30
The Calculation of X-ray Scattering Factors for Spherically Averaged Molecules Example: Methane, CH4 All molecular gas-phases become crystalline when subjected to sufficient pressure. It seems that the lowest pressure phases may be characterized as close-packed struc- hIres wherein each molecule is freely rotating about an associated point. As pressure is increased the motion is constrained and a lowering of symmetry occurs. In order to model the freely rotating molecule, the molecular electron-density wave functions were computed using the Gaussian92 program for energy-optimized model molecules. The electron-density was then spherically averaged in order to mimic the rotations. The Fourier transform of this spherically averaged electron density provides the scat- tering factor for the rotating molecule. Displacement parameters obtained from the structure refinements provide estimates of translational motion. A genera.l outline of the procedure is a.s follows: 1) Find the minimum energy structure of CH4 using the Gaussia.n code. 2) Calcul~te the molecular orbital coefficients for this configuration. :3) Calculate the spherically averaged electron density for the molecule. 4) Transform the electron density into scattering factors. The Minimum Energy Structure of CH4 The structure of CH4 was calculated using the Gaussian 92 for Windows code assuming tetrahedral symmetry with a high level 6-:31 G** basis set and MP2 M~lIer- Plesset configuration interactions. The length of the CH bond was varied (optimized at 1.085.5 A) until a minimum energy (-40.3646259 a.u.) was obtained. The optimized bond length compares well with a reported CD bond length of 1.084 Afor solid heavy methane at :34.5 K (Press, 1972).

The Calculation ofX-ray Scattering Factors for Spherically

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Page 1: The Calculation ofX-ray Scattering Factors for Spherically

The Calculation of X-ray Scattering Factors for Spherically Averaged Molecules

Example: Methane, CH4

All molecular gas-phases become crystalline when subjected to sufficient pressure.

It seems that the lowest pressure phases may be characterized as close-packed struc-

hIres wherein each molecule is freely rotating about an associated point. As pressure

is increased the motion is constrained and a lowering of symmetry occurs. In order

to model the freely rotating molecule, the molecular electron-density wave functions

were computed using the Gaussian92 program for energy-optimized model molecules.

The electron-density was then spherically averaged in order to mimic the rotations.

The Fourier transform of this spherically averaged electron density provides the scat-

tering factor for the rotating molecule. Displacement parameters obtained from the

structure refinements provide estimates of translational motion.

A genera.l outline of the procedure is a.s follows:

1) Find the minimum energy structure of CH4 using the Gaussia.n code.

2) Calcul~te the molecular orbital coefficients for this configuration.

:3) Calculate the spherically averaged electron density for the molecule.

4) Transform the electron density into scattering factors.

The Minimum Energy Structure of CH4

The structure of CH4 was calculated using the Gaussian 92 for Windows code

assuming tetrahedral symmetry with a high level 6-:31G** basis set and MP2 M~lIer-

Plesset configuration interactions. The length of the CH bond was varied (optimized

at 1.085.5 A) until a minimum energy (-40.3646259 a.u.) was obtained. The optimized

bond length compares well with a reported CD bond length of 1.084 Afor solid heavy

methane at :34.5 K (Press, 1972).

Page 2: The Calculation ofX-ray Scattering Factors for Spherically

Molecular Orbital Coefficients

A single point calculation was then carried out at the minimum energy configu-

ration in order to obtain the molecular orbital coefficients. A brief review of the form

of the basis sets is now given. See Szabo and Ostlund (1982) for a more complete

description.

