The Byzantine Empire The “New” Rome. The Byzantine Empire When the Roman emperor Diocletian required Christians to accept him as a god and worship him,

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire

The “New” RomeThe “New” Rome


When the Roman emperor Diocletian required Christians to accept him as a god and worship him, and they refused, he began the last great persecution of Rome’s Christians.


In 303 CE, Diocletian ordered churches to be razed, sacred books to be burned, and Christians to be enslaved, imprisoned, or tortured if they refused to give up their faith.

In 305, he voluntarily abdicated the throne. By 311, there were four men claiming the

title of emperor. One of them, stationed in the West, was Constantine.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Constantine was born in Moesia, the Constantine was born in Moesia, the

Roman province which became the Roman province which became the home of the Serbs and Bulgars, in 272 home of the Serbs and Bulgars, in 272 CE.CE.

His father Constantius was a Roman His father Constantius was a Roman general who became one of general who became one of Diocletian’s governors in the West and Diocletian’s governors in the West and later became one of the Western co-later became one of the Western co-emperors.emperors.


Constantine’s mother was Helena Constantine’s mother was Helena (later St. Helena) who was a (later St. Helena) who was a Christian and who reportedly found Christian and who reportedly found and dug up the “true Cross of and dug up the “true Cross of Christ” in Palestine.Christ” in Palestine.

As a young man, Constantine was As a young man, Constantine was sent to Diocletian’s court at sent to Diocletian’s court at Nicomedia and later served in the Nicomedia and later served in the army in Persia and Egypt.army in Persia and Egypt.


When Diocletian retired, Constantine When Diocletian retired, Constantine joined his father in Britain.joined his father in Britain.

There, as a young general in the There, as a young general in the Roman army, he became his father’s Roman army, he became his father’s successor, and was proclaimed successor, and was proclaimed Augustus by his/his father’s troops Augustus by his/his father’s troops on his father’s death in 306 CE.on his father’s death in 306 CE.


Six years later, Constantine’s army Six years later, Constantine’s army defeated Maxentius (his co-emperor defeated Maxentius (his co-emperor in the West), after a brilliant in the West), after a brilliant campaign that brought him to the campaign that brought him to the outskirts of Rome.outskirts of Rome.

Legend has it that Constantine was Legend has it that Constantine was inspired by a heavenly (Christian) inspired by a heavenly (Christian) vision (dream) during the campaign; vision (dream) during the campaign; he was told to fight under the Cross…he was told to fight under the Cross…

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire When he did so and won,

Constantine declared his preference for Christianity.


Over the next 11 years, Constantine defeated Over the next 11 years, Constantine defeated the two “Eastern” Roman emperors (Maximum the two “Eastern” Roman emperors (Maximum and Licinius) and by 323 CE, was sole ruler of and Licinius) and by 323 CE, was sole ruler of the disintegrating Roman Empire.the disintegrating Roman Empire.

Constantine was now faced with trying to slow Constantine was now faced with trying to slow (or stop) the Empire’s collapse and create one (or stop) the Empire’s collapse and create one that would be durable (since formidable that would be durable (since formidable enemies like the barbarian Germanic tribes enemies like the barbarian Germanic tribes and the Persians were close). and the Persians were close).


He quickly made two major decisions: He quickly made two major decisions: 1). He assured Christianity legal 1). He assured Christianity legal status within the Empire. Priests were status within the Empire. Priests were allowed the same tax exemption as allowed the same tax exemption as other religions, and Christian holy days other religions, and Christian holy days were honored as respectfully as pagan were honored as respectfully as pagan festivals. festivals.

Constantine, who had the typical Roman enthusiasm for bricks and mortar, built many churches and encouraged wealthy citizens to do the same.


He had his own children instructed in the Christian faith (but he did not become a Christian until just before death).

Either he thought it politically expedient for the Emperor to remain officially neutral, or he thought baptism’s remission of sins might as well be saved for the last moment, so that he might leave the world with a clean slate.


2). He moved the Empire’s sole 2). He moved the Empire’s sole capital from Rome...the scene of plot capital from Rome...the scene of plot and counterplot, treason, and and counterplot, treason, and conspiracy.conspiracy.

To the north and west, the Empire’s To the north and west, the Empire’s provincial capitals were too remote provincial capitals were too remote and uncivilized to serve as suitable and uncivilized to serve as suitable nerve centers for the vast Roman nerve centers for the vast Roman realm.realm.


But to the east lay an urban civilization But to the east lay an urban civilization older and richer than Rome’s…it was older and richer than Rome’s…it was there that the main trade routes there that the main trade routes converged and there lay some of the converged and there lay some of the most important centers of Christianity.most important centers of Christianity.

It was also to the east that the Empire It was also to the east that the Empire confronted its most formidable confronted its most formidable enemies: the Germanic tribes along enemies: the Germanic tribes along the Danube and the Persians in the Danube and the Persians in Anatolia. Anatolia.


After considering several cities to be After considering several cities to be his capital (like Jerusalem, Naissus his capital (like Jerusalem, Naissus (Constantine’s birthplace in today’s (Constantine’s birthplace in today’s Serbia), Nicomedia (in Anatolia), Serbia), Nicomedia (in Anatolia), Sardica (today’s Sophia), Sardica (today’s Sophia), Thessalonica (Salonika—a city Thessalonica (Salonika—a city visited by St. Paul and vital to visited by St. Paul and vital to eastern commerce), he chose eastern commerce), he chose ancient Ilium (Troy) the site of the ancient Ilium (Troy) the site of the epic battle between the Greeks and epic battle between the Greeks and the Trojans immortalized by Homer.the Trojans immortalized by Homer.


Journeying to that site Journeying to that site Constantine declared it a proper Constantine declared it a proper location for his future capital.location for his future capital.

According to legend, he had the According to legend, he had the lines of his capital city laid out lines of his capital city laid out and construction had begun (the and construction had begun (the gates in the main wall had already gates in the main wall had already been hung) when God appeared been hung) when God appeared one night and commanded one night and commanded another location. He then chose another location. He then chose Byzantium.Byzantium.


Whether by divine intervention or giving further thought to his selection process, Constantine stopped construction at Troy and chose Byzantium, a small trading town on a strategic site jutting into the Sea of Marmara.


And on May 11, 330 CE And on May 11, 330 CE the Emperor Constantine the Emperor Constantine inaugurated the “New inaugurated the “New Rome which is Rome which is Constantinople,” to Constantinople,” to share with Rome, as co-share with Rome, as co-capital, the capital, the administration of his administration of his huge empire.huge empire.


Byzantium was both the last direct heir Byzantium was both the last direct heir to the Roman Empire and the first to the Roman Empire and the first Christian nation. Christian nation.

This dual nature was dramatized by This dual nature was dramatized by Constantine when he erected a column Constantine when he erected a column and enclosed in its base a statute of and enclosed in its base a statute of Athena and baskets said to have held Athena and baskets said to have held the bread Christ fed his disciples. the bread Christ fed his disciples.


On the city’s inauguration day, a On the city’s inauguration day, a statue of Apollo had its head replaced statue of Apollo had its head replaced with that of Constantine and was with that of Constantine and was hoisted to the top of the column in the hoisted to the top of the column in the Forum of Constantine.Forum of Constantine.

In its right hand was a scepter and in In its right hand was a scepter and in its left was a globe (it survived until its left was a globe (it survived until the 12the 12thth century when a storm century when a storm knocked it over—it was replaced by a knocked it over—it was replaced by a golden cross).golden cross).


The statue The statue of of ConstantinConstantine as Apollo e as Apollo (an artistic (an artistic recreation).recreation).


The Constantine shaft (12th Century):


Constantinople stood where the land Constantinople stood where the land routes from Asia to Eastern Europe found routes from Asia to Eastern Europe found their narrowest sea crossing.their narrowest sea crossing.

Goods came to and through Goods came to and through Constantinople from China, India, Africa, Constantinople from China, India, Africa, and Ceylon…ivory and amber, porcelain and Ceylon…ivory and amber, porcelain and precious stones, silks and damask, and precious stones, silks and damask, aloes and balsam, cinnamon and ginger, aloes and balsam, cinnamon and ginger, etc.etc.

