich LEWALD suggested should be used as modelsfor the torch-holder.58 In the Palazzo Colonna inRome, the two 'torch explorers', following a hintfrom the archaeologist Alfred SCHIFF, searched fora small, Attic relief showing Eros figures runninga torch relay and a stadium column.59 The relief,in a scaled-down form, was used in the letter-heading of correspondence relating to the torchrelay after the sculptor Walter LEMCKE had madea completed imprint of it. For the preparation ofthe exhibition entitled "Sport of the Hellenes" inthe supporting programme of the Berlin Games,the former administrative director of the College ofPhysical Education, Alfred SCHIFF, had collected anenormous amount of material60 before the workwas taken out of his hands on account of his beinga Jew. Nevertheless, DIEM continued to employ

him to do smaller jobs for the OrganizingCommittee until August 1936 and was

thus able to fall back on his knowledge.In SCHIFF'S written documents there aremany records of ancient torch relays.SCHIFF can almost be consideredDIEM'S personal adviser on questionsconcerning ancient sport. Amongother things, he also looked throughand corrected DIEM'S diary referencesto this.

The preparation of the lightingceremony was in the hands of theHellenic Olympic Committee (HOC),that is of a preparation team inOlympia. The gymnastic teacher and

LAXENBURG pupil, PRATSIKE, with whomDIEM discussed the celebration in 1936,

was involved in the arrangements for thefestival in Olympia.

Large-scale Relays as ModelsRelays, which bad also been known towardsthe end of the 19t h century as special messengerruns61, especially in the domain of the DeutscheTurnerschaft, had served early on to support theeffectiveness of nationally important events andcelebrations by providing a symbolic connectionbetween the countryside or provinces and theplace of celebration. At the dedication of the"Volkerschlacht" (Battle of the Nations) monumentin 1913, for example, the Deutsche Turnerschaftorganized a run in which the participants convergedfrom six starting-points, including Strasbourg(Alsace) and Metz (Lorraine). According toGROH the relay was staged in "remembrance of the'Volkerschlacht' with competitions and gymnasticgames, similar to the Olympic Games at the time of thefull flowering of Greece [...]"62

Plaque after therelief in the Pa-lazzo Colonnathat was usedas letterhead forthe torch relaystationary

Torch bearersoffering a torchto ArtemisBendis, votiverelief, 4th cent.B.C., BritishMuseum


Plan for theHindenburg-

Relay 1932

Commemora-tive medal ofthe Bundes-

feier in Bonn1949, showinga torch runner,Diem-Archives,

Cologne

This run had an international quality becausethere were relays of German athletes abroad,among others from the Capitol in Washingtonto New York63, and also in South America. In1925, the Deutsche Turnerschaft organized the"Hermannslauf" in celebration of the 100th

anniversary of the birth of Ferdinand GOETZ, itsformer leader. In all, 137,197 male and femalegymnasts from more than 6,000 clubs tookpart in this.64 Carl DIEM had also drawnup a plan for a large-scale relay of acompetitive nature, to be run fromPotsdam to Berlin in 1908.

"While under the influence of themarathon at the 1906 OlympicGames in Athens, I hit upon theplan of risking a major run, but ofcheating the public by letting themsee only fresh men."65

A revival of this famous running eventwas decided on after the fall of the BerlinWall.66

For the 'Verfassungstag' (Constitution Day)1931, the Deutsche Reichsausschufl under DIEM'S

overall control, planned an "Olympia large-scalerelay run" as an advertising and 'fund-raising'event for the participation at the 1932 Los AngelesGames.67 Not least is this event proof that DIEM, asSecretary-General of the Organizing Committee in1934, was not reliant on the Propaganda Ministryfor suggestions relating to an Olympic RelayTo mark the end of HINDENBURG'S presidency ofGermany, a plan for a "Hindenburg Relay" wasannounced which "in the shape of a star should leadfrom the borders of the Fatherland to the capital of the

German Reich".68 In the main, these runs involved thedelivery of messages of greeting or congratulation,as had at first been planned for the first OlympicTorch Relay. Even at the federal celebrations afterthe setting up of the Federal Republic of Germany,messages of greeting were sent by relay to Bonnfrom six different places on 25 September 1949.69

As DIEM was involved in the preparations ofthe "Bundesfeier" it is not surprising that the

badge commemorating this event showsa torch bearer.

Preparation of and Response tothe First Torch Relay

The first torch relay in the historyof the modern Olympic Gameswas planned meticulously bythe Organising Committee of the

1936 Berlin Olympic Games. Thehead of the sport section, Werner

KLINGEBERG, drove the whole length ofthe course together with Pay CARSTENSEN,

a representative of the Propaganda Committee,and negotiated on the spot with the respectivenational organizers. He had at his disposal a carprovided by the firm Daimler-Benz, as well as theassistance of the Daimler-Benz agencies abroad.His report70 on the preparations describes theenthusiastic reception of the plan, but also thedifficulties involved in crossing almost impassablecountryside. Near Olympia roads were built andpaths smoothed out especially for the run.

In support of regional and national effectiveness,dedication ceremonies were planned at Olympiaand at important stopovers, which were to helpbridge eventual delays, as well. In the applicationannouncement, Carl DIEM put forward, as well as


a specimen speech, a design foraltars on which the fire couldbe kept going at the stoppingplaces, even until the followingmorning, if necessary.71 Theburning-mirror for the initialignition was to be provided, atthe suggestion of the HellenicOlympic Committee, by "Zeiss,the dominating firm in the Greekoptical market".72 The first torchwas carried by the young Greek,Konstantin KONDYLIS. The runbegan on 21 July and was anoverwhelming success, receivingworldwide attention. The torch-bearers were accompanied bya retinue of journalists and byLeni RIEFENSTAHL'S camera-teamfor the Olympia film. On theroute of the Flame via Greece,Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary,Austria and Czechoslovakiamany sports veterans, prominentpeople and even royalty (Serbia)thronged to the torch. Politicalgroups also wanted to baskin its reflected light. Thus, theHungarian "Levente", a sort ofHitler-Youth, was to do the runinstead of active athletes.73 Thereport on the preparations, aswell as KLINGEBERG'S personaldiary "Reise Griechenland


