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RachelKovacs
SchoolofCommunication,
HarryJackGrayCenterE224,UniversityofHartford,200BloomfieldAvenue,West
Hartford,CT06117,USA.Tel:+18607684016;Fax:+1860768
4096;E-mail:[email protected]
Thebroadcastingpublicsphere:Enduringissues,enduring
relationships,enduringactivists
Received(inrevisedform):29thNovember,2002
RachelKovacs
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isanassistantprofessorin
theSchoolofCommunicationattheUniversityofHartford,whereshehas
headeditspublicrelationsemphasissince1999.AsadvisertotheSchoolschapter
ofPublicRelationsStudentSocietyofAmerica(PRSSA),shedirectedits2001award-winningentryinthenationalBatemanCompetition.Sheisarecipientoftwo
InterdisciplinaryTopPaper
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Awards(PRSAEducatorsAcademy,1999;Institutefor
PublicRelations(IPR),2001)forherstudiesinBritishbroadcastingactivism.Since
thelate-1990s,DrKovacshaslectured,presentedatinternationalconferencesandpublishedon
thesubject.Inaddition,shewasawardedaYaleVisitingFacultyFellowshipin2001.FormerlyAssistantEditorofJournalofCommunication,DrKovacsholdsdegrees
inmasscommunication
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(PhD,UniversityofMarylandCollegeofJournalism,
MATowsonUniversity)andtheatrearts(BABrandeisUniversity,withstudiesat
ManchesterUniversity).
AbstractThisstudycomparesthestrategiesandimpactof
sixBritishactivistgroups,asdocumentedin1997,withdatagatheredonthesamegroupsin2000.Thesegroups,VoiceoftheListenerandViewer,
CampaignforQuality
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Television,DeafBroadcastingCouncil,ConsumersAssociation,National
ConsumersCouncilandNationalListenersandViewersAssociation,attemptedtobuilda
publicsphereforgeneratingdebatearoundandcatalysingchangestobroadcastingpoliciesand
programming.Theyweretrackedin2000inordertoidentifythoseissues,relationshipsandgroupsthathadendured.Theresearchdesignprovidedatelescopiclook
attheirinteractions
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withtheirtargetsandwitheachother
duringaperiodofrapidtechnologicalandindustrychange.Inamultichannel
broadcastingenvironmentwhereconvergenceandglobalisationarebuzzwords,activistsusedpublicrelationsto
createabroaderpublicforumforawiderangeofsignificantissueswithwhichtoengagedemographically,psychographicallyandgeographicallydiversepublics.Theensuingmedia
education,mediaadvocacy
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andrelationshipbuilding,althougheliteinorigins,
strengtheneddemocraticdiscourse,thusreaffirmingbroadcastingsinvaluableroleincivilsociety.
INTRODUCTION
ThispaperwillexplorehowactivistsTheindependenceprovided
byprivateconcernedaboutbroadcastingproperty,thecriticalreflectionfosteredby
lettersandnovels,thefloweringof
programmingandpolicyused
publicdiscussionin
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coffeehousesandsalonsand
relations
tofacilitateapublicsphereasa
aboveall,the
emergenceofanindependent,
corollarytodemocraticgrowthinthe
market-basedpress,createdanewpublic
UK.14
Thecreationofsuchaspherewas
engagedincriticalpolitical
discussion.From
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afundamentalpremiseandfunctionof
thiswasforgedareason-basedconsensus
publicservice
broadcastingintheUK.It
whichshapedthedirectionofthe
state.hasalsoservedasamodelfortransitional
(p.82)4nations.Curran4tracedtheroleofthemediainCurran4arguedthat
thepublicsphere
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catalysingsuchasphereforpublicdebate:
conceptualisedbyHabermas1was
#HenryStewartPublications1363254X(2003)
Vol.7,3209238JournalofCommunicationManagement
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Kovacs
supersededbyexpanded
state-organisedcorporatistinterests,theincreasingexclusionofthepublicfromdebateon
substantivesocietalissues,andthemanipulationofmassopinionbythemedia.Thus,
thoseconcernedaboutcompellingissuesinbroadcasting(whetherindemocraciesortransitionalpost-communistgovernments)developedbroadcastingmodelsthatwouldserveasaforumfor
debate.Further,Habermass1
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modelisreferredtoagainas:
aneutralzonewhereaccesstorelevantinformationaffectingthepublic
goodiswidelyavailable,wherediscussionisfreeofdominationbythestate
andwhereallthoseparticipantsinpublicdebatedosoonanequalbasis.Withinthispublicsphere,peoplecollectivelydeterminethroughtheprocessesof
rationalargumentthe
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waytheywanttoseesocietydevelop,
andthisshapesinturntheconductofgovernmentpolicy.(p.82)4
Dahlgren5conceivedofthepublicsphereasaseriesofsocietal
dialoguesdealingwithissuesofcommonconcernandpoliticsinanoverarchingsense.Boththisforumandtheconditionsforcommunicationwithinitareessential
fordemocracy,he
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maintained.Onecouldsaythatafunctioning
publicsphereisthefulfillmentofthecommunicationalrequirementsofaviable
democracy.(p.
1)5
TheBBCasexemplaroftheBritishmodel
TheBritishBroadcastingCorporation(BBC),asanexemplarofBritishpublicservicebroadcasting,isamodelthatEast/CentralEuropean6andWesternscholars1,4,5
haveassociatedwith
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thepublicsphere;however,Currans4caveatwas
thatbroadcastinghasnotfunctionedasanopenforumofpublicdebate
butasanagencyprivilegingdominantdiscoursesandsustainingdominantpowergroupsin
Britain.(p.45)4Theperceived
shortcomingsofboththeBBCandtheIndependentTelevision(ITV)franchiseshavespawneddiversepressuregroupsrepresentingviewing
andlistening/consumer
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publicsseekingredress.Thesegroupsaredetermined
topreservethemediaasapublicsphereinaformthat
isrelativelyautonomous(p.52)4andthathaspublicservicerequirements.711Somerequirements
fallundertherubricofsocialinclusion(egdisabled,minority,andothermarginalisedgroups).Overall,broadcastinginstitutionsmustbeaccountable.
Accountabilityandpublic
servicebroadcasters
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Theaccountabilityofthemediawill
followfromchangesinsocietyinamoregenericsenseand.
..theroleofthemediais,andalwayswillbeto,in
asense,transmitthevaluesofasociety.Anditsthestrengthwithwhichthesevaluesarebeingsetelsewhere,inthesocialfabric,that
dictatestherole
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ofthemedia.12
Howthe
rolesofthemediaandofbroadcastinginademocraticpublicsphere1314
havebeengreatlydebatedandscrutinisedhasbeenshownabove,ashasbeen
thedegreetowhichcitizensandconsumersasviewersandlistenerscreateandmaintainsuchasphere.Thisstudyexaminedhowsixcoreactivistgroups,
asperceivedby
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diverse,interestedparties,generatedandsustaineddebate,
andhadimpact,atleastinpart,ontheroleandfuture
ofbroadcastinginadigitalenvironment.In1997,researchintoeachgroupsstrategies
andimpactwascomparableinscopeandindepth.Intermsofthetotaldata,slightlymoreexposuretotheVoiceoftheListenerand
Viewer(VLV)took
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placebecause:
initialcontact
withVLVcatalysedthisworkJournalofCommunicationManagementVol.7,3
209238#
HenryStewartPublications1363254X(2003)
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Thebroadcastingpublicsphere
theauthorwaspresentatVLVsInternationalConferenceandhad,
foronedaypriortothatevent,beenparticipant-observerinitsGravesendoffices.