West of the city grapes and grains West of the city grapes and grains flourished and the seas teemed with fish.flourished and the seas teemed with fish.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The defenses that nature bestowed on The defenses that nature bestowed on

the city were impressive. To the south the city were impressive. To the south stretched the Sea of Marmara, and stretched the Sea of Marmara, and almost at the point where the Bosporus almost at the point where the Bosporus flowed into this sea a narrow inlet leads flowed into this sea a narrow inlet leads along the northern shore of the along the northern shore of the triangular peninsula to form a perfect triangular peninsula to form a perfect landlocked harbor.landlocked harbor.

This is the Golden Horn, named for its This is the Golden Horn, named for its shape and the wealth that commerce of shape and the wealth that commerce of the world deposited on its docks. the world deposited on its docks.


The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire When Constantine decided to move his When Constantine decided to move his

capital city, his new city was to be more capital city, his new city was to be more magnificent than the old Rome.magnificent than the old Rome.

Like Rome, Constantinople was a city of Like Rome, Constantinople was a city of seven hills divided into 14 districts. Since one seven hills divided into 14 districts. Since one of Rome’s 14 districts was across the Tiber of Rome’s 14 districts was across the Tiber River, one of Constantinople’s 14 districts River, one of Constantinople’s 14 districts was placed across the Golden Horn in Pera was placed across the Golden Horn in Pera (where Genoese merchants later made their (where Genoese merchants later made their homes).homes).

From the old Rome, Constantine brought the From the old Rome, Constantine brought the sacred talisman of the Empire, the sacred talisman of the Empire, the Palladium.Palladium.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The Palladium was the wooden

statue of Pallas Athena believed to have been dropped from the sky and to have been carried by Aeneas from Troy to Italy.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Constantine had members of noble Constantine had members of noble

families follow him to form a new families follow him to form a new senatorial class.senatorial class.

The main imperial buildings were built The main imperial buildings were built on Roman models and all statues and on Roman models and all statues and works of art he could take from Rome works of art he could take from Rome were sent to his new city (including the were sent to his new city (including the Calydonian boar and the serpentine Calydonian boar and the serpentine column from Delphi which listed the column from Delphi which listed the Greek cities that defeated the Persians Greek cities that defeated the Persians at Platea in 479 BCEat Platea in 479 BCE).

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The fabled The fabled

serpentine serpentine column from column from Delphi.Delphi.

The Calydonian The Calydonian boar (relief).boar (relief).


But Constantinople was not an imitation But Constantinople was not an imitation of old Rome…it was to be a Christian of old Rome…it was to be a Christian city.city.

Constantine began building the Constantine began building the Hagia Hagia SophiaSophia (the Church of Holy Wisdom— (the Church of Holy Wisdom— later completed by Justinian) and the later completed by Justinian) and the Church of the Holy ApostlesChurch of the Holy Apostles. Here there . Here there were 12 symbolic tombs of the apostles were 12 symbolic tombs of the apostles and a 13and a 13thth for himself. for himself.


The Hagia Sophia:


Interior of the Hagia Sophia:

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Here in the Here in the Church of Church of

the Holy Apostlesthe Holy Apostles many many later emperors were later emperors were buried (demolished buried (demolished 1461). 1461).

All were regarded as All were regarded as “the equal of the “the equal of the apostles.”apostles.”

This building would This building would inspire Venice’s inspire Venice’s Cathedral of St. Mark.Cathedral of St. Mark.


Throughout the new city Constantine Throughout the new city Constantine introduced Christian emblems such as introduced Christian emblems such as crosses and relics of the saints crosses and relics of the saints because the Byzantines regarded because the Byzantines regarded themselves as the chosen people of themselves as the chosen people of God.God.

In the Imperial Palace the Four gospels In the Imperial Palace the Four gospels were placed on an empty throne as a were placed on an empty throne as a symbol of the living presence of God.symbol of the living presence of God.


The emperor claimed to rule by divine The emperor claimed to rule by divine right and to serve as the spokesman of right and to serve as the spokesman of Heaven’s will…to dramatize the point Heaven’s will…to dramatize the point emperors occasionally mounted the emperors occasionally mounted the pulpit and preached a sermon to their pulpit and preached a sermon to their court.court.

Artists always portrayed the emperor Artists always portrayed the emperor with a halo or nimbus around his head. with a halo or nimbus around his head.


The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The Forum of Constantine featured the The Forum of Constantine featured the

adze of Noah (with which he adze of Noah (with which he supposedly built the Ark) and the supposedly built the Ark) and the spikenard (fragrant oil) that Mary spikenard (fragrant oil) that Mary Magdalen supposedly anointed the feet Magdalen supposedly anointed the feet of Jesus.of Jesus.


The Forum of Constantine was the largest of the city’s six public forums.

Here emperors celebrated their triumphs with victory hymns and waving banners, lawyers and merchants met to talk business, fortunetellers harangued superstitious crowds, and aristocratic women arrived in their sedan chairs to gossip.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Many monuments were dedicated to Many monuments were dedicated to

the Virgin Mary, who was considered the Virgin Mary, who was considered the city’s special protectress and the city’s special protectress and spiritual guardian against all enemies.spiritual guardian against all enemies.

Several churches were dedicated to Several churches were dedicated to her and several of her relics were her and several of her relics were housed in the city (including her robe housed in the city (including her robe and belt). During times of great peril, and belt). During times of great peril, these relics were paraded around these relics were paraded around walls and battlements of the city, walls and battlements of the city, begging her protection. begging her protection.


Relics were brought to Constantinople Relics were brought to Constantinople from all over the Christian world.from all over the Christian world.

These included the linen worn by the These included the linen worn by the Infant Jesus, the Crown of Thorns, the Infant Jesus, the Crown of Thorns, the lance that pierced His side, and the lance that pierced His side, and the stone of the Tomb; the venerated stone of the Tomb; the venerated relics of St. Luke, St. Andrew, and St. relics of St. Luke, St. Andrew, and St. Timothy, and the head of John the Timothy, and the head of John the Baptist. Baptist.


It was believed that by possessing It was believed that by possessing these relics, something of heaven’s these relics, something of heaven’s influence and radiance might be influence and radiance might be conferred on Constantinople.conferred on Constantinople.

Members of the imperial court Members of the imperial court would recite Homer and discuss would recite Homer and discuss Greek philosophy, and send Greek philosophy, and send missionaries throughout Eastern missionaries throughout Eastern Europe and into the Middle East. Europe and into the Middle East.


Constantine’s appetite for building was Constantine’s appetite for building was formidable. Using marble brought from the formidable. Using marble brought from the islands in the Sea of Marmara and wood from islands in the Sea of Marmara and wood from forests bordering the Black Sea, the city forests bordering the Black Sea, the city became the envy of the Mediterranean world.became the envy of the Mediterranean world.

It boasted two theaters, eight public and 153 It boasted two theaters, eight public and 153 private baths, five granaries, eight aqueducts private baths, five granaries, eight aqueducts or cisterns, 14 churches, 14 palaces, and or cisterns, 14 churches, 14 palaces, and 4,388 houses of sufficient size to be 4,388 houses of sufficient size to be recorded. recorded.


Constantine’s Hippodrome could seat Constantine’s Hippodrome could seat 60,000 spectators; it was 1300 feet long 60,000 spectators; it was 1300 feet long and nearly 500 feet wide.and nearly 500 feet wide.

Down the center ran the spina—the Down the center ran the spina—the backbone—a low stone barrier with three backbone—a low stone barrier with three cones at each end marking the turning cones at each end marking the turning points for the course. points for the course.


The Hippodrome was built in the shadow of the Hagia Sophia, and it provided the city’s Christian population with virtually all the spectacle and violence of Rome’s Circus Maximus.