(Fackel-Staffel-Lauf)", reveal, in several places,the political difficulties in which the preparationswere involved, e. g. in Austria where, on thejourney en route to Greece, the swastika pennanton the car was removed to avoid "bad blood".However, the "talks that were carried on in anatmosphere of tension" were successful, in spiteof Austrian reservations.74 In Czechoslovakia,"no co-operation with the Sokols, no governmentsupport" could be reached.75 The planning of thenational stages of the run was in the hands of therespective Olympic Committees. The OrganizingCommittee in Berlin was "basically only concernedwith the observance of the border handovers"76

National monuments and representatives ofnational associations played an important rolein the planning, especially where celebrations incapital cities were concerned. In Yugoslavia, forexample, the relay was run via Oplenac, wherethe lighting of a flame at the Mausoleum of theSerbian kings by "the young king, as a member ofthe Sokol association" was planned.77 In Budapestthere was a celebration at the Tomb of the UnknownSoldier and in Vienna the celebration took placeat the Heldenplatz. In Berlin the Olympic Torchwas welcomed with a huge youth manifestation("Jugendkundgebung") in the Lustgarten. 28,600

Start of the firsttorch relay inOlympia, non-documentaryversion fromthe Riefenstahlfilm, advertisingnote for a bookby Carl Diem

The OlympicFlame welco-med by Nazileaders in theBerlin Lustgar-ten


members of the "Hitlerjugend" and participants ofthe International Youth Camp took part. Speechesby prominent members of the Nazi Government -Joseph GOEBBELS, Baldur von SCHIRACH, BernhardRUST and Hans von TSCHAMMER UND OSTEN clearlyshow the demand for Olympic publicity whichcould only be met outside the Olympic arenas.

Olympic Torches Made of Krupp Steel78

Alongside the internationally-known firmsDaimler-Benz AG and Zeiss, there was a third majorGerman company involved as a sponsor of therelay and, thus, of the Olympic Games: the Fried.Krupp AG. The company report of 1935/36 of theFried. Krupp AG comments succinctly:

"The Olympic torch holders, known throughoutthe world, were manufactured in ourDepartment for the Design and Manufacture ofApparatus."79

Iron plaquecommemorating

the blowing inof the "Olym-

pia-Hochofen"at Krupp's by

means of anOlympic torch-

holder,1 August 1936

The design of the torches, based on the ideas ofDIEM and LEWALD and on preliminary designsdone by the Berlin sculptor and designer of theOlympic Bell, Walter LEMCKE, came from PeterWOLF, the manager of Krupp's Department forthe Design and Manufacture of Apparatus andlater the chairman, for many years, of the EssenGymnastics and Sports Club of 1859. WOLF had goneto the Organizing Committee in Berlin, specially,in October 1935, to discuss the designs.80 As canbe seen by the reference under the protectivedisc, the torch-holders were made of Krupp V2A-Nirosta Steel. The route of the flame was etchedon the shaft, below the Olympic Rings which

were carried in the talons of the Imperial Eagle.To prevent cheap imitations being made, Kruppapplied for a registration of the design in responseto the wishes of the Organizing Committee. Thedelivery of the torch-holders to the NOCs involvedwas carried out directly from Essen. The torch-holders were dedicated to the runners by theOrganizing Committee with the inscription, "AlsDank dem Träger" ("Thank you to the bearer"), andthey were donated by the Krupp company. In aletter to Pierre de COUBERTIN, Theodor LEWALD, thePresident of the Organizing Committee, estimatedthis donation to be worth 40,000 Reichsmark.81

The use of the Olympic Torches for any otherpurpose was only permissible for the donor. On 1August, the first day of the Berlin Games, the new"Olympia Hochofen" (blast-furnace) was blownin at Krupp's using the Olympic Torch which hadbeen lit at the fires of the Friedrich-Alfred works.An iron plaque showing a steel worker belowthe Olympic Rings commemorates this event.82

The three intertwined rings in the Fried. KruppAG trademark, which supported the OlympicRings in 1936, have remained connected with theOlympic movement up till today. In 1972, Kruppdonated 6,000 torch-holders for the torch relayto Munich and Berthold BEITZ, the former Kruppgeneral manager and later chairman of the boardof directors, has contributed since 1972, finally asvice-president of the IOC, to the upholding of theOlympic Flame. Today he is active, as an honorarymember, on behalf of the cultural tradition of theOlympic movement.

As files in the historical archives of the Fried.Krupp AG Show,83 the 1936 torch relay was a"journalistic hit" even before the Games. Thebroadcasting station of the Reich in Cologne madea report on the production of the torches andthe torches were shown in the Olympia Train, amobile publicity exhibition. The 'Olympiade' FilmCompany obtained torches for its shooting, theresults of which can be found in the particularlyimpressive opening sequence of Leni RIEFENSTAHL'S

film of the Olympic festival. Some of the picturesof the torch relay, however, are not a documentaryrecord as they were, in part, "enforced"8 4 inthe temple of Hera at the instigation of LeniRIEFENSTAHL, or they were filmed later on theKurische Nehrung.85 As an up-to-date addition tothe "work of art of the month", the torch-holderwas presented in 1936, in the Suermondt-Museumin Aachen. It was exhibited along with an antiquevase which showed "the finish of the classicalOlympic [sic!] Torch Relay, the reception of the finalrunner by the goddess of victory." 86 This crater by theSuessula-painter87 disappeared during the war.88

Flame and Torch, Protected by LawIn 1946 the IOC decided to follow the torch relaytradition as it had already done in 1939 in Londonfor the Helsinki Games. The Circular Letter, 16September 1946, by J. Sigfrid EDSTRÖM reports:


"The CIO was in favour of having the OlympicFlame brought from Olympia in Greece toLondon by athletes in the various countries."89

In just a few words, in 1949, the Olympic Legislationdefined, in 'Rule 33', for the first time the custom,which had been carried out for the second time in1948, of staging a torch relay from Olympia to thevenue of the Games.

"The Olympic Flame then arrives by a courierand after circling the track the Sacred Fire islit." 90

The Olympic Charter '91 devotes considerablymore attention to the opening ritual of theOlympic Games, which has developed since 1936to an imposing introductory piece, to a "celebratory'Entrada'".91 The formulations show that the IOCare also concerned with the 'copyright' for one oftheir most effective symbols.

"18 Olympic Flame and Olympic Torch1. The Olympic Flame is the flame which iskindled in Olympia under the authority of theIOC.2. An Olympic Torch is a torch or a replicathereof on which the Olympic Flame burns.3. The IOC holds all rights of any kind relatingto the use of the Olympic Flame and of OlympicTorches."