Thismayinitiallybeinterpretedasabiasindatacollectionandinterpretation.Nevertheless,notonlywererespondentsfrom1997whowerequalifiedtoreport
ontheprogress
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ofthecoregroupsre-interviewedin
2000,butjustasmanyoftheformerwereinterviewedoffsite,in
amoreneutralsetting,asattheconference.Also,informalcontactsconcerningcore
groups,onsiteandoff,supplementedformalones.Inrecounting2000results,VLVmayappeartobementionedmoreoftenbecauseitproactivelypursuedabroadcasting
publicsphere,in
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thewaysconveyedbelow,withinachanging
environment.Dataweregatheredonallgroupsinthefollow-upstudy.
Thetwolinkedwaysthetermbroadcastingpublicsphereisusedin
thisworkmustbenotedhere.Thefirstreferstotelevisionandradiocontent,includingpublicdebates,itsaccessibilitytoaudiences,andifandhow
thatcontentis
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conducivetocitizensawarenessofandparticipation
indialoguessustainingdemocracy,inpluralisticrepresentationofdiversegroups,orin
politicsorothermattersofinteresttosociety.Theothersphereconsistsof
off-airdebateaboutbroadcastingpolicy,programminganddecisionmaking.Whathappensinthelatterspherehasimplicationsfortheformerandviceversa.Thispaper
pertainstothe
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activistgroupsthatoperateoffairin
ordertoaffectwhathappensonair.
Publicservicebroadcasting
andanewindustrylandscape
Thechallengesfacingpublicservicebroadcasters
haveputvulnerablevaluesatrisk.15Majortechnologicalandindustrychangesthreatenatraditioncentredonthe
publicinterest.Controversyoverprivatisationhas
plaguedtheBBCs
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commercialenterprisesdivision.16TheBeebspaternalisticmandate17
thatBritishtelevisionshouldinform,educate,andentertain7hasfacedoffagainst
marketalternativestopublicservicegoals.18TheUKmustalsoheedEuropeanCommunity
guidelines.1920
Britishregulatorybodies(theIndependentTelevisionCommission(ITC),theBroadcastingStandardsCommission,theRadioAuthority,andBBCsProgrammeComplaintsUnit)allowfor
audienceredress,although
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theBBCGovernorsrolesasmanagers/regulators
oftheCorporationhavebeenquestioned.2122DespitetheBroadcastingActsof1990
and1996,10,23government24haslargelyfavouredmarket-drivenbroadcasting.Twoassumptions(iethatexisting
regulationisresponsiveenoughtoaudienceneedsandthatmarketprinciplessufficeforprogramming/policychoices)arechallengedbypublicserviceadvocateswhomaintainthat
Britishbroadcastingwas
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aprioriconceptualisedasamodelfor
citizenparticipationinthepublicsphere.5,6,14Mostnotably,sinceMaryWhitehousesNational
ViewersandListenersAssociation25(NVALA)firstattemptedtoeffectchangeinprogramming,pressure
groupshavegenerateddebateaboutcompellingissuesinthepublicsphere.Althoughpressuregroupsmayhavelackedthepowertohaltindustrytrends,theyhave
pursuedtheiragendas
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despitetheodds(all-issuegroups,mostattuned
tothesetrends,seemedtofarebest).
ThesixBritish
groupsstudiedwere:
VoiceoftheListenerandViewer(VLV;
broadrangeofissues)ConsumersAssociation(CA;productquality,valueformoney)theCampaignforQualityTelevision(CQT;quality/diversity)#HenryStewartPublications
1363254X(2003)Vol.
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7,3209238JournalofCommunicationManagement
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Kovacs
theDeaf
BroadcastingCouncil(DBC;accessforthedeaf)NationalViewersandListeners
Association(NVALA;violence/taste/decency)theNationalConsumerCouncil(NCC;government-fundedconsumerwatchdog).They
useddiverse,culturally-appropriatestrategiestobringcompellingissuesintothepublicsphere.Theinitial,significantissuesconcerningthemaregroupedbelow.
Significantissues
in1997
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IssuesregardingtheaccountabilityofBritish
broadcasterstotheirdiverseviewingandlisteningpublicscouldbegroupedinto
anumberoflargerdomains.Theseincludedissuesofrepresentation,and,inpart,
linkedtothat,regionalconcerns,consultation,viewerandlistenerredress;accesstodecisionmakers,decision-makingprocesses,andservices;andqualityofbroadcasting(alsorelated,
inpart,to
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representationandaccess).Althoughtherehasbeen
morescrutinyoftheBBCasapublicly-fundedbroadcaster,ITVhasalso
hadpublicservicerequirementsandChannelFouradistinctremit.Withregardto
theBBC,thecontinuationofthelicencefee,setatanappropriatelevel,wasofmajorconcern,asweretheconflictingrolesoftheBBCs
GovernorsandBBC
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responsivenesstoviewerandlistenergrievances.Responsiveness
alsomeantincludingviewerandlistenerperspectivesinconsultationanddecisionmaking.
TheGovernors,whohaveactedasmanagersandregulators(judgeandjury)of
theCorporation,havebeenseenasunabletoactobjectivelyinthepublicinterest.ITCwascriticisedasbeingratingsdriveninitsprogrammingchoices.
The
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desireforgreaterrepresentationofdiversegroups
withinsocietyassubjectsofprogrammes,withaccesstoprogrammes,andas
decisionmakersforthoseprogrammes,wasamajorissue.Itembracedinclusionof
thedisabled,
minoritiesanddisadvantaged,aswellasthoseregionsoftheUK(egtheNorth,Scotland,orWales)thatmayhavebeen
marginalisedincomparison
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tocoveragegiventoLondonandthe
South.Noconsensusexistedaboutwhichgroupsinsocietycouldclaimto
berepresentativeandmeritrepresentation.Hypothetically,accesstofree-to-airprogrammingandlisted(sporting/cultural)
eventsshouldhavebeenavailabletoall,yet,manycitizenslackedthemoneyneededtoadoptdigitaltechnologyorsubscribetopaytelevision.Issuesof
tasteanddecency
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(oftendirectedagainstChannelFourbyNVALA)
andmechanismsforredress(single,versusmultiple,regulator(s))alsoconcernedactivists.Some
issuesenduredin2000(seebelow).
THEORETICALCONSIDERATIONS
The
studydrewonliteraturesofpoliticsandsociology,management/publicrelationsandmasscommunication,Mostofthepressure/interestgroupliterature2632didnotdirectlyrelatetobroadcasting
activism.Itwas
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limitedtogovernment/specialinterestrelations.Wapner33was
anexception.Governmentwasaccountabletocorporateinterests.34Thegroupsstudiedhere
couldhardlybecalledsocialmovements.35,36TheUKsocialmovementliteraturewasmore
descriptivethantheoretical,saidRucht.37Thiswasnottrueoftheliteraturesofpost-communistEast/CentralEurope.3840
Karlbergs41criticismofthepublicrelationsresearch
agendacanbe
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understoodfromadisproportionatelycorporate/organisationalviewof
activism.4248Karlbergs41idealresearchagendawouldfacilitatetheempowermentofvariouspublics.
Shoemakercommented,publicrelationseffortsonbehalfofinterestgroupscanactuallyhave
long-termpro-socialconsequencesby
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Thebroadcastingpublicsphere
providingasociallyacceptableforumforthediscussionandintroductionofnew
ideas.(p.