Chariot races, mock hunts, acrobatics, even plays were performed inside. After the 12th Century there were jousts.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Inside the great walls Inside the great walls

surrounding the city surrounding the city (over 13 miles and 50 (over 13 miles and 50 gates—Constantinople gates—Constantinople was a fortress) there was a fortress) there were a few major were a few major thoroughfares but thoroughfares but mostly it was a dense mostly it was a dense tangle of streets tangle of streets (some a cart couldn’t (some a cart couldn’t get through).get through).


The most famous gate was the The most famous gate was the “Golden Gate” which was reserved “Golden Gate” which was reserved for state processions.for state processions.

Newly crowned emperors and Newly crowned emperors and victorious generals were acclaimed victorious generals were acclaimed as they passed underneath.as they passed underneath.

Inside the wall they were met by Inside the wall they were met by hymn- singing citizens thronged hymn- singing citizens thronged beneath olive and cypress trees. beneath olive and cypress trees.


The fabled “Golden Gate”:


The city had no distinct area for the The city had no distinct area for the wealthy …the homes of the very rich wealthy …the homes of the very rich were often flanked by modest homes of were often flanked by modest homes of the middle class or even the shelters or the middle class or even the shelters or tenements of the poor.tenements of the poor.

Even though building codes demanded Even though building codes demanded 12 ft wide streets, city planning was a 12 ft wide streets, city planning was a luxury not wasted on the poor.luxury not wasted on the poor.

Refuse-heaped alley ways bordered Refuse-heaped alley ways bordered most tenements.most tenements.


But few starved or went homeless…But few starved or went homeless…as many as 80,000 loaves of bread as many as 80,000 loaves of bread were given to the poor every day were given to the poor every day and monasteries always provided and monasteries always provided shelter to those who need it.shelter to those who need it.

The supply of fresh water, stored in The supply of fresh water, stored in covered cisterns and piped to covered cisterns and piped to fountains at street corners and fountains at street corners and public squares, was available to public squares, was available to everyone without charge.everyone without charge.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Sewage and waste water were carried

away from the houses and down to the sea through an intricate system of underground drains.

The city’s many public baths were open to men and women at different times.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The main street of the city ran from

the westward walls almost to the gates of the Imperial Palace and was called the Mese’ (or Middle Street).

Bordered by columned porticos and interrupted by squares containing the statues of emperors and empresses, it was the “royal highway.”

All major imperial processions followed the Mese’.


Here too were most of the city’s fine shops, piled with the products of Byzantium’s luxury industries: silks and brocades, copper and gold work, leather and glass, jewels, etc.

Where the street ended near the palace the perfumers had their shops (so the area near the imperial palace always smelled nice).


Open-air bazaars were shaded by large canopies and displayed everything from figs to religious artwork.

Commerce was strictly regulated by city officials; laws regulating trade encouraged specialized skills; guilds set standards and punished the careless.

As a result, the city’s craftsmen produced goods finer than anywhere else in Europe.


Medical and hospital care was provided by the government and the Church to those who could not afford to pay.

The only criteria for citizenship were simply the use of Greek in everyday speech and membership in the Orthodox Church.


By the time of Justinian (6th century), Constantinople was believed to have over 600,000 inhabitants…a cosmopolitan mixture of peoples from Britain, Spain and Gaul, from Scandinavia and Russia, from Persia, Arabia, Africa and Asia.

These visitors were merchants, sailors, diplomats, and travelers, mingling with the simply clad Byzantines with their furs, exotic headdresses, brightly colored cloaks—and unfamiliar languages.


On national holidays and religious celebrations, the whole city would turn out to watch the magnificent procession of the emperor and his court, accompanied by the patriarch and his attendants.

Many in the throng of spectators would be recognized by the type of clothing they wore: philosophers wore gray, physicians wore blue, and ascetics wore robes of scarlet with their hair in nets.


The life of the city was centered around three great structures or groups of buildings—the Hippodrome, the Imperial Palace, and the Church of Hagia Sophia.

They represented the three main constituents of the Byzantine world: the people, the imperial authority and the faith.

They were located close to each other.


From its inception, three elements From its inception, three elements characterized the new city:characterized the new city: 1. Greek language and customs; 1. Greek language and customs; 2. Roman law and 2. Roman law and administration; and 3. Christian administration; and 3. Christian faith and organization.faith and organization.


To most, the greatest architectural gem of Constantinople was the church of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom).

Started by Constantine, destroyed by fire, then reconstructed by Justinian in 537 (and today a museum), it remains one of the greatest artistic expressions of the Christian world.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The Hagia Sophia loomed high over

Constantinople’s other churches, and to the faithful its immense cascade of domes symbolized Christianity’s all-embracing heavens.

Over 100 ft across and 180 ft high, its vaulted interior was the largest of any Christian church in the world.

Its center dome would be the largest in the world until the 16th century.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire When finished, When finished,

Justinian exclaimed Justinian exclaimed “Solomon, I have “Solomon, I have outdone thee!”outdone thee!”

He celebrated its He celebrated its dedication with a dedication with a banquet of 6,000 banquet of 6,000 sheep, 1,000 each of sheep, 1,000 each of oxen, pigs, and oxen, pigs, and poultry, and 500 deer.poultry, and 500 deer.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ng--WLT0Xjc


On the left, Justinian presents a On the left, Justinian presents a model of the model of the Hagia SophiaHagia Sophia to Mary to Mary and the child, and on the right and the child, and on the right Constantine presents them with a Constantine presents them with a model of Constantinople (mosaic model of Constantinople (mosaic inside the inside the Hagia SophiaHagia Sophia).).

In 335 CE Constantine had the In 335 CE Constantine had the Church Church of the Holy Sepulcher of the Holy Sepulcher built in built in Jerusalem. The church was believed to Jerusalem. The church was believed to be built on top of the spot where Christ be built on top of the spot where Christ was crucified at Golgatha (Hill of was crucified at Golgatha (Hill of Calvary).Calvary).

Since the 4Since the 4thth century, this has been the century, this has been the most visited/important pilgrimage site most visited/important pilgrimage site in Jerusalem for Christians.in Jerusalem for Christians.



The last of the great The last of the great Roman emperors (and Roman emperors (and the last to speak Latin the last to speak Latin instead of Greek) was instead of Greek) was Justinian I (r. 527-565).Justinian I (r. 527-565).

He became emperor He became emperor at the age of 45.at the age of 45.

Under Justinian, the Under Justinian, the Byzantine world Byzantine world became distinct from became distinct from the Roman world.the Roman world.


As emperor, Justinian thrived on a As emperor, Justinian thrived on a strict regimen: he ate little and fasted strict regimen: he ate little and fasted often; he arose early and worked late often; he arose early and worked late on affairs of state.on affairs of state.

After a full day he usually studied late After a full day he usually studied late into the night to enlarge his into the night to enlarge his considerable knowledge of law, considerable knowledge of law, theology, music, and architecture. theology, music, and architecture.


His wife Theodora was an equally His wife Theodora was an equally remarkable person: she was an actress remarkable person: she was an actress and courtesan, daughter of a bear-keeper and courtesan, daughter of a bear-keeper at the Hippodrome, and before her at the Hippodrome, and before her marriage, she had so great a reputation marriage, she had so great a reputation for debauchery that people avoided her in for debauchery that people avoided her in the streets. the streets.

But she was also known to be very But she was also known to be very intelligent and compassionate…she built intelligent and compassionate…she built hospitals for the poor and she converted hospitals for the poor and she converted an old palace into a home for destitute an old palace into a home for destitute women.women.


Legend has it that Justinian fell madly in love with Theodora and she initially became his mistress (a man of senatorial rank was barred by law to marry an actress).

So Justinian had the law rewritten.


Under the leadership of the legendary Under the leadership of the legendary Byzantine general Byzantine general BelasariusBelasarius and using and using German (barbarian) mercenaries, German (barbarian) mercenaries, Justinian’s armies recaptured many of the Justinian’s armies recaptured many of the western regions lost to Ostrogoths (Italy western regions lost to Ostrogoths (Italy and even Rome itself), the Visigoths and even Rome itself), the Visigoths (southern Spain and Sicily), and the (southern Spain and Sicily), and the Vandals (North Africa), but the costs in Vandals (North Africa), but the costs in blood and national treasure crippled his blood and national treasure crippled his empire.empire.