"68 Use of the Olympic Flame1. The OCOG is responsible for bringing theOlympic Flame to the Olympic Stadium. Thecelebrations to which the crossing or arrival ofthe Olympic Flame give rise, under the auspicesof the relevant NOC, must respect the Olympicprotocol. The IOC Executive Board shall approveall arrangements for any torch relay relating tothe Olympic Flame.2. The Olympic Flame must be placed in aprominent position clearly visible and, wherethe structure of the stadium permits, visible alsofrom outside the stadium."

"69, Bye Law 1.11The Olympic Torch is brought intothe stadium by runners relayingeach other. The last runner circlesthe track before lighting theOlympic Flame, which shall not beextinguished until the closing of theOlympic Games. The lighting of theOlympic Flame shall be followed by asymbolic release of pigeons." 91

By means of these regulations theOlympic Flame and the Torch Relayare placed under the authority ofthe IOC and legal protection is alsoensured. The National Olympic

Committees and the Organizing Committeesare responsible for the actual carrying out of therelay, whereby the "Executive Board" functionsas a controlling body. In 1969, the IOC formulatedsame guidelines for the lighting of the Fire, forthe Torch Relay and for the Flame dish in its"Recommendations for the Organizing Committeesof Olympic Games"93 With these few stipulationsthere is plenty of scope left for distinctive nationalfeatures, artistic development and IOC-controlledcommercial exploitation.

Highlights of the Torch RelaysFor the 1940 Tokyo Games (which were not held)Carl DIEM had thought up a relay on horsebackacross the wide expanses of Asia. The route wasworked out by the famous explorer of Asia, SvenHEDIN.94 During the planning of the 1964 Games,in which DIEM was involved, these plans were stillunder consideration.

At first the "ancient dedication" was missingfrom the Winter Games. However, for Garmisch-Partenkirchen in 1940 DIEM planned, by means ofa "Messenger Run of Friendship" from the site ofthe first Winter Games in Chamonix, a symbolicconnection, whereby a relay team of skiers was todeliver a message.95

In 1948, during the run from Athens toLondon, the Olympic Flame was carried to Pierrede COUBERTIN'S grave in Lausanne, where, inthe presence of his widow, a service was held inmemory of the founder of the modern OlympicGames.

In 1952, in Helsinki, the last torch was carriedby Paavo NURMI, an idol of world sport, thussymbolizing Olympic reconciliation with the manwho had once been excluded. A second flame litby the midnight sun in Pallastunturi, Lapland,was united with the Olympic Flame.

On the flight to Cairns for the MelbourneOlympic Games, the fire was carried in a miningsafety lamp that was donated by the Saar NOC. Arelay of riders carried the flame from Denmark toSweden for the Equestrian Games in Stockholm.

Following the trail of the ancient Greeksettlers, the torch was taken to Italy in 1960 on

Reception of thefinal torchrun-ner by the god-dess of victory,crater by theSuessula-pain-ter, previouslyin the Suer-mondt-Museum,Aix-la-Chapelle


The Mayor ofYokohama

Ryozo Hiranu-ma, member ofthe Tokyo 1940

OCOG, enteringthe stadium

during the ope-ning ceremony

of Japan'sNational Sports

Festival "Ko-kutai"

the sailing school ship "Amerigo Vespucci" andcarried through the ancient Magna Graecia. Tocommemorate the Etruscan Games a second torchwas brought from Tarquinia to the Capitol, whereboth flames were united.

In Japan, in 1964, the flame was split up for runscovering four routes and converging on Tokyo.The last torch was carried by Yoshinori SAKAI, ayoung man who had been born at the hour of thedropping of the atom bomb on Hiroshima, thusreminding people of a moment of destiny both forthe Japanese nation and for humanity as a whole.

In 1968, on the war to Mexico, the flamefollowed the trail of Christopher COLUMBUS, atfirst through Italy and Spain and then, by ship,across the Atlantic by the 1492 route. The flamewas brought to share by a relay of swimmersand then followed the route of Hernando CORTEZ

to Mexico City In Teotihuacan there was animposing celebration which blended the OlympicFire with the Aztec cult of the sun. For the firsttime a woman, Enriqueta BASILIO, lit the fire in theOlympic stadium.

Innsbruck and Garmisch-Partenkirchen, twovenues of earlier Winter Games, were passedthrough by the fire on its way to Munich in1972, thus underlining the Olympic integrationof winter sports. Accompanying the last runnerGunther ZAHN, Kim KEINO from Africa, Jim RYAN

from America, Keino Kunihara from Asia andDree CLAYTON from Oceania symbolized the fivecontinents.

Technical progress wasdemonstrated in Montreal bymeans of a transmission of thefire by satellite. The two finaltorch-bearers who lit the firetogether - Sandra HENDERSON

and Stephan PREFONTAINE -

later became the dream coupleof torch relay history by gettingmarried.

In Moscow the last few metresfor the torch were particularlyimpressive. The torch reached itsgoal by crossing a cat-walk thatwas constructed, seemingly outof nothing, by a group of bearersholding separate parts of it.

In 1984 the run across the Americancontinent began at the United Nations.By means of the Youth LegacyKilometer Program an impressiveamount of support for young people'ssport in America was raised. However,this commercial utilization of the relayled to violent arguments with the HellenicOlympic Committee.

The Olympic Flame was sent to Seoul in1988 on a zigzag course involving the wholeof South Korea and beginning from the islandof Cheju. The route was planned, among

other things, to draw attention to the history ofthe birth of Korea from the Silla, Paekche andKoryo dynasties. SOHN Kee Chung (Kitei SON),the Olympic marathon champion of 1936 forJapan, carried the torch into the stadium. The'true identity' of a 'usurped Olympic victory' wasbrought home to world opinion by this sign ofnational identity.

A burning arrow shot to the flame dish ignitedthe Olympic Fire in Barcelona. It had reachedSpain in Empurias where ancient Greek settlershad started their colony 600 B. C. IOC-PresidentJuan Antonio SAMARANCH took the chance to bearthe torch through the streets of his hometown.

Again and again, important events andpioneering achievements in sport, historicaloccurrences and moments of national developmentof the countries involved have been made intopoints of association in the torch relays. This hasbeen effected by means of special routes, by thechoice of runners, by celebrations and symbolicacts, all preserved in an international spectacle.This also applies to the Winter Olympic Games,which have had torch relays since 1952, althoughtheir permanent starting-point has only beenOlympia since 1964.