215)49Yet,asKarlbergnoted,41relativelyfewattemptshavebeenmade
tounderstandif,andhow,activistgroupscanstrategicallyusepublicrelations.Coalitionbuilding5051and,morerecently,relationshipbuildinghavebecomefocalpointsforscholars.5257
Bothstrategiesrelate
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toactivistempowerment,withrelationshipbuildingthe
groundworkforinteractionsbetweenactivistpublic(s)andorganisation(s).Formalcoalitions,orloose,
adhocalliancesallowforagreaterdegreeofsymmetricalcommunicationandnegotiation.
Successful,long-termrelationshipsbetweenorganisationsandtheirpublicshavebeenthefocusofrecentscholarshipspecifically,relationshipsandrelationshipoutcomes,52,5661relationshipmanagement,62employee-community
relationships,63andnegotiation
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theory.6466Mediaadvocacy67hasframedissuesin
alargersocialcontext,empoweringactiviststoseeksupportandcatalysepolicy
change.
Culturalvariables68relatedtohowactivistswithintheBritishpolitical
cultureoperated.6974Theapproachofbroadcastingactivistsdifferedsomewhatfromthatofothergroups.Culturalidentityanddiversityofrepresentationtouchedacollective,oftennationalist
nerve.Termsused
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intheliteraturesonpublicinterestgroups75
andpublicgoodstheory76wererelevanttopublicservicebroadcasting,acommunicative
publicgoodandjointsupply,77whichdoesnotexcludeanyusers.78Scholarsdiscussed
broadcastingandthepublicsphereinthe
UK.1,4,5,13,7981
SomepointedtoaUKmodelforEast/CentralEurope.8284TheBBC,atrustee
forthenational
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interest
(p.50)7informednational
debate,butthattermhaselicitednegativereactionsfromregionsresentingLondons
culturaldominance.RESEARCHQUESTIONS
The1997studyasked:
Whatcommunicationstrategieshavepressuregroupsusedtoinfluenceandincreasetheaccountabilityoftheirtargets,includingbuildingrelationshipswiththeirpublics,otherpressuregroups,
targetorganisationsand
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thereferencepublics71ofthosetargets
Whatistheperceivedimpactofactivistgroupsonrelationshipswiththe
abovepublics,onbroadcastingpolicyandprogrammingandonpublicdiscourseonthese
issues?In2000thefociwere,enduring/compellingissues,enduringrelationshipsformedtopromotethoseissues,andenduringgroups.VLV,whoseworkcatalysedtheoriginal
study,alsoprominently
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figuredinthe2000study.Thegenesis
ofbothprojectsfollows.
METHODOLOGYOFTHESTUDY
Thefirstadvocacygroupthattheauthoridentified,whileona1995research
triptotheUK,wasVLV.Incontrast,mostoftheothergroupswereidentifiedthroughdatabasesearches.Anunderstaffed,lowbudget,buthighlyrespected
advocacygroup,it
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beganinreactiontoacrisisover
BBCRadioFour,butbroadeneditsagendatodiversebroadcastingissues.A
Lexis/Nexissearchuncovered78articleswrittenbetweenApril,1995andFebruary,1996about
VLV,withsubsequentsearchesproducingover500items.VLVhadpublishedaneditedvolumeonpublicservicebroadcastingintheEuropeanmarketplace.85Givenitsresources,
theorganisationsactivities
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in199596exceededmostexpectationsforit.
Membershipwasapproximately2,500,lessthanforCAandprobablymorethan
CQT.Olson86assessedthecollectiveactionofsmallgroupsasmoreeffectivethan
thatoflargeones,inasmuchasnomemberofasmallgroupcanassumethat
#HenryStewartPublications1363254X(2003)Vol.7,
3209238Journal
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ofCommunicationManagement
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Kovacs
anothermemberwill
contributeenoughtoachievethedesiredgroupgoals.
FounderJocelyn
Hayrecruitedandmobiliseddistinguishedindustryprofessionals,academics(egProfessorVincentPorter),consumer
advocates(egJeremyMitchell,formerlyofCAandNaomiSargant,veteranconsumerresearcherandeducator)todraftVLVconsultationandotherdocuments.SheranVLV
fromherhome
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withthehelpoftwopart-timesecretaries.
Manymemberswereolder,London-based(allegedlymoreprovincial),andhadmoretime
thanayoungercohorttogivetoVLV.Hay,VLVsolderchairwoman,assumed
analmostdisproportionateworkload.Withtheseconstraints,howcouldVLVtacklesuchabroadagenda?AlthoughthewaysVLVdifferedinitscharacteristicsandconstraints
fromothercore
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groupsmayhavehadanimpacton
strategies,themainfocusherewasoncommonstrategies,includingstrategicalliances.
Dataandpublicationswerecollectedforeachgroup,andfocusedheavilyongovernment
legislative,regulatoryandpolicydocumentsanddevelopmentsinBritishbroadcasting.TheauthorhasmonitoredUKbroadcastingsince1993forcompetitivenessandasapost-communistmodel.87
Four
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setsofinterviewprotocolswereconstructed
oneeachforactivists,broadcasters,governmentorotherpolicymakersandacademicsand
otherinterestedparties.InJanuaryandFebruary1997,theywerefairlyevenlydivided
among43intervieweeswithknowledgeofthecoregroups,someofwhomhadheldmultiplepositions.88Albury,88interviewedinLondon,suggestedthesuccessfulDeafBroadcasting
Council(DBC)to
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theauthor,whothenmetwithMyers,89
itsHonourableSecretary.Intervieweesinnon-corepressuregroupsincludedamarketingdirector,90
aunionexecutive(BECTU),91andaformerEUlobbyistfor
ITV.92
FieldworkandarchivalresearchwereconductedatBFIandITC.
OngoingcontactwithJocelynHayofVLV93suggestedtheneedtoreexaminethat
groupsandthe
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othersresponsestoemergingissuesandto
identifyenduringissues,groupsandrelationshipsamongthelatter.Inanticipationof
aMay,2000visittotheUK,anotherexhaustivedatabasesearchwasundertaken
regardingdevelopmentsaffectingUKbroadcasting,bothathomeandglobally.AttheVLV2000Conference(attheRoyalSocietyofArts),onsiteinterviewsof1997
respondents,andnew
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ones,tookplace.Inaddition,follow-up,offsite
interviewswerealsoconductedwith1997interviewees.Updatedorganisationalliteratureandprimary
datasupplementedinterviews.Resultsfromthe1997and2000studiesappearbelow.
STRATEGIESASPERTHE1997STUDY
Therespondentsinthe1997samplecametoaclearconsensusaboutallthecoregroups
strategies,alist
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ofwhichappearsinAppendixA.One
caveatisthatalthoughNVALAdidpursuerelationshipsandformalliancesin
ordertopressfortasteanddecency,itsmannerofdealingwithits
targetsdivergedgreatlyfromtheothergroups.Overall,thestrategiescouldbegroupedunderthreerubrics,eachofwhichfacilitatedagendasetting.Theyarelisted
asfollows.
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Howactivistsmovetheagendaforward
Theprincipalmeansofadvancingcompellingbroadcastingissueswererelationship
building,mediaeducationandmediaadvocacy.Respondentsregardedtheprocessesandoutcomesof
buildingstrategicrelationshipsasmorethanjustsignificantstepstowardsactivistsuccesstheyweresuccessfuloutcomesinandof
JournalofCommunication
ManagementVol.7,
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3209238#HenryStewartPublications1363254X
(2003)
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Thebroadcastingpublicsphere
themselves.Thedimensionsofsuchrelationships,recurrentlyidentifiedbyrespondents,arelisted
inthenextsection.Mediaeducation(notmediastudiesprogrammes)meanshereproviding
publicforums(egconferences,symposia)forbringingcompellingbroadcastingissuesintothepublicsphere,withthehelpofindustryprofessionalsandothers.