Consider an expansion of a molecular orbital, 'l/Ji,

K

'l/Ji= L C/1i<P/1'

/1=1

where C/1i are the expansion coefficients and <P/1are previously prescribed linear com-

binations (or contractions) of Gaussian functions (primitives). The contraction has

the formL

<p/1(r - RA) = L dp/19p(ap/1' r - RA),

p=1

where ap/1 and dp/1 are the contraction exponents and coefficients, L is the length of

the contraction, and RA is the position of the center of the atom A. The normalized

Gaussian primitives are of the forms

91s( a, r) = (8a3/,rr3)1/4e-ar2

92Px( a, r) = (128a5/,rr3)1/4xe-ar2

93dxx (a, r) = (2048a7/97r3)1/4xye-ar2

93dxy(a,r) = (2048a7/7r3)1/4xye-ar2.

The contraction coefficients (d's) and exponents (a's) are obtained by a least-squares

fit which, for the Is shell, minimizes the integral

and for the higher order sand p shells, minimizes the integral

2

Page 3: The Calculation ofX-ray Scattering Factors for Spherically

This means that the contractions for higher order sand p shells have the same radial

behavior because they share the same exponents and thus are treated as sp functions.

This is done in order to save computing time. <jJSFand <jJGGFrepresent Slater functions

and contracted Gaussian functions, respectively.

In this study I used a 6-31 G** basis set. The 6-31 G part of the acronym means

that for the carbon atom the inner shell functions are a contraction of 6 primitive

Gaussians and the outer valence shell functions are split into a contraction of 3 prim-

itives and 1 primitive Gaussian. The first *, 6-31 G*, means that an un contracted

d- type polarization function is also included for carbon. Hydrogen does not have

an inner shell, its functions are simply a contraction of 3 primitive Gaussians and 1

primitive Gaussian. The second *, 6-31 G**, means that there is also an un contracted

p-type polarization function included for hydrogen. An example of the basis sets is

given below. The first column are the exponents (a's) and in the second column are

the contraction coefficients (d's). For the sp functions, the first column contains the

exponents and the second and third columns contain the contraction coefficients for

the s and the p functions, respectively.

6-31 G * Basis set for carbon that consists of 4 contractions.

S 6 1. 000.3047524880D+04

0.4573695180D+030.1039486850D+030.2921015530D+020.9286662960D+010.3163926960D+01

SP 3 1. 000.7868272350D+01 -0.1193324200D+000.1881288540D+01 -0.1608541520D+000.5442492580D+00 0.1143456440D+01

SP 1 1. 000.1687144782D+00 0.1000000000D+01 0.1000000000D+01

D 1 1. 000.8000000000D+00 0.1000000000D+01

0.1834737130D-020.1403732280D-010.6884262220D-010.2321844430D+000.4679413480D+000.3623119850D+00

0.6899906660D-010.3164239610D+000.7443082910D+00

3

Page 4: The Calculation ofX-ray Scattering Factors for Spherically

6-31 G** Basis set for hydrogen that consists of 3 contractions.

S 3 1. 000.18731136960+020.28253943650+010.64012169230+00

S 1 1. 000.16127775880+00

P 1 1. 000.11000000000+01

0.33494604340-010.23472695350+000.81375732620+00

0.10000000000+01

0.10000000000+01

Molecular orbital coefficients are calculated by the Gaussian program and output

to a file in a form like the following.

4

Page 5: The Calculation ofX-ray Scattering Factors for Spherically

(Ai)--O (Ai)--O (T2)--O (T2)--O (T2)--OEIGENVALUES -- -11.20680 -0.94379 -0.54434 -0.54434 -0.54434

1 1 C is 0.99569 -0.19504 0.00000 0.00000 0.000002 2S 0.02809 0.36481 0.00000 0.00000 0.000003 2PX 0.00000 0.00000 0.16673 0.08239 0.387064 2PY 0.00000 0.00000 0.38776 -0.11790 -0.141945 2PZ 0.00000 0.00000 0.07903 0.40462 -0.120176 3S -0.01324 0.34649 0.00000 0.00000 0.000007 3PX 0.00000 0.00000 0.08255 0.04079 0.191648 3PY 0.00000 0.00000 0.19198 -0.05837 -0.070289 3PZ 0.00000 0.00000 0.03913 0.20033 -0.0595010 XX -0.00178 -0.00116 0.00000 0.00000 0.0000011 YY -0.00178 -0.00116 0.00000 0.00000 0.0000012 ZZ -0.00178 -0.00116 0.00000 0.00000 0.0000013 XY 0.00000 0.00000 0.00550 0.02817 -0.0083714 XZ 0.00000 0.00000 0.02700 -0.00821 -0.0098815 YZ 0.00000 0.00000 0.01161 0.00574 0.0269516 2 H is -0.00003 0.13789 0.25095 0.14621 0.04949