A Fiery Ideal- an emblem continues to be effective

Not only for the Olympic movement has the torchrelay become a symbolic act. The custom has been

taken over by regional games such asthe Asian Games, the Pan-AmericanGames, the Central American Games,the Spartakiads of the Socialistcountries and by a series of nationalsports festivals. Japan's "NationalSports Festival - Kokutai"- is held, just like many similarevents, under the influence ofthe flame. In the U.S.A. torchrelays have been used for fund-raising as, for example, bythe "Philadelphias ChildrenOlympic Fund Campaign",

which raised money for the1960 Rome Games.9 6

In 1965, the Spartakiad torchof the first Spartakiad for Children

and Young People of the GDRwas lit in the former concentration

camp of Buchenwald, where ErnstTHALMANN, the Chairman of the

German Communist Party, had beenmurdered in 1944.97

The sports organization of youngCatholics, the "Deutsche Jugendkraft",

has been holding torch relays sinceearly post-war days, whereby on 1 May a

Tight of peace' is sent from the AltenbergCathedral to numerous countries.

Originally, the fire was handed over at the


borders as a sign of peace, so as to demonstratethe fact that enemies have become friends.98

Since 1987, originating in the U.S.A., therehave been peace runs which are started fromthe headquarters of the United Nations. Theorganizer responsible is an 'International SriChinmoy Marathon Team', a sect which hasobviously recognized the publicity potential of a"World Peace Run" which emphasizes peace andthe community of nations. 99

On a smaller scale, the idea of the torch relaywas taken up again in the years following theBerlin Games. In 1937, the final stage and thelighting of the fire in the stadium were repeated,as a historical tableau, as part of the celebrationsmarking the 700th anniversary of the city of Berlin.100

To celebrate the 50t h anniversary of the IOC inLausanne, a torch relay was run from Geneva toLausanne on June 18th, 1944. DIEM commented onits low attendance in his diary.101

The reception of the new Olympic symbol,however, has spread far further than simplyto imitations in the field of sport. Literaryrepresentations of the theme have becomecomponents of the lighting ceremony, such asthe ode "Olympic Light" by Stelios SPERANTSAS102

or the poetic work "Light of Olympia" by TakisDOXAS, which hag been performed at the ceremonyin Olympia since 1964.103 Carl DIEM'S collection ofmaterial for the volume Poesie des Sports containsa number of lyrical versions of the torch theme,including Albrecht HAUSHOFER'S "Vision derFackel" from the "Moabiter Sonette", which DIEM

had already put into his 1948 volume EwigesOlympia.104 The final triplet inquires criticallyinto the political context of the Berlin Games andtouches on the theme of freedom, but not only insport:

"Zwingt ihr dem Feuer eine Knechtschaft auf?Es zischt und spruht, wie man's in Banden halt.Die Fackel flackert. Lodern - wird die Welt."

(Do you force the fire into bondage?It hisses and spits as it is held in fetters.The torch flickers. Blaze - will the world.)105

"The author was taken from the prison on theLehrter Straße on 23 April 1945 and shot inthe back by SS men. 80 sonnets were found inhis hand, including the above and 'Vision derFackel'."107

HAUSHOFER'S sonnet shows clearly that the"heavenly light"108, which the torch embodies, isalso open to ideological abuse. The "dialectics ofenlightenment" include its Olympic symbol.

Traces of the Flame can also be found inliterature for young people. Its presentation oftencombines narrative, historical instruction withreferences to the modern Games.1 0 9 The OlympicFire has even reached the stage, although in ahumorous way. In 1984 the Cologne Opera Houseput on the "Divertissementchen Olympisch For"110

as a guest performance of Cacilia WOLKENBURG, amen's singing club. Even though recent times havebrought forth a number of talented people whohave been inspired by the torch, there seems to havebeen a shift in emphasis, regarding its reception,towards art directors and the publicity men in bigcompanies. Since the 1950s, Olympic Torches havebeen appearing ever more frequently in advertisingcampaigns. Examples of this are recorded in thedocumentation. In the field of Olympic sportand of sport in general, the torch has become theemblem or part of the emblem of a large numberof clubs and organizations. Examples of this arePanathlon International, the Deutsche OlympischeGesellschaft and the Pan-American Games. TenNational Olympic Committees alone have thetorch in their emblems. The torch or the OlympicFlame have become the logo and pictogram forthe opening ceremony and in same cases also forthe closing ceremonies of the Olympic Games. Theextensive fields of numismatics and philately, withtheir hundreds of examples with torch motives,can merely be referred to here.1 1 1

In plastic art, examples of personifications ofthe torch can be mentioned which, like the torchitself, stand for the Olympic Games as a whole- as 'pars pro toto'. A controversial example ofsuch a 'Miss Olympia' was Ernilio GRECO'S "Torchbearer", which was put up in front of the Palazzodello Sport in Rome, in 1960.112

Film is an appropriate medium for thetorch relays and its possibilities were exploitedextensively during the filming of the first torchrelay. The effectiveness of the presentation ofthe torch relay was increased by the use of trickshots.113 Leni RIEFENSTAHL did not adhere rigidlyto the genre of the documentary film and actuallystaged, in part, the scenes of the lighting of the fireand of the first handover, in order to heighten the

The torch forthe SpartakiadLeipzig ignitedin the Concen-tration CampBuchenwald

Below the copy of the HAUSHOFER sonnet"Olympisches Fest", DIEM recorded in his ownhandwriting the fate of this poet who was, "togetherwith Bonhoeffer and Schleicher, murdered by theSS".106


Symbol of enlightenment and free-dom, the Statue of Liberty

Symbol of dialectics of enlightenment and of the abuse of the flame, ArnoBreker's sculptures "Prometheus" and "Die Partei"

effect. However, this led to conflict with the Greekauthorities, who did not want to allow a fire to belit in the Temple of HERA and who wanted to avoidexaggerated theatricality.114 By using dissolvingviews of Greece and Germany, Athens and Berlin,Ancient and Modern Times - embodied by thediscus thrower of MYRON projected onto a modernathlete - the director turned to stylizations inthe film's prologue. Elements which would havedisturbed the solemnity of the moment in thesequences showing the torch relay in Greece, suchas cars and motor cycles, were faded out:

"She has filmed the torch relay, as well as theprologue of her Olympia film, in a stylized wayfor artistic reasons."115

On its appearance in 1938, the prologue wascelebrated as "the most perfect film-poetry''116 Eventoday the film has an enthusiastic public and it hasbecome a subject for research.117 Later Olympiafilms, such as Kon ICHIKAWA'S film on the 1964Tokyo Games, have also had important sequencesdedicated to the torch relay.