Media
advocacy67isstrategically
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framingissuespresentedinthemediain
ordertounderscoretheirramificationsforsociety.Theagendasetting94andguard
dog95rolesofthepressworktotheadvantageofpublicbroadcasting,particularly
whenprestigiousjournaliststakeupitsbanner.Priortothe1997elections,politiciansleakedinformationtothepressaboutproposedbroadcastingchangestotestreactions.2122
Coregroupsissued
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pressreleases,butchosetoapproachvarious
outletsforcoverage.VLVcourtedcoveragebybroadsheetpaperssuchasThe
Guardian,whereasNVALAanditsfounderMaryWhitehouseregularlywroteforthetabloid
press,96whichprintedsensationalcriticismsofoffendingbroadcasters.Inaddition,Whitehousewouldcatchthebroadcastersorthegovernment,broadcastersorregulatorsbysurprisebysending
amissivesimultaneously
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tothetargetandthepress.The
targetwouldthenbecaughtoffguardandtheissuewouldbe
propelledintopublicprominence.ThisdidnotaddtoWhitehousesorNVALAspopularity.
Therewasahugecredibilitygapbetweenthebroadsheetsandthetabloids,whichaffectedperceptionsofthetwogroupsthemselves,asexplainedinthesection
oneffectiveness.CQT
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masterfullyusedthepresstoshowcaseits
qualitythresholdagendawithendorsementsfromJohnCleese,GeorgeHarrison,andothers.
DBCengagedinlimiteduseofthemedia
magazinesfor
thedeaf,asexplainedfurther.89EvenNCCandCAvoicedtheirconcernsinletterstotheeditors.CAspublishingarmalsoproducedreportsona
singleregulator101and
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thequestionoffairtradewithinthe
BBCsenterprisesdivision.141
Vehiclesforexpressionlikepressreleasesand
opinioneditorialswereaccessibletoall.Othertacticsrequiredmoreresources,butoverall,
thedatadidnotsupporttheoriginalexpectationthattacticschosenwouldbecontingentonresources.AlthoughVLVandotherrelativelyresourcelessgroupscouldnot
affordtoadvertise
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inmajormediaoutlets,asdidCQT,
orrungalaparties(CQThadspentlavishlyonentertainingtheMinister
forBroadcastingandotherpoliticiansandoncelebrityadverts),therestoftheir
strategieswererelativelyconsistent(seeAppendixA).Allgroupsusedchannelsofmasscommunication;nevertheless,inBritishsociety,Itsallinterpersonal,saidSmith.97Thedimensions
forinterpersonalsuccess
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follow.
Goodrelationshipsandtheir
dimensions
Mostrespondentsagreedupontheingredientsofagood
relationship.Amongthesewerefrank,reasoneddialogue,mutualrespect,confidentialityandtrust,openness
andunderstanding,sharedinterests,networkingwithothers/befriendingtargets,accessandrecognisingtheconstraintsoftargets.Byfrank,reasoneddialogue,respondentsmeantawell-constructedand
well-supportedargument,for
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which,Mitchell98said,thereisnosubstitute.
Well-informedargumentswerebolsteredbycommissionedresearchandproceedingsofconferencesfeaturing
pre-eminentscholarsandindustryprofessionals.85Thisresearchwasaresourceforpoliticians,enabling
activiststoengagetheirsupport.12Mutualrespect,asperthoseinBBCmanagement,figuredamongtherulesofengagement99thatappearedtoexcludevilifying
#Henry
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StewartPublications1363254X(2003)Vol.7,3
209238JournalofCommunicationManagement
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Kovacs
broadcastingtargets(eg
labellingthempornographers100orbreachingthosetargetstrustandconfidentiality).Openness/understanding,implying
mutualdisclosure,overlappedsomewhatwithaccess,anotherdimensionrequisiteforsuccess.Theability
torecognisetargetsconstraintswasacrucialdimensionthatclearlyseparatedsuccessfulfromunsuccessfulgroups(seesectiononeffectiveness,below).
Relationshipbuildingand
alliancesbasedon
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sharedinterests
Manygroupsjoined
asadhocalliancesratherthanasformalcoalitions(egtheBroadcasting
LiaisonGroup(BLG),consistingofNCC,VLV,andCA,101CQTconcerningthequality
thresholdprovisioninthe1990Bill,andtheBBCsjointeffortswithVLVaroundthelicencefeerenewal.102103)DBC,astheonlypermanentcoalition,guardedits
autonomyandstrength
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ofitsagenda,asdidCQTfor
themostpart.Otherbroadcastinggroupswouldhavebeenreluctanttojoin
withNVALA,givenitsreputationasafringegroup;NVALAmusteredsupportfor
itspetitionsandmarchesfromchurchesandconservativeorganisationssuchastheMothersUnion.Groupsweresensitivetothepossibilitiesofcooptationbytargets,although
networkingamongand
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befriendingtargetshelpedmovegroupagendasforward.
Graham100stressedthatgroupsneedtorecognisethebroadcastersconstraints.
Goodrelationships,suchasthosecultivatedbyVLV,CAandNCC,facilitatedthese
groupsinputintogovernmentconsultationaboutbroadcastinginitiativesandtestimonybeforetheParliamentarySelectCommitteeonBroadcasting.Consequently,theserelationshipshelpedgeneratepublicdebateon
compellingissuesand
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catalysedavirtuouscircle,12,96asdidchoice
venuesthatdrewprominentspeakersand
audiences.Thus,mediaeducation
alsoprovidedamechanismforinformallobbying.Thethreeoverarchingrubricscitedabove
willbeexplicatedinthefollowingsectiononspecificgrouptactics.
Identifyingkeypublics
Allthegroupswereabletosingle
outthoseindividuals,
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orindividualswithinbodies,whowereopinion
leadersorwhohadthepotentialtoshapeorenactchangein
broadcastingpolicyandprogramming.Middleton142stressedidentifyingthefirstpointofcontactin
theotherorganisationandthepersoninthisorganisationwhocouldtalktothem.Forinstance,VLVengagedtheinterestofvariousveteranbroadcastersand
parliamentarians,andNVALA
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oftheleadingBritishconservativemoralmajority,
aswellaschurchleadersthroughoutthenation.DBChadsingledout
itsownchampioninLordJackAshley.
Toreachgovernment,or
theMinisterforBroadcasting,thegroupswouldfirstattempttocontacttheseniorcivilservantintheDepartmentofNationalHeritage(DNH),whohaddirect
linkstothe
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Minister.CQTsAlburyapproachedMinisterDavidMellor.
MembersofParliamentmightalsobereceptivetoactivists.
VLV
andtheconsumergroupswereparticularlyadeptatidentifyingprominentjournalistssuchas
ChrisDunkleyandRaymondSnoddy,whowouldshowcaseissuesongroupsagendas.WhitehousesNVALAidentifiedsympatheticjournalistsandwrotetotargetsandthepresssimultaneously.
Targetswerethus
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oftenforcedtorespondtothepress
aboutcriticalcommentsorissuesofwhichtheyhadnoknowledge.
Lobbying
Althoughthistactictranscendedinfluencinglegislators,itwasparticularly
importantwhenlegislationwaspending.