The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire But Justinian’s conquests were But Justinian’s conquests were

indefensible and were soon lost after indefensible and were soon lost after his death. his death.

So it was Justinian’s legal, So it was Justinian’s legal, administrative, and architectural administrative, and architectural initiatives that produced more initiatives that produced more lasting results.lasting results.


Most famously, he Most famously, he had the tangled had the tangled collection of Roman collection of Roman law codified and law codified and reduced into a reduced into a coherent system coherent system known as the known as the Justinian CodeJustinian Code..

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Considered one of the greatest Byzantine Considered one of the greatest Byzantine

contributions to Western civilization, in contributions to Western civilization, in 528 CE Justinian appointed a commission 528 CE Justinian appointed a commission of 10 men who classified the constitutions of 10 men who classified the constitutions written by various Roman emperors into a written by various Roman emperors into a single code of 4,652 laws.single code of 4,652 laws.

Another commission produced a 50-Another commission produced a 50-volume digest of major decisions that had volume digest of major decisions that had been handed down by authoritative jurists been handed down by authoritative jurists in the Second and Third Centuries in the Second and Third Centuries (considered the golden age of Roman law). (considered the golden age of Roman law).


In civil law, the new Code was more In civil law, the new Code was more efficient and progressive than the efficient and progressive than the ancient Roman statutes it replaced.ancient Roman statutes it replaced.

It became easier to free slaves or to It became easier to free slaves or to sell land. The inheritance rights of sell land. The inheritance rights of widows was guaranteed and it widows was guaranteed and it reduced the absolute power of fathers reduced the absolute power of fathers over the lives of their children.over the lives of their children.

But in the area of criminal law, the But in the area of criminal law, the new Code was far more Draconian new Code was far more Draconian than its predecessor.than its predecessor.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The Christian jurists for the first time The Christian jurists for the first time

made crimes out of heresy and seduction. made crimes out of heresy and seduction. One who strayed from Orthodox practice One who strayed from Orthodox practice was barred from holding office and denied was barred from holding office and denied their inheritance.their inheritance.

A seducer was automatically executed, as A seducer was automatically executed, as was his victim if she willingly submitted; if was his victim if she willingly submitted; if the girl’s chaperone encouraged the the girl’s chaperone encouraged the alliance, molten lead was poured in her alliance, molten lead was poured in her mouth.mouth.

Despite such barbaric provisions, the Code Despite such barbaric provisions, the Code was so clear and consistent, it became the was so clear and consistent, it became the basis for much of modern European law.basis for much of modern European law.


After Justinian’s death, most of the After Justinian’s death, most of the western conquests were lost, while the western conquests were lost, while the Persians (Sassanids) constantly warred Persians (Sassanids) constantly warred with the Byzantines.with the Byzantines.

The constant conflict with the Persians The constant conflict with the Persians weakened both empires and was one weakened both empires and was one factor in the success of the Arab armies factor in the success of the Arab armies pouring out of Arabia in the 7pouring out of Arabia in the 7thth century. century.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Persia quickly became part of the Persia quickly became part of the

Islamic world but Byzantium was able Islamic world but Byzantium was able to hold out, even though it lost to hold out, even though it lost considerable territory to the Arabs.considerable territory to the Arabs.


The Byzantines were not by nature The Byzantines were not by nature militaristic, but it was their constant militaristic, but it was their constant need to defend their empire against the need to defend their empire against the many enemies that coveted its wealth many enemies that coveted its wealth that prompted Byzantium to mold itself that prompted Byzantium to mold itself along military lines.along military lines.

Its army wasn’t very large—at its peak Its army wasn’t very large—at its peak probably no more than 120,000 men—probably no more than 120,000 men—so they had to develop strategies that so they had to develop strategies that didn’t waste men or equipment.didn’t waste men or equipment.


Since diplomacy is always cheaper than Since diplomacy is always cheaper than war, the Byzantines usually preferred war, the Byzantines usually preferred diplomacy to bloodshed.diplomacy to bloodshed.

Their methods to avoid war included Their methods to avoid war included lavishing gifts and having sumptuous lavishing gifts and having sumptuous ceremonies for their enemies to having the ceremonies for their enemies to having the daughters of nobles sent to foreign courts daughters of nobles sent to foreign courts to marry and “civilize” distant monarchs.to marry and “civilize” distant monarchs.


When they did take the field of battle, When they did take the field of battle, they were often considered the finest they were often considered the finest fighting force in the world.fighting force in the world.

Officers were schooled in geography Officers were schooled in geography and strategy, and several emperors and strategy, and several emperors wrote manuals on tactics.wrote manuals on tactics.

While enemies usually blundered onto While enemies usually blundered onto the field of battle, the Byzantines went the field of battle, the Byzantines went through complex and disciplined through complex and disciplined maneuvers.maneuvers.


One reason Byzantium was able to hold One reason Byzantium was able to hold out was its military innovation known out was its military innovation known as “as “Greek fireGreek fire” –a potent and ” –a potent and flammable mixture of oil, sulfur, and flammable mixture of oil, sulfur, and lime that was launched from bronze lime that was launched from bronze tubes and could burn on water or stone tubes and could burn on water or stone (essentially ancient napalm).(essentially ancient napalm).

It worked like a flamethrower and it It worked like a flamethrower and it terrified every army/navy that faced it.terrified every army/navy that faced it.

Eventually it passed into Arab and Eventually it passed into Arab and Chinese arsenals.Chinese arsenals.


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9VNP50Cdkqs


When they staged a siege, they used When they staged a siege, they used medium-sized catapults called medium-sized catapults called mangonsmangons to hurl heavy stones at or to hurl heavy stones at or over fortress walls (sometimes if over fortress walls (sometimes if bored, they sent live mules or dead bored, they sent live mules or dead soldiers over).soldiers over).


They also hammered gates with They also hammered gates with battering rams or bore holes through battering rams or bore holes through stone walls with huge, metal-tipped stone walls with huge, metal-tipped drills.drills.

Less obvious, but more effective, was Less obvious, but more effective, was tunneling under walls, soaking timbers tunneling under walls, soaking timbers with oil and setting them on fire, with oil and setting them on fire, causing the tunnel to collapse and the causing the tunnel to collapse and the wall with it, allowing troops to stream wall with it, allowing troops to stream through the breach.through the breach.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Another Byzantine military innovation was Another Byzantine military innovation was

known as the known as the themetheme system. system. Developed after Justinian’s death by the Developed after Justinian’s death by the

Emperor Heraclius (r. 610-641), Emperor Heraclius (r. 610-641), organizing the empire into a series of organizing the empire into a series of military provinces was done for logistical military provinces was done for logistical and financial reasons.and financial reasons.

Rather than have an expensive, centrally Rather than have an expensive, centrally controlled army, the Byzantine Empire controlled army, the Byzantine Empire organized its armies into locally controlled organized its armies into locally controlled themesthemes…providing free land to local …providing free land to local farmer-soldiers as an incentive.farmer-soldiers as an incentive.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire These men would fight on behalf of the These men would fight on behalf of the

empire and wouldn’t pay taxes on their empire and wouldn’t pay taxes on their land (a further incentive).land (a further incentive).

At the head of each theme was a At the head of each theme was a general appointed by the emperor general appointed by the emperor (known as the (known as the strategosstrategos) who had ) who had almost unlimited power in local affairs.almost unlimited power in local affairs.

As a check against any abuse of power, As a check against any abuse of power, the emperor also appointed a civilian to the emperor also appointed a civilian to serve alongside him (though in a serve alongside him (though in a subordinate position).subordinate position).


By utilizing the By utilizing the themetheme system, the system, the empire could maintain strong forces in empire could maintain strong forces in each region, quickly creating a defense each region, quickly creating a defense against Arab or Slav invaders without against Arab or Slav invaders without tying up the enormous tax revenues tying up the enormous tax revenues that were necessary to equip and that were necessary to equip and maintain a professional army.maintain a professional army.