"Only film effectively translates the spectacleinto another medium, and only two films of thescores that have been made - Leni Reifenstahl'sOlympia and Kon Ichikawa's film of the 1964Tokyo Games-have really succeeded in capturingthe epic visual quality in the Games."118

In recent years, video technology has increasinglybeen used for filming individual stages.119

The Effectiveness of the MythThe presented documentation shows that withthe Olympic Torch Relay, based on models fromancient times and their adaptation to 20t h centurysport, a universal sign of Olympic sport has beencreated which, with its ability to adapt to thetraditions of various cultures, has a symbolic

The helpinghand, torch

runner assymbol of the

Olympia Aid inLillehammer

content that is understood throughout the worldand has, indeed, become an emblem of theOlympic movement, along with the OlympicRings. In a child's view of a torch relay runner asthe Statue of Liberty who - surrounded by athletespersonifying the continents - runs into the "world"stadium120 the pre-requisites for the success of thecourse of the Olympic Fire are illustrated: freedomof the individual and the peaceful co-existence ofthe nations in a world that is seen as a unit. The"Olympic Aid" of the Lillehammer Winter Gamesin 1994 has taken this into account and is tryingto use the publicity of the Games to help childrenthat are threatened by war. A torch bearer joininghands with a child has been chosen as a logo for"Olympic Aid".


Notes and References1 On the history of its effectiveness in art and literature

cf. HUNGER, Herbert, Lexikon der griechischen undrömischen Mythologie, Vienna 41953, pp. 308-310 andFRENZEL, Elisabeth, Stoffe der Weltliteratur, Stuttgart1962, pp. 527-529.

2 Cf. DEUBNER, Ludwig, Attische Feste, Berlin 1932, p.211 f.

3 PARKE, Herbert W., Athenische Feste: Öffentlicher Kultund private Mysterien, Mainz 1987, p. 26.

4 Cf. PARKE, Feste, pp. 231 f. and 261 ff.5 JÜTHNER, Julius, Die athletischen Leibesübungen der

Griechen. II. Einzelne Sportarten, 1. Laut Sprung- undWurfwettbewerbe, Vienna 1968, p. 136 f.

6 MACALOON, John J.: "Olympic Games and the Theoryof Spectacle in Modern Societies", in: MACALOON,John J.(ed.), Rite, Drama, Festival. Rehearsals toward aTheory of Cultural Performance, Philadelphia 1983, p.252.

7 Cf. KOBLER, Friedrich, ,,Fackel als Attribut", in:Reallexikon zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte, vol. VI,Munich 1973, col. 993-1024.

8 Cf. HENKEL, Arthur/SCHÖNE, Albrecht (eds.),Emblemata. Handbuch zur Sinnbildkunst des XVI. undXVII. Jahrhunderts, Stuttgart 1967, col. 1201.

9 MÜLLER, Norbert, "Preface", in: COUBERTIN, Pierrede, Textes Choisis, Part II, Zürich 1986, p. 7.

10 "Let us light our torches at their poetic fires; I Onnew thoughts make ancient verses." Cf. MILLER,Norbert, "Europäischer Philhellenismus zwischenWinckelmann und Byron", in: Propyläen Geschichte derLiteratur; vol. IV; Aufklarung und Romantik 1700-1830,Frankfurt/Berlin/Vienna 1983, p. 337.

11 The author is preparing a study on the archaeologist(a member of the German delegation in Athensin 1896, a founding member and member of theboard of the Deutscher Reichsausschuß fur OlympischeSpiele (DRAfOS) and Deutscher Reichsausschuß furLeibesubungen (DRAfL) and administrative director ofthe Deutsche Hochschule fur Leibesubungen (DHfL) andon his part in the Olympic movement which, however,ended after his involvement - through the good officesof DIEM - in the Berlin Games.

12 "Speech by Alfred Schiff", in: Die Ernst Curtius-Busteim Museum von Olympia. Bericht fiir die an der StiftungBeteiligten, pp. 17-19. [no p. and n.d.]

13 JAEGER, Werner, "Humanismus als Tradition undErlebnis (1919)", in: Humanistische Reden und Vortrage,Berlin

21960, p. 30.14 HOLSCHER, Uvo, "Angestrengtes Griechentum. Die

dritte Wiederkehr des Klassischen. Zu Werner Jaegers100. Geburtstag", in: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, (30July 1988)175, p.19.

15 Cf. JAEGER, Werner, Paideia: Die Formung desgriechischen Menschen, Berlin/Leipzig 1934, p. 3.

16 Ibid., p. 16.17 Cf. DIEM, Carl, "Leibeserziehung - ein Nebenfach",

in: Die Leibeserziehung 10(1961)3, p. 78. DIEM alsomentions here that JAEGER, as ta representative of theUniversity of Berlin, was present at the founding of theDeutsche Hochschule fiir Leibesubungen. In 1948 JAEGER,

who was teaching at Harvard University subsequent tohis emigration, figured as a potential teacher in DIEM'S

plans for the Olympic Academy. Cf. File "OlympischeAkademie 1948", Diem-Archives Cologne.

18 Cf. DIEM, Carl, Poesie des Sports, Stuttgart 1957, p.218. DIEM had also printed the paradigmatic poem inthe Olympische Rundschau and in the Olympic SportsCalender 1956, p. 51. Cf. also on the flame theme:GEORGE, Stefan, "Wer je die Flamme umschritt", p.219 of Poesie des Sports.

19 HOLSCHER, "Griechentum", p. 19.20 JAEGER'S short-lived delusion of "beingable to provide

the pedagogical world-view for the new 'movement"'(HOLSCHER, "Griechentum", p. 19.) has itscounterpart in DIEM'S futile attempt to preserve hisaims in sport pedagogy by means of limited co-operation with the National Socialists.

21 COUBERTIN, Pierre de, "Closing words, Stockholm1912", in: COUBERTIN, Pierre de, The Olympic Idea.Discourses and Essays, ed. by Carl-Diem-Institut,Schorndorf 1966, p. 39.