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Thebroadcastingpublicsphere
MembersofParliament(MPs)wereabletoraisequestionssuggestedbya
pressuregrouporcouldactasspokesmenwhenbillswentbeforeParliament.Lord
JackAshleyadvocatedthusforDBC.Alternatively,groups(egCQT)approachedseniorcivilservantsinordertoreachDavidMellor,MinisterforBroadcasting,andhis
predecessor.CQTalso
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usedcelebritypower,galasocialevents,a
clear,consistentmessage88andattendanceatafringemeetingattheall-party
conferencetoreachpoliticians.VLValsoattendedfringemeetings.Alltheseoptionshelped
tofurtheractivistagendas.SomegroupssoughtsupportfromtheLabouroppositioninpre-election1997,includingDrLewisMoonie,104shadowMinisterforBroadcasting,especiallybefore
anelection.Moonie
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saidhewaswillingtomeetwith
activists,butnonehadapproachedhim.GivenNVALAsproblemsingettingaccess,
hisstatementseemedconfusing.Priortothe1996Act,VLV,CAandNCC
madeajointefforttointerestpoliticiansinsomeproblematicareasofdigitalbroadcasting(egaccess).Petitions,althoughusedbyNVALAforpoliticalleveragein
theircampaignto
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cleanuptelevision,25wereuncommon.Massletter
writing,whichsomerespondentsdismissedasineffective,helpedDBCsucceedinits
1996bidforgreatersubtitling.96VLVthreatenedtosuetheBBCovera
proposedsaleoftransmitters.NVALAprotestedandmarchedandhungerstrikeshadbeenusedbyWelshlanguageactivists.RespondentsfeltthatinUKculture,such
behaviourwascounterproductive
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tobuildingrelationships.
Internaland
externalcommunicationwithdiversepublics
Mostgroupspublishednewslettersto
keeptheirpotential/currentconstituentsinformed.VLVsnewsletterwassubstantial,containingarticles,bookreviews,
membereventsandinterviews.
NVALAswasfarlesssophisticated,butstillcoveredmajoreventsandissues,aswellasmemberprofiles.Albury88attributed
muchofCQTs
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successtocomputers,whichfacilitateddirectmail
andupdatesonthecampaignsprogress.Atthetimeofthestudy,
mostcoregroupshadmademinimaluseoftheWebande-mail
astoolsforgeneratingmembership,groupmobilisationandkeepingcurrentmembersinformed.Theyrecogniseditsstrengthasanactivisttoolhowever.VLVsetupa
Web-basedmembershipform/
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questionnairebyspring,1997,butaswith
othercoregroups,fundingandmanpowerforhi-techexpansionwasalwaysan
issue.CQT,accordingtoMills,itssecretary,12hadlittleinterestinmassmembership
recruitment,groupe-mail,ortheWeb.TheexceptionwastheConsumersAssociation,withitssubscription-fundedWhich?and,in1997,fullyoperationalwebsite.Amongnon-coregroups,
CampaigntoSave
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theWorldServicehadasophisticated,successful
Webcampaign;90BECTU,thetradeunion,91plannedone.TheCampaignforPress
andBroadcastingFreedomhade-mailandawebsite.Internetpenetration/useisdiscussedbelow.
Thetransitionfromanalysingstrategiestoanalysingimpactwasdifficult.Overwhelminglyconsistentresponsesaboutstrategiesweredirectlyproportionaltothelackofconsensus
aboutimpact.This
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wasinpartattributabletothefact
thatmanyrespondentshaddivergentoperationaldefinitionsofeffectiveness.
EFFECTIVENESS
ASPER1997DATA
Thecreationofatypologyforeffectiveness
(seeAppendixB)wasanoutgrowthoftheauthorswishtobetterunderstandtowhatextentVLVsactivismwascredibleandsuccessful.Thedatastrongly
supportedthetypology
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asan
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Kovacs
appropriatemeasureof
effectiveness;oneminorrevisionwasmadeafterdataanalysis.Thecriteriafor
effectiveness,drawnfrompublicrelations,organisationaltheory,105negotiation,65politicalscience29,106andsociology,107emphasized
processgoals.Thiswasreflectedintheinterviews,whereincriteriaforgoodrelationshipsandperceptionsofeffectivenessfiguredinoverallgroupevaluations;goodrelationshipswere
weightedliketangible
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evidenceofimpact.
Theauthor
beganwithcertainassumptionsabouteffectiveness:
itwasunlikely
forallcriteriaforeffectivenesstobesustainedbygroupsovertime
CQTandVLVwouldmeetmanyofthecriteriaatwo-way,mixed-motive(seeMurphys108modificationofGrunigsandHunts109symmetrical)modelofcommunicationwould
leadtoeffectiveness.
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Alltheseassumptionsweresupportedbythe
data.
Includedintheoriginaltypologywastheprovisionof
high-qualityinformation,whichisessentialtogroupcredibility.98,110Inreality,thisprovisionis
moreastrategythananindicatorofeffectiveness.Awell-constructedmessagenotacknowledgedbyitsreceivercannotbeacriterionforeffectiveness.
Providingayardstick
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foreffectiveness
Theoriginaland
revisedtypologiesusedthetermindicatorratherthancharacteristic,tomarkhow
effectivenessfollowedfromaprogressiontowardsarelationshipbetweenapressuregroupand
itstarget.Thoseindicators,aslistedinAppendixA,cumulativelyimpliedthatthefollowingbasesforrelationshipsbetweenbroadcastingactivistsandtheir
targets
werelikelyto
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exist:acknowledgment,acceptance,communication,sharedinterests,reciprocity,
definingconstraints,inclusion,input/feedback,(sometimes)groupinstitutionalisation,negotiation,(sometimes)acquiescencebytargets
andaccess.Trust,citedearlier,wasanimplicitcriterion.Grouprelationshipsdidnot
havetoreflecteverycriterion.
Thedataneithersuggestedthatonlygroupsthatachievetangiblepolicyorprogramme-makingchangesareeffective,nor
couldtheysupport
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sustainedeffectivenessifotherindicatorsweremissing.
Activistsachievementofgoalsmaybeconsideredimportantbenchmarksoftheirimpact
onaccountability.Theymayalsoserveastestimonytothepowerofthe
viewerandlisteneroverthatofthemarket,butthedatasuggestedthattangiblechangesinthebehaviourofthetarget,asexpressedinprogramming
orpolicychange,
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donothavetobepresentfor
apressuregrouptobeconsideredeffective.56
Thedatafurther
suggestedthatgroupsthatachieveshort-termgoalslosegroundovertimeifthey
cannotdeveloporsustaingoodrelationshipswiththeirtargets.Therefore,theanalysisofgroupgrouporgrouptargetrelationshipsyieldedthemostsignificantdata.Theall-issuegroups
(VLV,CAand
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NCC),bothaloneandintandemwith
eachother,builtrelationshipsthatgainedthementrytodecisionmakers,while
developingtheirownvenues(egconferences,symposia)forinfluentialpeopletogeneratepolicy
debate.Forinstance,Whitworth143describedthegrowingrelationshipbetweenNCCandtheBBCscorporateaffairs.ThepersistenceofNCCandothergroups,shesaid,eventually
resultedinthe
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BBCopeningthemselvesuptothem.VLV
hadworkedtogetherwithNCCandCA,sometimesastheadhoc
BroadcastingLiaisonGroup(BLG).Thisrelationship
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Thebroadcastingpublicsphere
facilitatedcollaborativeresearchandattempts,in1996,tomovepoliticianstowardsgreater
legislationondigitalbroadcasting.CQTandDBCalsoinvestedgreateffortinbuilding
andsustainingstrongrelationshipswithpoliticiansandotherelitesthatcametofruitionwhenthelatterbecametheiradvocates.Incontrast,NVALAsufferedfromits
relationshipswithits
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targets.Targetswerealienatedbythegroups
poorly-informedperspectiveandpersistenceinlabellingthemnegatively.Eachgroupsrelationshipswith
itstargetshadramificationsforitssuccessovertime.