17 2S 0.00242 0.04459 0.22038 0.12840 0.0434618 PX 0.00011 -0.00769 -0.00688 -0.00425 0.0044219 PY 0.00011 -0.00769 -0.00328 -0.00751 -0.0042120 PZ 0.00011 -0.00769 -0.00831 0.00100 -0.0038521 3 H is -0.00003 0.13789 -0.18834 o .17434 -0.14470

22 2S 0.00242 0.04459 -0.16539 0.15310 -0.1270723 PX -0.00011 0.00769 -0.00448 0.00801 0.00077

24 PY -0.00011 0.00769 -0.00088 0.00475 -0.00785

25 PZ 0.00011 -0.00769 0.00849 -0.00007 0.00357

26 4 H is -0.00003 0.13789 0.05624 -0.23961 -0.1619427 2S 0.00242 0.04459 0.04939 -0.21042 -0.1422128 PX -0.00011 0.00769 0.00487 -0.00782 0.0001229 PY 0.00011 -0.00769 0.00417 0.00724 0.0038830 PZ -0.00011 0.00769 0.00344 -0.00257 -0.0081531 5 H is -0.00003 0.13789 -0.11886 -0.08094 0.2571532 2S 0.00242 0.04459 -0.10438 -0.07108 0.2258233 PX 0.00011 -0.00769 0.00726 0.00444 -0.0035334 PY -0.00011 0.00769 0.00177 -0.00502 0.0075235 PZ -0.00011 0.00769 -0.00326 0.00350 0.00788

CH4 coefficients for occupied molecular orbitals

Spherically Averaged Electron Density

If we have an N electron closed-shell molecule described by a single determinant

wave function with each molecular orbital'I/Ja containing two electrons, then the total

5

Page 6: The Calculation ofX-ray Scattering Factors for Spherically

charge density at the point r is

N/2

p(r) = 2 L l7j1a(r)12,a

where p(r) dr is the probability of finding an electron in the volume element dr at r.

Note that the integral over all space is the total number of electrons,

N/2 N/2

Jp(r) dr = 2 L J l7j1a(r)12= 2 L 1 = N.

a a

Inserting our expansion of a molecular orbital into the density expression gives

N/2

p(r) = 2 L <p~(r)7j1a(r)a

N/2

= 2 L L C:a<p:(r) L C!'a<p!,(r)

a v

N/2

= L [2 L C:aC!'a] <p:(r)<p!,(r)

v!' a

v!'

= <P*P<P

where the density matrix is defined as

N/2

Pv!' = 2 L C:aC!'aa

and <Pis a vector of components, <pv(r). This is the equation that I used to calculate

the electron density.

Initially, in order to compute the spherically averaged electron density, calcula-

tions were undertaken over a 90 x 180 angular grid (16,200 points for each value

of r) that covered a complete sphere around the molecule at a series of fixed radii,

0.000 ::::; 1'.::::; 8.000 bohr, at increments of 0.001 bohr. The spherically averaged

electron density at a given value of l' was then computed as

6

Page 7: The Calculation ofX-ray Scattering Factors for Spherically

where tl<jJ = 1r189 and tl() = 21r1179. A table of 8001 r versus < p(r) > data points

was constructed.