22 COUBERTIN, Pierre de, Olympische Erinnerungen,Berlin 1987, p. 173.

23 WIDLUND has identified the text as part of COUBERTIN'S

closing words at the 1920 Games in Antwerp. Cf.BERNETT, Hajo, "Symbolik und Zeremoniell der XI.Olympischen Spiele in Berlin 1936", in: Sportwissenschaft16(1984)4, p. 369.

24 Cf. ibid.25 VERSPOHL, Franz-Joachim, Stadionbauten von der

Antike bis zur Gegenwart. Regie und Selbsterfahrung derMassen. Gießen 1976, p. 211.

26 COUBERTIN, Pierre de, "Decoration, pyrotechnie,harmonies, corteges. Essai des Ruskinianisme sportif",in: Textes Choisis, vol. 2, Zurich 1986, p. 535.

27 Congres International de Paris pour le Retablissementdes Jeux Olympiques. Programme. Racing Club deFrance. Paris 1894.

28 COUBERTIN, Pierre de, "Discours pour la cloture desJeux Olympiques de Berlin", in: Textes Choisis, vol. 2,Zurich 1986, p. 305.

29 Cf. as an example of such an ahistorical reduction witha critical purpose: ALKEMEYER, Thomas, "Gewaltund Opfer im Ritual der Olympischen Spiele 1936",in: DRESSEN, Wolfgang (ed.), Selbstbeherrschte Korper;Berliner Topographien 6, Berlin 1986, pp. 60-77.

30 DIEM, Carl, Weltgeschichte des Sports und derLeibeserziehung, Stuttgart 1960, p. 43.

31 MENZE, Clemens, "Zur Einfuhrung in dieAusgewahlten Schriften Carl Diems", in: DIEM, Carl,Ausgewahlte Schriften, vol. 1, Zur Begrundung von Sportund Sporterziehung, Sankt Augustin 1982, p. 9.

32 MACALOON, John J., Korean Cultural Performance of anInternational Rite. The Torch Relay of the Xth Asian Games.Uncorrected Draft, 9.1.1987.

Asterix asOlympic Torchrunner, adver-tising sticker,1992


Olympic spon-sor using a

torch runner aslid for a box of

sweets, 1992

33 DIEM, Carl, "Die Olympische Idee als moralischeForderung", in: Report of the Second Summer Season ofthe International Olympic Academy, Athens 1962, quotedfrom: Ausgewahlte Schriften, vol. 1, p. 214.

34 Cf. for example for the "Fete Federale" on 14 July1790: HOFMANN, Werner, Europa 1789. Aufklarung,Verklarung, Verfall. Ausstellung der Hamburger Kunsthallezum 200. Jahrestag der franzosischen Revolution. Koln1989, pp. 228-230.

35 DUDING, Dieter, Organisierter gesellschaftlicherNationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847); Bedeutungder Turner- und Sangervereine fur die deutscheNationalbewegung, Wien 1983, p. 115.

36 SOEFFNER, H. G., "Emblematische und symbolischeFormen der Orientierung", in: FernuniversitatHagen (ed.), Fernuniversitat und Gesellschaft. HagenerUniversitatsreden 6, Hagen 1984, p. 107.

37 ENGLERT, Ludwig, "Erinnerungen eines ehemaligenStudenten an die ersten Jahre der Hochschule", in:SCHIFF, Alfred (ed.), Die Deutsche Hochschule furLeibesubungen 1920-1930, Berlin 1930, p. 117.

38 Walther KLEFFEL'S guest book, 25 August 1931, copywith a handwritten addition by KLEFFEL "Olympis.Fackellauf", Diem Archives Cologne. Cf. also:KAHLE, Manfred, Der Fackelstaffellaufbei den modernenOlympischen Spielen. Degree dissertation, DeutscheSporthochschule Cologne, WS 1966/67. KLEFFEL hadalso made a copy available to the student, see letterof 6 March 1967 to Liselott DIEM with enclosed copy,Diem Archives Cologne.

39 Letter from Carl DIEM to Pierrede COUBERTIN 12 June 1934, IOCArchives, Lausanne.

40 Tagebucher Carl DIEM, ref. no.0253304, p. 239, 3 December 1933,Diem Archives Cologne.

41 Organisationskomitee fur die XI.Olympiade Berlin 1936 e. V. (ed.), XI.Olympiade Berlin 1936. Amtlicher Bericht,vol. 1, Berlin 1937, p. 58.

42 Cf. KRÜGER, Arnd, "The 1936 BerlinOlympic Games", in: GRAHAM, PeterJ./UEBERHORST, Horst (eds.), TheModern Olympics, Cornwall (N.Y.) n.d.,p. 170: "Mr. Haegert, a civil servant inGoebbel's Propaganda Ministry inventedthe lighting of the Olympic Torch and itsinternational relay from Olympia to the site of the games."Cf. in contrast to this MANDELL, Richard D., The NaziOlympics. New York 1971, p. 130: "The idea was entirelyDr. Carl Diem's".

43 It is possible that the Propaganda Ministry madeclaims concerning the origin of the torch relayafterwards. In April 1943, HAEGERT, the head of aministry department, is mentioned, in Carl DIEM'S

diaries: "My adversary with regard to the Olympic Games,in the Propaganda Ministry", Tagebiicher Carl Diem, ref.no. 1744305, April 1943, Diem Archive, Cologne.

44 Letter from LEWALD to COUBERTIN, 30 June 1936, IOCArchives Lausanne.

45 The passage is quoted in LEWALD'S letter of 8 July 1936,see note 46.

46 Letter from LEWALD to COUBERTIN, 8 July 1936, IOCArchives Lausanne.

47 Letter from LEWALD to COUBERTIN, 26 July 1936, IOCArchives Lausanne.

48 Letter from WREDE to DIEM, 16 August 1936, DiemArchives Cologne.

49 Tagebiicher Carl Diem, ref. no. 0733613 from 10October 1936, Diem Archives Cologne.

50 "Une Plaque Commemorative Olympique reconnue enGrece", in: Bulletin Official du CIO (1961)77, p. 15 f.,"A propos de la plaque commemorative de Teghea(Grece)", in: Bulletin Officiel du CIO, (1962)1978, pp. 34ff.

51 Cf. correspondence between Otto MAYER and CarlDIEM, 10 October 1961 - 2 February 1962.

52 Cf. POURET, Henri, "La Flamme Olympique", in:

Revue Olympique (1974)85/86, pp. 611-616.53 Tagebucher Carl Diem, ref. no. 0263400, p. 68, from 23

May 1934, Diem Archives Cologne.54 Cf. Fackel-Staffel-Lauf Olympia - Berlin 1936, Berlin n.d.