Effectivenessis,
inmanyways,adouble-edgedsword.Wheneverthereisarapprochementbetweenpressuregroupsandtheirtargets,theconcernexiststhatthegroupsmay
havebeencoopted.
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VLVisonlyoneofanumber
ofgroupsaboutwhichtherehavebeeninferencestothatend.CQT,
withitsfocusonquality,particularlyvis-a`-visdocumentariesandnewsprogrammes,hassometimes
beenreferredtoasregressiveandoverlynostalgic.Similarly,withitsover-representationofbroadcastersandotherindustryprofessionals,VLVsReithianyearningsmaybesaid
toparallelthose
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ofsomeofitstargets.Mostpressure
groupstreadafinelinebetweensuccessfuladvocacyandabsorption,unless,like
NVALA,theymakeapointofsoclearlydecryingtheiniquitiesoftheir
targetsthattheyriskalienatingthem.Atthepointofsuccessfuladvocacy,activistsandtargetsinterestsdoconverge;itisoftenonlywhenbothidentify
theirsharedinterests
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thatthereisawillingnessonthe
partofeitherorbothtonegotiateandyieldtotheother.
Thenegotiationaroundsharedinterestsisinextricablylinkedtostrategicrelationshipbuilding.
Onevariablethatmightexplainiftheyieldingthattranspireswillpressuretheactivisttoconformmoretothetargetsagendathantoits
ownisthe
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power
differentialbetweenthem.In
manycultures,andoccasionallyintheUK,activistshavetakenmoreextreme
actiontodemonstratetotheirtargetsthatsuchadifferentialdoesnotdeter
themfromtheirgoals.Nevertheless,evenifactivistsdecidetoyieldtowardsthetarget,itdoesnotfollowthattheyhaverelinquishedtheirgoals;the
ongoingdialoguebetween
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bothsidesandanyattendantnegotiationmay
setthestageforfuture,andpossibly,fromtheactivistsperspective,more
substantivegains.
Moreover,perhapsitisvaluabletorethinkonenotion
abouteffectivenessthatinanyeffort,theremustbewinnersandlosers.Activistsandtargetscanbothbenefitfromthemereinterchangeofdialogue.
Regardlessofwins
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orlosses,thefactthattheinterchange
isongoingisamanifestationofthepublicsphere.Inaddition,the
termcooptationhasonlynegativeconnotations.Inreality,though,whatanactivistmay
considerhisorherowncooptationmayhaveavalueinkeepingtheinterchangegoing.Activistscannotbackdownpubliclyfromtheirstatements;indoing
sotheyrisk
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losingfacewiththeirownconstituentsand
theirtargetsaswell.Inprivate,though,theycannegotiatetheirviews
inthepublicinterestwithoutlossofface.Furthermore,thereisaneven
greaterdilemmaaboutactivisteffectiveness.Ifactiviststhatis,singleissueactivistsdoeverythingrightandsucceed,theygooutofbusinessas
Isaacssuggested.111All-issue
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groupsmoveontoanotheragenda.Thiscan
becomeamotivationforactiviststoforgeontoneworrenewed
areasofredressand/orchange,andbydoingso,toremainviable.Effectiveness,
thus,iscomplex.
Propellingissuesintothepublicsphere
Coregroups,whenactinginalliancesorassoleagents,raisedthe
consciousnessofbroader
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publicsconcerningissuesof
#
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Kovacs
consequence.Giventhe
Britishpoliticalcultureandbroadcastinglandscape,activistsweresuccessfulinbringingcompelling
issuesintoforumslikelytomakeanimpactonelitesandotherpublics.
MaryWhitehousebecameahouseholdwordasshepropelledNVALAsmoralmessageand,accordingtoIsaacs,111raisedawarenessofviolencenationally.Thiswasdonenot
onlythroughthe
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assistanceofcertainConservativepoliticians,butalso
withthecooperationofthepress.Itwassuggestedbyseveralrespondents96
thattosomeextent,thepressusedMaryWhitehousetoadvanceitsown
agendaagainstthebroadcasters.Nevertheless,despiteitssensationalism,theBritishpresshelpedraiseWhitehousesprofiletotheextentthatshehadsome,ifnotsole,
impactonbroadcasting
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policy.Thedifferencewasthatwhatrespondents
perceivedasWhitehousesill-informedperspective,aswellasherinabilitytostep
insidethebroadcastersshoesandunderstandthebroadcastingbigpicture,fuelledanirrevocable
animositywiththelatter.This,andthepresssensationalismNVALAwhippedup,ultimatelycostWhitehouse,andthegroup,substantialdamageintermsofcredibilityand
relationships.UnlikeVLV,
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whoseresearch,argumentsandgoodrelationships,particularly
withopinion-formingjournalists,seemtohaveachievedacceptance,WhitehouseandNVALA
weredislikedbymanywithintheindustry.
Causalattributioninan
environmentofmultipleactors
Evenwhentargetorganisations(includingsomeinbroadcasting)concededthatbroadcastershadahistoryofbeinglessthanreceptive
toactivistsand
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tochange,itwassuggestedthattargets
mightnotwanttoadmitthattheyhadcapitulatedtopressuregroup
demands.Ontheotherhand,therewererespondents,includingactivists,whoavoidedattributing
too
muchcredittopressuregroupinterventionbecauseofaconfluenceofinfluences,112ofwhichpressuregroupswerebutone.Sargant,113maintainingthat
theclimatein
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theUKwasconducivetochangesaid,
Howfaryoucanactuallysucceed...isanothermatter.
BBCSecretaryGraham100said,Itsasignofthetimes,notpressuregroups,
(thatthere)ismuchmoreemphasisinpublicservicesonmeasuringdelivery.EvenVLVsPorter103said,Itsalwaysdifficulttosay...what
weveachievedbecause
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quiteoftenintheseaffairsyoureforming
alliancesstrategicalliances.Intheclimateofaccountabilityfosteredbythe
CitizensCharter,114
publicinstitutionsandtheirmanagers(whohadbeenperceivedasunapproachable)
couldnowbemovedbyamultiplicityofvariables.Itwasmostprobablynotpossibletosaythatanygroupwassolelyresponsibleforchange.
Theexamplesabove
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activistoutcomesmayappeartobeattributable
toaparticulargrouporalliance,wheninfacttheyarenot,
isbecauseoftheconfluenceofinfluences112citedrepeatedlythroughoutthispaper.VLVs
Porter,whomighthavegivenVLVsolecreditforchanges,insteadreferredtothelargerimpactofmanyforcesoperatingintheenvironmentatthe
sametime.One
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oftheseforcesistheclimatefor
change,catalysedbytheCitizensCharter,anddescribedabovebySargant.Consequently,
althoughitwouldbedifficult,inmostcases,toidentifyoneprimemover
foranygivensuccess,manyofthebroadcastingactivistseffortsareatleastsuccessfulinacumulativesense.In
JournalofCommunicationManagement
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Thebroadcastingpublicsphere
addition,thegeneralclimateforchange(egtheCitizensCharter)orthe
prevailingpoliticalwillmayprovidesupportforactivists.Andsometimes,politicalwindswork
againstthatend.