While this method is theoretically sound, in practice it has its problems. The

solution converges very slowly and takes an amazingly long time to compute. When

summed over all space the total number of electrons exceeds the true value. This

was not really a problem with methane but it was quite apparent with H2, probably

resulting from its apparent lack of spherical symmetry.

What I ended up doing was to obtain < p(r) >, (0 ::::;r" ::::;5A), at intervals of

o.01A. At each value of r the average electron density was computed from a 10 X 10

grid using a 10 step Gaussian quadrature method both in <jJand in (). The results

were much more satisfying.

Figure 1 is a plot of the electron density minus the spherically averaged electron

density along the CH vector. The difference demonstrates the build up of electron

density along the CH vector due to covalent bonding effects. Note that the peak is

located near r = 0.58 A. This is where the electron density from the hydrogen atoms

is concentrated, even though the hydrogen nuclei are at 1.0855 A from the carbon.

Scattering Factors

The scattering factor for an atom or a molecule is difficult to calculate unless the

electron density demonstrates spherical symmetry. However, with the assumption

of spherical electron density, < p(r) >, and with the carbon at the origin, then the

scattering factor of methane, f( 8), is the Fourier transform of p( r),

f(8) =('XJU(r)sin(21rrr*) dro 21rrr* ~ U(r)

sin(21rrr*)tlr,

21rrr*r

where r* = lid = 2sin()l).. = 28 and U(r') = 41rr2 < p(r) > is the radial distribution

function for methane, as plotted in Figure 2. Note that the first peak represent the

electrons from the 18 orbital of C while the second peak is due primarily to electrons

in the higher order shells. The hydrogen nucleii are located near the mid-point of

the second peak. The scattering factors for 201 values of 8, 0.00 ::::;8 ::::;2.00, at 0.01

7

Page 8: The Calculation ofX-ray Scattering Factors for Spherically

increments were computed and tabulated. The scattering factor curve is presented in

Figure 3 and compared to that of carbon.

The last step in the process is to fit the curve to the standard equation that gives

an analytical approximation to the scattering factor,

4

f«~) = Laiexp(-biS2) +c,i=l

o ~ S ~ 2A-1

where ai and bi are the 8 parameters that are varied and c is obtained from the

constraint

c = f (0) - L ai.

The fitting procedure was accomplished with a minimization program written by

M.B. Boisen Jr. and L.W. Johnson (Boisen and Gibbs, 1993) that is based on a

quasi-Newton method that uses a model trust region (with a double dogleg) and the

BFGS update (Dennis and Schnabel, 198:3). The values of the fitted parameters are

a1.54:3827

-0.5141276.1808722.573929

b0.5808713.995349

13.79743436.110,548

c0.215499

The quantity that was minimized was the error in the fit, defined by Doyle and Turner

(1968) as1/ 2

[

~201 82

]E =

;~~)L.J~O~

i= .0185,

where 8 = f( S)actual - f( S )fitted. The maximum deviation between actual and fitted

values of f( s) is 0.005.

8

Page 9: The Calculation ofX-ray Scattering Factors for Spherically

References

Boisen, M.B., Jr. and Gibbs, G.V. (1993) A modeling of the structure and compress-

ibility of quartz with a molecular potential and its transferability to cristobalite

and coesite. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, 20, 123-135.

Dennis, J.E., Jr. and Schnabel, R.B. (1983) Numerical Methods for Unconstrained

Optimization and Nonlinear Equations. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, pp 378.

Doyle, P.A. and Turner, P.S. (1968) Relativistic Hartree-Fock X-ray and electron

scattering factors. Acta Crystallographica, A24, 390-397.

Press, W. (1972) Structure and phase transitions of solid heavy methane (CD4). The

Journal of Chemical Physics, 56, 2Ej97-2609.

Szabo, A. and Ostlund, H.S. (1982) Modern Quantum Chemistry: Introduction to

Advanced Electronic Structure Theory. MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc, New

York.

9

Page 10: The Calculation ofX-ray Scattering Factors for Spherically

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