This system worked well when the This system worked well when the farmer-soldiers defended their homes…farmer-soldiers defended their homes…not so well when they ventured further.not so well when they ventured further.


In a classic example of how brutal In a classic example of how brutal warfare could be, the Byzantine emperor warfare could be, the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus (r. 802-811) took his army Nicephorus (r. 802-811) took his army north to fight the “barbarian” Bulgarians north to fight the “barbarian” Bulgarians who had been harassing his northern who had been harassing his northern frontier.frontier.

After sacking the Bulgarian capital of After sacking the Bulgarian capital of Pliska, the Byzantines were ambushed Pliska, the Byzantines were ambushed while retreating…Nicephorus was while retreating…Nicephorus was captured and beheaded.captured and beheaded.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The Bulgarian leader, The Bulgarian leader,

Khan Krum, then lined Khan Krum, then lined his skull with silver and his skull with silver and used it as a drinking cup.used it as a drinking cup.

In 1014, the emperor In 1014, the emperor Basil II defeated the Basil II defeated the Bulgarians and had some Bulgarians and had some 15,000 captured 15,000 captured Bulgarian soldiers Bulgarian soldiers blinded. Bulgaria then blinded. Bulgaria then became part of the became part of the empire.empire.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Politically, authority was highly centralized

in Constantinople, where the emperors claimed to govern all of creation as God’s worldly representatives, proclaiming themselves to be the “peers of the Apostles” and the “sole rulers of the world.”


So unlike their Roman predecessors who So unlike their Roman predecessors who believed themselves to be gods, believed themselves to be gods, Byzantine emperors didn’t regard Byzantine emperors didn’t regard themselves as divine, but they did themselves as divine, but they did believe they were believe they were HisHis visible visible manifestation.manifestation.

God’s God’s visible visible activity, carried out by the activity, carried out by the emperor, was to bring mankind into emperor, was to bring mankind into ordered harmony under the absolute ordered harmony under the absolute rule of the monarch.rule of the monarch.

In this way, human society was to In this way, human society was to imitate divine society.imitate divine society.


All the actions of the emperor, as well as his All the actions of the emperor, as well as his office, had a sacred and symbolic character.office, had a sacred and symbolic character.

His life was surrounded by a ritual that was His life was surrounded by a ritual that was meant to copy the invisible ritual performed meant to copy the invisible ritual performed in heaven by God and the divine powers. in heaven by God and the divine powers.

The imperial court tried to imitate the The imperial court tried to imitate the awesome grandeur of what they thought was awesome grandeur of what they thought was God’s heavenly court (which in fact God’s heavenly court (which in fact resembled ancient Persian imperial resembled ancient Persian imperial splendor).splendor).


Aristocrats, trained in classical Greek Aristocrats, trained in classical Greek rhetoric and literature, took jobs in the rhetoric and literature, took jobs in the administration in order to participate in administration in order to participate in court ceremonies that maintained their court ceremonies that maintained their elite status.elite status.

Parades of these silk-clad administrators Parades of these silk-clad administrators added splendor to the imperial court, added splendor to the imperial court, which also included mechanical lions that which also included mechanical lions that roared and mechanical birds that sang.roared and mechanical birds that sang.


The emperor sat on The emperor sat on an immense throne an immense throne (modeled after the (modeled after the “throne of Solomon”) “throne of Solomon”) that could quickly that could quickly elevate him high elevate him high above his presumably above his presumably awestruck visitors.awestruck visitors.

Visitors then made at Visitors then made at least 3 prostrations least 3 prostrations before the throne.before the throne.


There was no absolute law binding There was no absolute law binding succession to the throne.succession to the throne.

There was no assurance that an There was no assurance that an emperor would hold office for very long, emperor would hold office for very long, or that his son (s) would succeed him. or that his son (s) would succeed him.

This meant that all means of becoming This meant that all means of becoming an emperor were legitimate—so long as an emperor were legitimate—so long as they were successful (similar to the they were successful (similar to the Chinese idea of the Mandate of Chinese idea of the Mandate of Heaven).Heaven).


This view of ascension explains the This view of ascension explains the atmosphere of plot and counterplot atmosphere of plot and counterplot that shadowed the lengthy history of that shadowed the lengthy history of Byzantine royalty.Byzantine royalty.

Of the 88 emperors that ruled from Of the 88 emperors that ruled from 324 to 1453 (from Constantine I to 324 to 1453 (from Constantine I to Constantine XI), 29 died violent Constantine XI), 29 died violent deaths and another 13 took deaths and another 13 took refuge/asylum in monasteries. refuge/asylum in monasteries.


Basilicus (477) starved in prison; Zeno Basilicus (477) starved in prison; Zeno (491) buried alive; Maurice (602) (491) buried alive; Maurice (602) decapitated; Phocas (610) dismembered; decapitated; Phocas (610) dismembered; Heracleon (641) mutilated; Constantine III Heracleon (641) mutilated; Constantine III (641) poisoned; Constans II (668) (641) poisoned; Constans II (668) bludgeoned in his bath; Leontius (705) bludgeoned in his bath; Leontius (705) and Tiberius III (705) both decapitated; and Tiberius III (705) both decapitated; Justinian II (711) decapitated; Philippucus Justinian II (711) decapitated; Philippucus (713) and Constantine VI (797) blinded…(713) and Constantine VI (797) blinded…you get the idea. you get the idea.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The worst happened to Andronicus I

in 1185: he was chained for days in a pillory (stocks) and beaten black and blue…His teeth were broken with hammers and one of his hands was cut off…he was tied to the back of a sick camel and paraded through the streets of Constantinople…then after he had boiling water thrown in his face and had an eye plucked out he was strung up in the Hippodrome and had a sword run through him.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Economically, the Byzantine Empire Economically, the Byzantine Empire

was a major player in the long-distance was a major player in the long-distance trade of Eurasia, with commercial links trade of Eurasia, with commercial links to Western Europe, Russia, Central to Western Europe, Russia, Central Asia, the Islamic world, India and Asia, the Islamic world, India and China.China.

Its gold coin, the Its gold coin, the bezantbezant, was a widely , was a widely used currency in the Mediterranean used currency in the Mediterranean basin for over 500 years, and wearing basin for over 500 years, and wearing these coins as pendants was a high these coins as pendants was a high status-symbol in the less developed status-symbol in the less developed kingdoms of Western Europe.kingdoms of Western Europe.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The luxurious products of Byzantine The luxurious products of Byzantine

craftspeople—jewelry, gemstones, silver craftspeople—jewelry, gemstones, silver and gold work, linen and woolen textiles, and gold work, linen and woolen textiles, purple dyes—were in much demand.purple dyes—were in much demand.

Its silk industry, based on Chinese Its silk industry, based on Chinese technology, supplied most of the technology, supplied most of the Mediterranean basin with this precious Mediterranean basin with this precious fabric.fabric.


Like the Chinese, the Byzantine Like the Chinese, the Byzantine merchants did not acquire political merchants did not acquire political power (mainly because governmental power (mainly because governmental bureaucrats didn’t want to share it).bureaucrats didn’t want to share it).

As in China, wealth acquired through As in China, wealth acquired through trade didn’t always translate into power.trade didn’t always translate into power.

Merchants in Western Europe would Merchants in Western Europe would gain a much greater political voice. gain a much greater political voice.


The cultural influence of Byzantium was The cultural influence of Byzantium was also significant.also significant.

Preserving much of ancient Greek Preserving much of ancient Greek learning, the Byzantine Empire learning, the Byzantine Empire transmitted this classical heritage to the transmitted this classical heritage to the Islamic world and to a much smaller Islamic world and to a much smaller extent the Christian West.extent the Christian West.

In both places, it stimulated scientists, In both places, it stimulated scientists, philosophers, theologians, and philosophers, theologians, and intellectuals.intellectuals.