Cangroupsengagelargerpublicsinbroadcastingandcantheydrivepoliticalwill?Hay102said:
Itsahuge
problemandit
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needsahugeeducationalcampaign,andweve
beentryingtodothisforyears...wehavent
hadtheresourcestodoit...asadequatelyaswe
shouldandwearehamperedby...thefactthatthepresswillonlyfocusonsensationandemotionalissues...
soitsvery
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difficulttogetreasoneddebateonthe
importanceoftheissues.
Hayunderscoredsomeofthedifficulties
inengagingthosepublicsinbroadcastingissues,evenwhenthoseissuesbearon
theaverageviewerandlistener.AlthoughCQTSecretaryMills12saidtheorganisationhadnointerestinmembershipoutreach,hehypothesisedthatinvolvingbroaderpublicsmight
bethemost
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significantthingCQTcoulddo.Thus,one
ponderstheelitenatureofbroadcastingactivism.Isitafunctionof
pragmatismorofexclusion?Theinabilitytosweepsociallyinclusivepublicsmaynot
signifyfailure.Respondents(includingStevenson144)argumentsthatgroupsmustberepresentative,iftheyaretohavevoicesinpolicyorprogrammingmatters,wouldbe,at
leastinpart,
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addressedbygreaterinclusiveness.Thislong-termgoal
isinsyncwithalong-termperspectiveoneffectiveness.
Long-term
perspectivesoneffectiveness
Sargantsaid,Onedoesntalwaysseesmall,precise
victories.113Rather,asreflectedinAppendixB,relationshipoutcomesaresignificantindicatorsofeffectiveness,workingincrementally
towardstargetresponsiveness,groupscredibilityandtheir
abilitycumulativelyto
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generatedebatearoundcompellingissues
forexample,universaldigitalaccess(in1997,merelyanemergentissue).
Relationshipsmayalsobesignificantwhenexaminingpressuregroupsimpactinothercontexts
orcultures.Overall,inacumulativesense,givencoregroupscredibilityandrelationshipoutcomes,whichaffecttheirabilitytogeneratedebate(asperAppendixB)
the1997rankings
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foreffectivenessmighthavebeen:VLV,CQT,
DBC,CA,NCCandNVALA.Thesewouldhavebeenapproximatepositionson
acontinuum,withvariancebothinrespondentsperspectivesbutalsowithinindividualresponses
(egJ.Isaacs111andR.Collins139conflictedviewsofNVALA).Amereknowledgeofeachgroupsstrategiesandsuccessinrelationshipswasbyfarthe
largestpredictorof
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whereitwasplacedontheeffectiveness
typology(seeAppendixB).Giventheemphasisinthattypologyonrelationship
building,accesstotargetsandinclusioninthelattersthought(ifnotdecision
making)processes,onecanlargelydeducetherationalefortheaboverankings.Forexample,VLVandtheconsumergroupshadmadealimitedlegislativeimpact,
yettheirnetworking
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andstrategicrelationshipbuildinghadaffordedthem
regularaccesstokeydecisionmakersandopinionleaders.Althoughtheyhad
notmovedpoliticianstoactontechnology-relatedlegislation,thesegroupsheraldedsomeless
desirableeffectsoftechnologyforcertainsectorsofsociety.Therippleeffectoftheirefforts,withinanenvironmentincreasinglyreceptivetoviewerandlistenerinput,
openeddebateand
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consultationaboutthedirectioninwhichdigital
broadcastingwouldleadBritain.Yet,therewasatleastonesubstantivereason
whytheconsumergroupsmightbeconsideredlesseffective.VLVonlyconsideredissues
ofcostand
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Kovacs
consumptioninasmuchas
theyhadanimpactondemocraticlifefromaculturalorsocial
perspective.Incontrast,fortheconsumergroups,broadcastingwassubordinatetotheiroverriding
concernwithvalueformoney/productqualityandthus,wasalessercommitment.VLVholisticallyfocusedonsuchissuesasthefutureofpublicservicebroadcasting
andqualitychildrens
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programming,aligningitmorecloselywiththose
targetsforwhombroadcastingrepresentednotonlyacommoditybutadeeply
embeddedsetofculturalvalues.Nevertheless,thewell-informedandwell-constructedargumentsof
bothVLVandtheconsumergroupsbolsteredgroupcredibility,asdidjointresearch101andstrategicrelationshipbuilding.CQTandDBCsurpassedtheconsumergroups,for
reasonsstatedbelow.
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CQT,asaproducer-basedgroup,
hadmoresolidfinancialsupportandoptionsthanothers.Itssupport,though,
wasbutonefactorinitssuccess;anotherwasitsreliableinformationabout
theBroadcastingAct.Itproducedaclear,consistentmessage88aboutqualityandmusteredthesupportofcelebritiesandpoliticians,includingDavidMellor,MinisterforBroadcasting.
Thegroupssingle
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legislativevictoryeffectedaqualitythresholdin
the1990BroadcastingAct.Onceitcameintoforce,CQTfadedfrom
thelimelight.Itthenappearedtobesingle-issuewithoutanissue,re-emergingwith
changedleadershipandengagedwithothersinadhocalliancesaboutqualityandaccessaspartofthecoalition,PublicVoice.
Inits
heyday,CQTrelied
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heavilyonaggressivemediarelations,whichwas
thestarkestcontrastbetweenitselfandDBC.Thelatter,asacoalition
ofdeafgroups,successfullyengagedintacticssuchasletterwriting,strategicrelationship
building,andtheeffortsofcredibleadvocates(egLordJackAshley,whoisdeaf).Itparticipatedin
aone-of-a-kind,systematic,nationalstudyby
ITC145ofthe
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qualityofsubtitlednewsprogrammes.Withmedia
coverage(bychoice)restrictedtomagazinesforthedeaf,itstillwon
asubstantivevictoryinthe1996BroadcastingAct,withamandatoryincreasein
subtitlingto50percentofallbroadcasts.
Theoneconspicuouslydifferent,paradoxicalgroupwasNVALA.Clearlythemostsensationalgroup,withenormous
tabloidcoverageand
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MaryWhitehouse,ahouseholdnameforover
adecade,itappliedpolitical,legalandmoralpressureasitassailed
broadcasters.Despitethis,itsadversarialstanceandlackoffinesseinrelationshipswith
itstargetsclearlyalienatedthem(Grahams100referencetobroadcastersbeinglabeledpornographersalludedtothis).Itcanthusbeseenthatforapressuregroup,
effectivenessanddegree
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ofmediaexposurearenotsynonymous.In
addition,respondentsfeltthatNVALAalsoreceivedpoormarksforthequality
oftheirarguments.Shaw,132forexample,insistedthatMaryWhitehouse...
doesntreallywanttobebetterinformed.Inhisview,shehadapoorunderstandingoftheprevailingpressuresonbroadcastersandhowthataffected
theirprogrammingand
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policychoices.RespondentsfeltthatWhitehousealienated
hertargets;therelationshipaspectfiguredmostprominentlyintheirnegativeassessments.
Inaddition,severalfeltWhitehousehadbeencooptedbythepresstorail
againstbroadcasters.Nonetheless,NVALAwascreditedwithraisingnationalconsciousnessaboutviolence.