[1934], p. 6.55 Cf. DIEM'S letter to COUBERTIN, 24 April 1936, also

Cf. KLINGEBERG, W., Fackel-Staffel-Lauf Olympia-Berlin 20. Juli bis 1. August 1936. Report on the stateof the: organisational preliminary work following thejourney over the entire route in September 1935, Berlin,1 October 1935. Diem Archives Cologne, p. 17. Here,however, COUBERTIN'S participation in Olympia is notmentioned.

56 Cf. Olympia-Zeitung (3 August 1936)14, p. 244.57 Letter from Jean KETSEAS to the editor of the Bulletin

Officiel, from 24 January 1962, quotes from POURET,Henri (see note 52) p. 614. The passage referred to byKETSEAS reads, in the German translation, as follows:"[...] so darf er [der Altar; W.B.] nicht von einem anderenFeuer her entfacht werden, sondern man muß neues undfrisches machen, indem man von der Sonne her eine reine,unbefleckte Flamme entzundet. Man tut das zumeist mittelsder Hohlpfannen, die man herstellt, indem man sie von derGrundlinie eines gleichschenklig-rechtwinkligen Dreiecksausgehend nach einem Mittelpunkt hin aushohlt. Wennein solches Gefaß gegen die Sonne gestellt wird, so daß ihreStrahlen von allen Seiten zuriickgeworfen werden [...], sozersetzt es die sich verdunnende Luft und entziindet raschsehr leichte und trockene Stoffe, die man heranbringt, dader Strahl durch den Ruckprall Korper und Wirkungskraftdes Feuers erhalt." PLUTARCH, Grosse Griechen undRomer, vol. 1, translated by and with an introductionby Konrat ZIEGLER, Zurich/Stuttgart 1954, p. 182.

58 Tagebiicher Carl Diem, ref. No. 02634, p. 104.59 Ibid., p. 113 ff.60 Draft and index of potential exhibits in SCHIFF'S estate,

Diem Archives Cologne.61 Cf. among others: RAABE, Arthur, Eilbotenlaufen,

Leipzig 1910.62 GROH, E., "Eilbotenlaufe der Deutschen Turnerschaft

zur Weihe des Volkerschlachtdenkmals", in: DeutscheTurnzeitung (1913)44, p. 850.

63 Ibid., p. 851.64 KUNATH, Arno, Der Hermannslauf der Deutschen

Turnerschaft 1925. Bremen 1925.65 Diem, Carl, ,,Entstehung der Großstaffellaufe", in:

Olympische Flamme, vol. 3, Berlin 1942, p. 1178.66 Cf. "Neuauflage des Traditions-Staffellaufs Potsdam-

Berlin", in: DSB-Information Nr. 5/90, p. 6.67 Cf. Blatter f Volksgesundheit und Volkskraft 18(1930)19, p.

50 and p. 46 f.68 Ibid., p. 181 f.69 Cf. SPITZER, Giselher, "Grundung des Nationalen

Olympischen Komitees", in: ROTTER, Gunther (ed.),Ruckkehr nach Olympia. Nationales Olympisches Komiteefur Deutschland, Vorgeschichte, Griindung, erste Jahre.Munich 1989, p. 115 f.

70 KLINGEBERG, W., see note 55.71 Fackel-Staffel-Lauf Olympia-Berlin 1936 (Ausschreibung),

21935, p. 28.72 KLINGEBERG, W., p. 21.73 Sammlung von Pressestimmen im Anschluß an den

Bericht Klingebergs, DNB 18 September 1935, Diem-Archives Cologne.

74 KLINGEBERG'S traveljournal "Reise Griechenland(Fackel-Staffel-Lauf)", p. 2, 6 September 1935,KLINGEBERG, W., p. 34., Diem-Archives Cologne.

75 Ibid., p. 33 f.76 KLINGEBERG'S travel journal, p. 30.77 KLINGEBERG, W., p. 25.78 Cf. BORGERS, Walter, Krupp und der Sport.

Anmerkungen zu Sport und Sportforderung der Familieund des Unternehmens, published by Institut furSportpublizistik an der Deutschen SporthochschuleKoln. Neuss 1988, pp. 85-92.

79 Technischer Bericht u'ber das Betriebsjahr 1935/36,Fried. Krupp AG, Stahlbetriebe (Apparatebau), p. 9,Historical Archives of the Fried. Krupp GmbH, Essen,


WAIV2962a.g80 Cf. for the files on the meeting, notes

sent by DIEM to WOLF on 8 October1935, Historical Archives of the Fried.Krupp GmbH, Essen, WA 41/73-111.

81 Letter from LEWALD to COUBERTIN, 30June 1936, IOC-Archives, Lausanne,"A ma sollicitation le chef de lamaison Krupp, Monsieur von Bohlen-Halbach, nous a fair cadeau de ces 3000poignees qui representent une valeurde RM 40000,- soit Ffrs. 240000,-"

82 Cf. KRUPP, Zs. der KruppschenBetriebsgemeinschaft 27(1936)23.

83 Historical Archives of the Fried.Krupp Gmbh, Essen, WA 41/73-111,contains the correspondence relatingto the uses, given in the followingpassage, to which the torch was putby the media.

84 Tagebucher Carl Diem, Ref. no.0743614, p. 46, from 3 October 1936.DIEM reports here on a conversationwith Fraulein PRATSIKE, a LAXENBURG

pupil, who was responsible for thearrangement of the celebration inOlympia. "Up till now I hadn't quiteunderstood the celebration because thepictures did not rally with the report.Now I have discovered that the pictureswere enforced by Leni Riefenstahl in theTemple of Hera, whereas the celebrationtook place outside the Altis. Leni was notwrong, as the pictures from the Temple ofHera convey the concept of Olympia."

85 Cf. RIEFENSTAHL, Leni, Memoiren,Munchen, Hamburg 1987, pp. 273-275.

8 6 Letter from the director of theSuermondt Museum in Aachen to KruppLtd., Historical Archives of the Fried.Krupp GmbH, Essen, WA 41/73-111.

87 Cf. JUTHNER, Leibesubungen, p.138 f.88 Letter from the Museen der Stadt

Aachen, Renate PULLOGEL, to theauthor.

8 9 Circular Letter by J. Sigfrid EDSTROM, IOC President,16 September 1946. p. 2, Diem Archives Cologne.