The most characteristic implement of the Western table service, the fork, was first introduced to the Venetian society (late 10th century) by a Byzantine princess…chroniclers mention the astonishment and anger she caused when she "used a golden double prong to bring food to her mouth instead of using her hands as was the norm…God in his wisdom has provided man with natural forks - his fingers. Therefore it is an insult to Him to substitute artificial metallic forks for them when eating."

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire In the realm of art, In the realm of art,

Byzantium served as Byzantium served as both a curator and as both a curator and as an innovator. The an innovator. The Byzantines preserved Byzantines preserved many of the glories of many of the glories of Greek and Roman Greek and Roman sculpture, such as the sculpture, such as the Greek horses of gilded Greek horses of gilded bronze.bronze.

St Mark’s in Venice St Mark’s in Venice (they were stolen by (they were stolen by Crusaders).Crusaders).


As innovators, they developed a As innovators, they developed a style of religious art and architecture style of religious art and architecture that influenced every nation they that influenced every nation they encountered.encountered.

In Italy, which was part of the In Italy, which was part of the Eastern empire until the 7Eastern empire until the 7thth Century,, Century,, they built churches in Rome, Milan, they built churches in Rome, Milan, Ravenna, and Naples and virtually Ravenna, and Naples and virtually an entire Byzantine city in Venice.an entire Byzantine city in Venice.


The Bulgarians and Serbians carefully The Bulgarians and Serbians carefully copied well-known Byzantine churches copied well-known Byzantine churches and palaces and the Russians laid out and palaces and the Russians laid out important towns by imitating important towns by imitating Constantinople.Constantinople.

The Persians respected Byzantine taste The Persians respected Byzantine taste so much that one of their emperors so much that one of their emperors pulled down his new palace when an pulled down his new palace when an envoy from the Byzantine emperor envoy from the Byzantine emperor remarked of the building, “The upper part remarked of the building, “The upper part will do for birds and the lower for rats.” will do for birds and the lower for rats.”

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Byzantine aristocrats often hired private Byzantine aristocrats often hired private

tutors for both their sons and daughters.tutors for both their sons and daughters. There was a state-organized school There was a state-organized school

system that offered a basic education in system that offered a basic education in reading, writing, and grammar.reading, writing, and grammar.

Most peasants and urban workers didn’t Most peasants and urban workers didn’t have a formal education but basic literacy have a formal education but basic literacy was widespread.was widespread.

Elites could study law, philosophy, and Elites could study law, philosophy, and medicine in Constantinople.medicine in Constantinople.


The situation for women deteriorated The situation for women deteriorated from the earlier freedom that Roman from the earlier freedom that Roman women had to venture outside their women had to venture outside their homes.homes.

The “paterfamilias” (oldest male The “paterfamilias” (oldest male authority) controlled family and public authority) controlled family and public life, but under the Byzantines, women life, but under the Byzantines, women were increasingly confined to the home.were increasingly confined to the home.

When they did leave the home, they When they did leave the home, they usually concealed their faces with veils.usually concealed their faces with veils.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The only men women were to The only men women were to

socialize with were members of their socialize with were members of their family.family.

Yet despite these restrictions, from Yet despite these restrictions, from 1028-1056 women ruled the 1028-1056 women ruled the Byzantine Empire jointly with their Byzantine Empire jointly with their husbands.husbands.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire And between 780-802, the Empress And between 780-802, the Empress

Irene ruled, first as regent for her 10 Irene ruled, first as regent for her 10 year son (Constantine VI) then in her year son (Constantine VI) then in her own right.own right.

When Constantine reached maturity, When Constantine reached maturity, he wanted to marry the daughter of he wanted to marry the daughter of the Frankish king, Charlemagne.the Frankish king, Charlemagne.

The plan was thwarted by Irene, so The plan was thwarted by Irene, so Constantine, with the army’s backing, Constantine, with the army’s backing, banished his mother from the palace.banished his mother from the palace.


Not to be outdone, Not to be outdone, after seven years of after seven years of tireless conspiracy, tireless conspiracy, she succeeded in she succeeded in having Constantine having Constantine imprisoned and then imprisoned and then blinded.blinded.

In 797 she took the In 797 she took the throne to rule in her throne to rule in her own name.own name.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The pope in Rome (Leo III) saw The pope in Rome (Leo III) saw

Constantine’s fall as an opportunity Constantine’s fall as an opportunity to elevate papal prestige.to elevate papal prestige.

Considering the Byzantine throne Considering the Byzantine throne vacant (since no male was emperor), vacant (since no male was emperor), in the year 800 Leo boldly crowned in the year 800 Leo boldly crowned Charlemagne emperor.Charlemagne emperor.

To the Byzantines, this was criminal To the Byzantines, this was criminal and a sin against a sacred state…it and a sin against a sacred state…it attacked the universal authority of attacked the universal authority of the Byzantine emperor.the Byzantine emperor.


In the Byzantine world, the Church and In the Byzantine world, the Church and the state were intimately tied together, a the state were intimately tied together, a relationship known as “relationship known as “caesaropapismcaesaropapism.”.”

Unlike Western Europe, where the Unlike Western Europe, where the Roman Catholic Church maintained some Roman Catholic Church maintained some degree of independence from political degree of independence from political authorities, in Byzantium the emperor authorities, in Byzantium the emperor acted as both head of state and pope acted as both head of state and pope (head of the Church).(head of the Church).

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The emperor appointed the patriarch, The emperor appointed the patriarch,

or leader, of the Orthodox Church; or leader, of the Orthodox Church; sometimes he made decisions about sometimes he made decisions about doctrine; called church councils into doctrine; called church councils into session; and generally treated the session; and generally treated the Church as a government department.Church as a government department.

When Syrian and Egyptian Christians When Syrian and Egyptian Christians declared themselves declared themselves MonophysitesMonophysites, , believers that Jesus’ nature was only believers that Jesus’ nature was only divine, not human, Justinian oppressed divine, not human, Justinian oppressed them in the name of religious them in the name of religious conformity and imperial authority. conformity and imperial authority.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire A dense network of bishops and A dense network of bishops and

priests brought the message of the priests brought the message of the Church to every corner of the Church to every corner of the empire, while numerous monasteries empire, while numerous monasteries accommodated holy men, whose accommodated holy men, whose piety, self-denial, and good works piety, self-denial, and good works made them highly influential among made them highly influential among both the elites and common people.both the elites and common people.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Orthodox Christianity had a major Orthodox Christianity had a major

influence on every aspect of Byzantine influence on every aspect of Byzantine life.life.

It legitimated the supreme and absolute It legitimated the supreme and absolute rule of the emperor, for he was a God-rule of the emperor, for he was a God-anointed ruler, a reflection of the glory of anointed ruler, a reflection of the glory of God on earth.God on earth.

Even more than being “Roman,” they Even more than being “Roman,” they were orthodox, or “right-thinking” were orthodox, or “right-thinking” Christians for whom the empire and the Christians for whom the empire and the Church were equally essential to achieving Church were equally essential to achieving eternal salvation.eternal salvation.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Before the Fifth Century,

the early Christians inherited from Judaism a repugnance toward idolatry; but from the Fifth Century onward, icons (or images) of Christ, the Virgin Mary and the saints became increasingly prevalent in public and private worship.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Churches became filled with icons—Churches became filled with icons—

religious paintings of Jesus, Mary, and religious paintings of Jesus, Mary, and other saints—that many believed other saints—that many believed conveyed the divine presence to conveyed the divine presence to believers. believers.


The blue and gold backgrounds of The blue and gold backgrounds of most iconic paintings/mosaics most iconic paintings/mosaics represented the unchanging represented the unchanging brilliance of heaven.brilliance of heaven.



Worshipping icons became so fervent that it often did border on idolatry.

Icon veneration became a major issue between 726-843, when Byzantine emperors argued that icon veneration was tantamount to idol worship (influenced by Judaism and Islam), distracting worshippers from God himself.


Starting in 726 (under Leo III) all icons Starting in 726 (under Leo III) all icons were removed from churches and were removed from churches and destroyed.destroyed.

This destruction, known as This destruction, known as iconoclasmiconoclasm, , pitted the government , army, and peoples pitted the government , army, and peoples of the eastern provinces (who supported of the eastern provinces (who supported their destruction) against the peoples of their destruction) against the peoples of the western provinces and clergy, who the western provinces and clergy, who regarded iconoclasm as sacrilege as regarded iconoclasm as sacrilege as heresy.heresy.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire For over 100 years, riots erupted as For over 100 years, riots erupted as

factions took this quarrel to the streets factions took this quarrel to the streets and monks (who supported icons) were and monks (who supported icons) were systematically persecuted.systematically persecuted.

When the monk Methodius became the When the monk Methodius became the patriarch, from the Hagia Sophia he patriarch, from the Hagia Sophia he proclaimed an end to “the last of the proclaimed an end to “the last of the great heresies” (i.e. great heresies” (i.e. iconoclasmiconoclasm) had ) had been overcome.been overcome.


As Eastern Orthodoxy evolved, it came As Eastern Orthodoxy evolved, it came to define itself against an emerging Latin to define itself against an emerging Latin Christianity centered on papal Rome.Christianity centered on papal Rome.

Both Catholicism and Orthodoxy had Both Catholicism and Orthodoxy had much in common: the teachings of much in common: the teachings of Jesus; the Bible; the sacraments; a Jesus; the Bible; the sacraments; a church hierarchy of patriarchs, bishops, church hierarchy of patriarchs, bishops, and priests; a missionary impulse; and and priests; a missionary impulse; and an intolerance toward other religions.an intolerance toward other religions.


Despite these similarities, the sense of a Despite these similarities, the sense of a single widespread Christian community single widespread Christian community was increasingly replaced by an was increasingly replaced by an awareness of difference, competition, awareness of difference, competition, and outright hostility towards each and outright hostility towards each other.other.

This reflected the growing political This reflected the growing political separation and rivalry between the separation and rivalry between the Byzantine Empire and Western Europe. Byzantine Empire and Western Europe.


As Islam grew increasingly powerful in As Islam grew increasingly powerful in the 7the 7thth century, Constantinople and century, Constantinople and Rome remained hubs for the Christian Rome remained hubs for the Christian Church…but they were now in Church…but they were now in different states that competed with different states that competed with each other for territory and for the each other for territory and for the right to claim the legacy of imperial right to claim the legacy of imperial Rome. Rome.


Beyond political differences were Beyond political differences were those of language and culture.those of language and culture.

Latin remained the language of the Latin remained the language of the Church and of the elites in the West, Church and of the elites in the West, but it was eventually abandoned by but it was eventually abandoned by the Byzantines for Greek.the Byzantines for Greek.


Even though Constantinople and Rome Even though Constantinople and Rome agreed on fundamental doctrines, they agreed on fundamental doctrines, they disagreed on several minor points that disagreed on several minor points that snowballed into major issues.snowballed into major issues.

Priests in the West shaved, and after Priests in the West shaved, and after 1050, were supposed to remain 1050, were supposed to remain celibate.celibate.

Orthodox priests grew their beards Orthodox priests grew their beards long and were allowed to marry.long and were allowed to marry.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Orthodox ritual called for using bread

leavened with yeast in Mass, but Catholics used unleavened bread.

In the 11th Century Roman popes claimed to be the sole and final spiritual authority for all Christians everywhere and that the Byzantine Church should follow Rome.

Orthodox leaders rejected these claims and believed Rome had no power over them.


Catholic religious art often portrayed Jesus as suffering for the sins of mankind.

Orthodox religious art showed Jesus as majestic and divine.

The Byzantine The Byzantine EmpireEmpire In the West, Gothic

styles dominated church architecture.

In Byzantium, church architecture was inspired by ancient Rome (arches, domes).


Orthodox church services, usually Orthodox church services, usually conducted in Greek, were sometimes conducted in Greek, were sometimes held in the local vernacular of the held in the local vernacular of the location.location.

Western Catholicism insisted on Latin.Western Catholicism insisted on Latin. The formal schism came in 1054 when The formal schism came in 1054 when

the leaders of both churches formally the leaders of both churches formally excommunicated each other, declaring excommunicated each other, declaring that those in the opposing tradition that those in the opposing tradition were not true Christians.were not true Christians.

The Byzantine The Byzantine EmpireEmpire

The Crusades, launched in The Crusades, launched in 1095 by the Catholic pope 1095 by the Catholic pope (Urban II), made things (Urban II), made things worse.worse.

Western Crusaders, Western Crusaders, passing through Byzantine passing through Byzantine territory, often brutalized territory, often brutalized the local peoples because the local peoples because they were considered they were considered “blasphemous and “blasphemous and heretical.”heretical.”

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The city of Constantinople before the The city of Constantinople before the

Crusades. At its peak under the Crusades. At its peak under the Byzantines, it had over 1,000,000 Byzantines, it had over 1,000,000 inhabitants. inhabitants.


During the Second Crusade (1145-1149) During the Second Crusade (1145-1149) one observer wrote that the Greeks “were one observer wrote that the Greeks “were judged not to be Christians and the Franks judged not to be Christians and the Franks (French) considered killing them a matter (French) considered killing them a matter of no importance.”of no importance.”

During the Fourth Crusade in 1204, During the Fourth Crusade in 1204, western forces seized and looted western forces seized and looted Constantinople and ruled Byzantium for Constantinople and ruled Byzantium for the next 50 years.the next 50 years.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Their brutality only confirmed the Their brutality only confirmed the

Byzantine view that Catholics were Byzantine view that Catholics were nothing more than evil, heretical nothing more than evil, heretical barbarians.barbarians.

After this, Byzantium was severely After this, Byzantium was severely weakened and the rupture in the weakened and the rupture in the Christian world would be irreparable.Christian world would be irreparable.


By 1453, the Byzantine Empire was a By 1453, the Byzantine Empire was a mere shadow of its earlier glory.mere shadow of its earlier glory.

The Turkic Ottomans had already spread The Turkic Ottomans had already spread their influence across most of Northern their influence across most of Northern Africa, the eastern Mediterranean, the Africa, the eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, and Anatolia...Constantinople Balkans, and Anatolia...Constantinople was almost all that was left of the once was almost all that was left of the once great empire.great empire.

By early April, the Ottomans were By early April, the Ottomans were camped outside Constantinople.camped outside Constantinople.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire On a Sunday morning in May (1453), On a Sunday morning in May (1453),

defenders of the city woke up to see defenders of the city woke up to see Ottoman ships in the harbor and Ottoman ships in the harbor and cannons being moved into place: one cannons being moved into place: one was a 19 ton “bombard,” believed to be was a 19 ton “bombard,” believed to be the largest cannon in the world (it was the largest cannon in the world (it was 26 ft long and fired balls weighing 26 ft long and fired balls weighing 1,200 lbs).1,200 lbs).

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire When the attack began, every bell in the city When the attack began, every bell in the city

rang the alarm. The rang the alarm. The Hagia Sophia Hagia Sophia was full of was full of people praying and singing people praying and singing Kyrie Eleison Kyrie Eleison (Lord, have mercy).(Lord, have mercy).

The Byzantine defense was barely 7,000 men The Byzantine defense was barely 7,000 men against over 80,000 Ottoman Janissaries. against over 80,000 Ottoman Janissaries.

On May 25, Sultan Mehmet II proposed peace: On May 25, Sultan Mehmet II proposed peace: he would spare the city if annual tribute was he would spare the city if annual tribute was paid; or he would grant safe passage if the paid; or he would grant safe passage if the citizens gave up the city…both offers were citizens gave up the city…both offers were rejected.rejected.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire By mistake, a small gate had been left By mistake, a small gate had been left

unlocked on the outer wall and some unlocked on the outer wall and some Turks found it. By dawn the next Turks found it. By dawn the next morning, the Turks were inside the city. morning, the Turks were inside the city.

Seeing a Turkish flag being raised on Seeing a Turkish flag being raised on one of the watch towers, the last one of the watch towers, the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, dismounted from his horse and flung dismounted from his horse and flung himself into the advancing Janissaries. himself into the advancing Janissaries.