90 International Olympic Committee, Olympic Rules,Charter of the Olympic Games, Lausanne 1949, p. 15.

91 DIEM, Liselott, Die festliche Entrada der OlympischenSpiele - eine Hymne auf die olympischen Fackellaufer,typed draft, 1965, Diem-Archives Cologne, "A Hymn tothe Olympic Torch Bearers", in: International OlympicInstitute Lausanne, The Games of the XVIIIth OlympiadTokyo 1964. Stuttgart 1965, pp. 35-39.

92 International Olympic Committee, Olympic Charter '91,Lausanne 1990.

93 Cf. The Administration of an Olympic Games. Submittedat the Request of the IOC by Sandy DUNCAN (GreatBritain), Marcello GARONNI (Italy) and YukiakiIWATE (Japan). Lausanne n.d., p. 89 f.

9 4 Cf. BERNETT, Hajo, "Das Scheitern der OlympischenSpiele von 1940", in: Station 6(1980), pp. 255 and 272.

95 Cf. DIEM, Carl (ed.), Vorbereitungen zu den OlympischenWinterspielen 1940 Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Munich1940, pp. 26 and 85.

96 Cf. United States 1960 Olympic Book. Quadrennial Reportof the United States Olympic Committee. New York 1961,p. 35.

97 Cf. SCHMIDTKE, Dirk, "Die erste Kinder- undJugendspartakiade", in: NOK-Report Nr. 8/90, p.29 f., Cf. also: Deutscher Turn- und Sportbund derDeutschen Demokratischen Republik (ed.), VII. Turn-und Sportfest und IX. Jugendspartakiade der DDR. Leipzig25. 31. Juli 1983, Dresden 1983, pp. 2-3.

98 Cf. Kolner Stafettte. Reports by the DJK districtassociation Cologne, 311989.

Child's view ofa torch relayrunner as thestatue of libertysurroundedby athletespersonifying thecontinents andrunning into the"world" stadium

99 Sri Chinmoy Oneness Home Peace Run. Weltfriedenslauf'89, Advertising brochure.

100 Cf. 700 Jahre Berlin, Festfolge 14.-22. August 1937, DiemArchives Cologne.

101 Tagebucher Carl Diem, Ref. no. 1854405, Diem ArchivesCologne.

102 SPERANTSAS, Stelios, Olympic Light Edited underthe care of the Hellenic Olympic Committee, Athens1970.

103 DOXAS, Takis, Licht Olympias (in seven languages),Athens 1976.

104 DIEM, Carl, Ewiges Olympia, Minden 1948, p. 247.105 Quoted from: DIEM, Carl, Poesie des Sports, Stuttgart

1957, p. 219.106 Cf. TEICHLER, Hans-Joachim, "Der Weg Carl Diems

vom DRA-Generalsekretar zum kommissarischenFuhrer des Gaues Ausland im NSRL", in: Zs. f Sozial-und Zeitgeschichte des Sports, 11198711. p. 84.

107 Sachakte "Poesie des Sports", Diem ArchivesCologne.

108 Cf. GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang von: Faust I, Worksvol. 2, Salzburg/Stuttgart n.d., p. 758 f.:,,Mephistopheles:

Ein wenig besser wurd er leben,Ha'ttst du ihm nicht den Schein des Himmelslichts

gegeben;Er nennts Vernunft und braucht's allein.Nur tierischer als jedes Tier zu sein."

109 Cf. as an example: TRENT, Thomas, Flamme vonOlympia. Gottinger Jugend-Bande. Gottingen n.d. [1956].

110 "Olympisch For", E Divertissementchen in 5 Bildervon Franz Wilkes. ed.: Fritz-Dieter GERHARDS,Cologne 1984.


111 Cf. on the subject of philately, which has provided themost accurate documentations of the torch relays sofar: WERNET, Kurt, "Die olympische Flamme zu denOlympischen Spielen im Munchen 1972", in: IMOS- Internationale Motivgruppen Olympiade und Sport.Schonach 1973 (continuing). Cf. also WERNET, Kurt:"Stafette der olympischen Fackel auf dem Weg nachMoskau". IMOS Schonach 1980 (continuing).

112 Cf. on the reception of this sculpture: Bild am Sonntag(24 April 1960).

113 Cf. Staatspolitische Filme, issue 8/9, Olympia, ed. byWalther GUNTHER, Berlin 1938. p. 1. "The torch relaytrick photographs were taken by the team of Svend Noldan"

114 Cf. note 84.115 Information from the office of Leni Riefenstahl-

Productions. 24.6.1987, Diem Archives Cologne. Cf. also:RIEFENSTAHL, Leni, Memoiren. Munich/Hamburg1987, p. 263 f., p. 273 f., Cf. for the documentarycharacter of the torch relay parts also: GRAHAM,Cooper Carrington, Leni Riefenstahl and Olympia.(Filmmakers No. 13). New York, London 1989, pp. 56-65.

116 TROMEL, Walter (ed.), Olympia, der Film von den XLOlympischen Spielen in Bertin 1936. Wiesbaden n.d.,p. 7. Cf. also: BERNETT, Hajo, Untersuchungen zurZeitgeschichte des Sports, Schorndorf 1973, pp. 115-139.

117 Cf. MANDELL, Richard D., Hitlers Olympiade Berlin1936, Munich 1980, p. 125 ff.; and GRAHAM, CooperCarrington, A Historical and Aesthetic Analysis of LeniRiefenstahl's "Olympia", Ph.D. Dissertation, New YorkUniversity 1984; BERNETT, Hajo, "Leni RiefenstahlsDokumentarfilm von den Olympischen Spielen inBerlin 1936", in: BERNETT, Hajo, Untersuchungen zurZeitgeschichte des Sports, Schorndorf: 1973, pp. 115-139.

118 MACALOON, John, J., "Olympic Games and the Theoryof Spectacle in Modern Societies", in: MACALOON,John J. (ed.), Rite, Drama, Festival, Spectacle. Rehearsalstoward a theory of Cultural Performance, Philadelphia1983, p. 245.

119 Thus, the organizing committee in Los Angeles ownsmore than 300 videos. Cf. Los Angeles OlympicOrganizing Committee Records. Videotapes. Draft 2,8/87, pp. 118-134.

120 In: Message Olympique (March 1986)13.

Commemorative Plaque for Carl Diem, Diem-Archive Cologne


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