He died in the fighting and his head He died in the fighting and his head was paraded around the city. was paraded around the city.


That afternoon, Mehmet II made his That afternoon, Mehmet II made his entry, escorted by his bodyguard of entry, escorted by his bodyguard of Janissaries.Janissaries.

When he reached the gates of the Hagia When he reached the gates of the Hagia Sophia he dismounted, stooped down at Sophia he dismounted, stooped down at the threshold and scooped up a handful the threshold and scooped up a handful of earth, which he let fall on his of earth, which he let fall on his turbaned head (as an act of humiliation turbaned head (as an act of humiliation before the God who had brought him before the God who had brought him victory).victory).


Once the siege was over, the Ottoman Once the siege was over, the Ottoman army robbed and pillaged the city for army robbed and pillaged the city for three days (a medieval custom) but the three days (a medieval custom) but the city wasn’t destroyed…the Ottomans city wasn’t destroyed…the Ottomans wanted to remake it into their capital.wanted to remake it into their capital.

Every church was converted into a Every church was converted into a mosque and Constantinople’s name was mosque and Constantinople’s name was changed to the Turkish version of the changed to the Turkish version of the Greek Greek eis tin polin eis tin polin (“in the city”…(“in the city”…IstanbulIstanbul).).

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire In an honorable Muslim In an honorable Muslim

tradition, the Ottomans tradition, the Ottomans planned a multicultural planned a multicultural and tolerant city.and tolerant city.

The Orthodox patriarch The Orthodox patriarch was left in charge of the was left in charge of the Church and when Jews Church and when Jews were expelled from were expelled from Spain (1492), many Spain (1492), many came to Istanbul where it came to Istanbul where it was official policy to was official policy to welcome them.welcome them.


The spread of Orthodoxy to Russia:The spread of Orthodoxy to Russia: Byzantine religious culture spread Byzantine religious culture spread

widely among Slavic-speaking widely among Slavic-speaking peoples in the Balkans and Russia.peoples in the Balkans and Russia.

As the lands to the south and east As the lands to the south and east were overtaken by Islam, were overtaken by Islam, Byzantium looked to the north.Byzantium looked to the north.


In the 9In the 9thth century, century, two Byzantine two Byzantine missionaries, missionaries, Cyril Cyril and and MethodiusMethodius, , spread the spread the Orthodox faith Orthodox faith throughout the throughout the Balkans and Balkans and southern/western southern/western Russia.Russia.


Cyril and Methodius were successful Cyril and Methodius were successful because they spoke the Slavic because they spoke the Slavic language.language.

They also developed an alphabet, They also developed an alphabet, based on Greek letters, with which based on Greek letters, with which Slavic languages could be written.Slavic languages could be written.

The The Cyrillic alphabet Cyrillic alphabet made it possible made it possible to translate the Bible and other to translate the Bible and other religious literature into Slavic which religious literature into Slavic which helped to promote religious helped to promote religious conversions. conversions.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire The Cyrillic The Cyrillic

alphabetalphabet::


The most significant expansion of The most significant expansion of Orthodox Christianity occurred among Orthodox Christianity occurred among the Slavic peoples of southern/western the Slavic peoples of southern/western Russia (today’s Ukraine/Belarus).Russia (today’s Ukraine/Belarus).

In this culturally diverse region, which In this culturally diverse region, which also included Finnic and Baltic peoples as also included Finnic and Baltic peoples as well as Viking traders, a loosely well as Viking traders, a loosely organized state known as organized state known as Kievan RusKievan Rus (named after the city of Kiev) emerged in (named after the city of Kiev) emerged in the 9the 9thth century. century.


The The development of development of RusRus was was stimulated by stimulated by trade along the trade along the Dnieper River, Dnieper River, which linked which linked Scandinavia Scandinavia with Byzantium.with Byzantium.


Religion reflected the region’s cultural Religion reflected the region’s cultural diversity with small numbers of diversity with small numbers of Christians, Jews, and Muslims a part of Christians, Jews, and Muslims a part of the mix.the mix.

The growing interaction of the The growing interaction of the RusRus with with the larger world prompted Prince the larger world prompted Prince Vladimir I of Kiev to affiliate with a faith Vladimir I of Kiev to affiliate with a faith that would unify the diverse peoples of that would unify the diverse peoples of his region, while linking the his region, while linking the RusRus to the to the wider trade networks.wider trade networks.


According to ancient According to ancient chronicles, Vladimir chronicles, Vladimir considered Judaism, considered Judaism, Islam, Catholicism, Islam, Catholicism, and Greek and Greek Orthodoxy before Orthodoxy before finally deciding on finally deciding on the religion of the religion of Byzantium.Byzantium.


He rejected Islam, as told by the He rejected Islam, as told by the chronicles, because it prohibited chronicles, because it prohibited alcoholic drink and “drinking is the alcoholic drink and “drinking is the joy of the Russes.”joy of the Russes.”

He supposedly rejected Judaism He supposedly rejected Judaism because he couldn’t understand because he couldn’t understand how a powerful God would allow his how a powerful God would allow his people’s temple to be destroyed. people’s temple to be destroyed.

It is unclear why he didn’t choose It is unclear why he didn’t choose Roman Catholicism.Roman Catholicism.


Political and commercial considerations no Political and commercial considerations no doubt played a major role in Vladimir’s doubt played a major role in Vladimir’s decision (swayed by the wealth of decision (swayed by the wealth of Byzantium and the beauty of Orthodox Byzantium and the beauty of Orthodox churches).churches).

He acquired a sister of the Byzantine He acquired a sister of the Byzantine emperor as his bride, along with numerous emperor as his bride, along with numerous Byzantine priests and advisors.Byzantine priests and advisors.

All the All the RusRus were then “forced” to convert were then “forced” to convert to Orthodox Christianity.to Orthodox Christianity.


Vladimir’s choice has had long-term Vladimir’s choice has had long-term implications for Russian history, for it implications for Russian history, for it brought a fledgling, peripheral brought a fledgling, peripheral civilization firmly into the world of civilization firmly into the world of Orthodox Christianity, separating it Orthodox Christianity, separating it from both from the realm of Islam and from both from the realm of Islam and the Roman Catholic West.the Roman Catholic West.

The The RusRus borrowed extensively from its borrowed extensively from its older and more sophisticated neighbor.older and more sophisticated neighbor.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Among these Among these

borrowings were borrowings were Byzantine architectural Byzantine architectural styles, the Cyrillic styles, the Cyrillic alphabet, the extensive alphabet, the extensive use of icons, a monastic use of icons, a monastic tradition stressing tradition stressing prayer and service, and prayer and service, and political ideals of political ideals of imperial control of the imperial control of the Church. Church.


Orthodoxy gave the Orthodoxy gave the RusRus a more unified a more unified identity and religious legitimacy for its identity and religious legitimacy for its rulers.rulers.

Centuries later, after Constantinople Centuries later, after Constantinople had fallen to the Turks, Russian had fallen to the Turks, Russian political and religious leaders political and religious leaders proclaimed Russia had become the proclaimed Russia had become the “third Rome.”“third Rome.”

The original Rome had betrayed the The original Rome had betrayed the faith with its heresy, and the second faith with its heresy, and the second Rome had succumbed to the Muslims. Rome had succumbed to the Muslims.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Moscow was now the third Rome, the Moscow was now the third Rome, the

final protector and defender of the “true final protector and defender of the “true faith,” Orthodox Christianity.faith,” Orthodox Christianity.

This reflected the “This reflected the “RussificationRussification” of ” of Eastern Orthodoxy and its growing role as Eastern Orthodoxy and its growing role as an element of Russian national identity.an element of Russian national identity.

It was also a reminder of the enduring It was also a reminder of the enduring legacy of a thousand years of Byzantine legacy of a thousand years of Byzantine history, long after the empire itself had history, long after the empire itself had vanished.vanished.

Documents

The Byzantine Empire The “New” Rome. The Byzantine Empire When the Roman emperor Diocletian required Christians to accept him as a god and worship him,