IncomparingtheimpactofVLVandtheconsumergroupsto
thatofCQT
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andDBC,whichhadlimitedlegislativeimpact
butmadeconsiderableinroadsintobuildingstrategicrelationshipswithkeyopinionleaders,
theformergroupsthusraisedtheoveralllevelofbroadcastingdebatebeyonda
narrowsingleissue.DBCwas,is,andwillbepreoccupiedwithdeaf
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Thebroadcastingpublicsphere
access.CQTssingularfocuswasonquality.NCCs,CAs,andVLVsrelationship
building,whencombinedwithotheradvocacytacticsinpursuitofbroaderagendas,may
bemoreeffective,longterm,thanDBCsorCQTssingularlegislativevictories.GiventhatCAsandNCCsenergieswerenominallydevotedtobroadcasting,canbe
betterunderstoodthe
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rankings.
Itwasparticularlycomplex
toassesstheeffectivenessofCQT,giventhatitwas,in1997,
aratherlow-profileorganisation,notthecelebritygroupof1990.Wasthe1997
CQTdefunctorjustunderground?Howdoesonemeasureitasaproducer-ledgroupagainstviewerandlistenerandconsumergroups,evenwhenagendas(eg
quality)overlap?Thus,
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absolute,definitiverankingsofeachgroupwould
beinfeasible.
Theissueofpersonalbiasesmustalsobe
stronglyconsidered.ItwasclearthatNVALAandMaryWhitehouse,itsfounder,were
dislikedbymostrespondents,includingthosewhoconcededWhitehousesroleinthedebateonviolence.Theyfoundheralienating,poorlyinformedandobstinate,amongother
epithets.Incontrast,
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therewasnonotableantipathytowardsJocelyn
Hay,evenamongthosewhothoughtshewasineffective.Itisalways
possiblethatrespondentswereunabletoseparatetheirviewofthewomenfrom
theirviewsofthegroups.Itisalsopossiblethat,inthecaseofWhitehouse,theycouldnotdealwithsuchpolarisedviewsofbroadcasting,
evenwerethey
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tobeiteratedinaculturally-acceptableway.
Movingforwardtotheyear2000,thepapernowshowshowadvocacy
playsoutovertimeforNVALAandtheothers.
Issues,relationships,
andgroupsthatendure
Thedatagatheredin2000,bothoffsiteandonsiteattheVLVconference,withrepeat
intervieweesand
newones,further
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supportedthe1997findingsthatthosegroups
buildingsuccessfulrelationshipswouldbemostlikelytodrawattentiontoand
generatedebatearoundcompellingissues.IntervieweesinMay2000weretoldthatthe
focuswasonenduringissues,relationshipsandgroups.Repeatrespondentswerealsoaskedquestionsonstrategiesandimpactinordertoidentifyshiftingperceptions.
Anumber
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ofrespondentsatthe2000conferencewere
committedVLVmemberswhogreatlyrespectedJocelynHay,itschairman.Thus,personal
biasmayhavecolouredtheirassessments.Ontheotherhand,thesemembersbroadcasting
backgroundsandongoingindustryinterestsaddedtotheirowncredibilityaseducatedrespondents.Porter103refusedtocreditonlyVLVwithsuccess.Groombridge115said:
Ifyourelooking
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attheroleofthelobbygroups,
itwouldbeveryeasy,Ithink,foralobbygroupor
someonelikemyselfconnectedtoonetooverstatetheoverallsignificanceofthat.
Andinsofarasithasanysignificance,itispartlybecauseofallsortsofotherthingshappeninginthissocietyatthesametime.
Thus,
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VLVmembersputtheirloyaltybehindtheir
objectivity.Giventhatresearchwasconducted,inpart,ataVLVconference,
VLVwillleadthediscussionofenduringgroups.Firsttheissueswillbe
tracked.
Issuesthatendure
WhentheUKfollow-upbegan,Macdonald,116ITCLibrarian,enumeratedfourumbrellaareasofconcerninbroadcasting:
digital
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accessconsolidationofownershipaccess
forthedisabledpublicservicebroadcasting.#HenryStewartPublications1363254X
(2003)Vol.7,3209238JournalofCommunicationManagement
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Kovacs
Theserubricscovered
manycompellingissuesbutwerenotinclusive.Paterson117addedtothesethe
impactofrapidtechnologicalchangeonpeopleintheindustryandqualityof
output(althoughthedebateaboutqualityisfraughtwithlackofdefinition),regulatorychange(iemultiplevs.singleregulator),EUinitiativesonpublicservicebroadcasting,
andsocialinclusion
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(aVLVfocusandbuzzwordforuniversal
serviceandtherepresentationofunder/non-representedgroups).Broadcastingethicswasnotablyabsent
fromtheactivistagenda,saidPaterson.
Styles118identifiedthesameissues
asin1997,underscoringaneedforpluralisminmediaownership,accesstoqualitymediacontent(egnews),andaccesstotheInternet,includingthe
rangeofbroadband
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services,inausablehomeenvironment.Shaws119
issuewasthecontinuationofthelicencefee;whileSargant120citedglobalisation
acrossissues,theneedtokeepasmuchprogrammingaspossiblefree-toair,diverse/educational
programmingandthedecisiononacutoffdateforanalogueservicesasVLVfoci.Inthecurrentenvironment,everyonebecomesapressuregroup,(includingITV
andtheBBC)
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saidMacdonald,116forwhomglobalizationissueswere
centraltothebroadcastingactivistagenda.Franchiseownersregionalbroadcastingobligationswere
overshadowedbyconvergenceasthemainthrustofgovernmentpolicy(seeGreenPaper121).
Healy122notedtelevisionaccessforthehearingimpaired.Porter123sawtimeshifting(asaffectinginformedchoiceforviewersandlisteners),childrensprogramming,anddepictionof
environmentalissuesas
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compelling.Therewasgreateremphasisontechnological
aspectsofglobalisationthathaveeconomicandculturalimplicationsforbroadcastersand
citizens/consumers,asreflectedinVLVpaneltopics(egseparatingbroadcastingcontentfromcarriage).
Groombridge125
pointedtopoliticalcommunication,thatis,therelationshipbetweentelevisionandthegeneralelection,and,inparticular,whathesawasthe
inadequacyoftelevision
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forthattopic.Wherevoterturnoutis
importantandfewerpeoplearevoting,thenmakingcoveragepopularandgood
isessential.
Groupsframesofreferencewerereflectedintheagendas
theyassembled.Asin1997,CAandNCCpursuedconsumer-relatedbroadcastingissues(egaccess).AgeingmembersofVLVsupportedpublicservicevaluesaswell
asaccessand
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childrensprogramminginitiatives.DBCwasstillintent
onachievinghigherquotas,andimprovedtechnicalquality,ofsigningandsubtitling
services.CQTsmajorissueswerequalityanddiversityaspartofpublicservice
broadcastingvalues.Thedebateaboutthelicencefeewasongoing,butaclearlackofconsensusmarkedtheissue;NCC,VLVandCAdepartedfrom
theirunifiedstance
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onviewerandlisteneraccess;whereasVLV
andCAsupportedthefee,NCCsawitasaregressivetax.
Expandedandongoingstrategiesusedin2000
Overall,strategies
remainedthesameintheinterimbetweentheoriginalandfollow-upstudies(SeeAppendixA).Themostproductiveamongthemwereidentifyingandapproachingkey
publics,lobbyingin
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Parliamentandgovernment,engaginginmediaeducation
inselectvenues,usingmediaadvocacy(mosteffectivelywithcoverageinthe
broadsheetpressandcultivatingrespectedjournalists),publishingresearchand/orconferenceproceedings,formingcoalitions/ad
hocalliancesaroundcompellingissues,communicatinginternallyandthroughtheInternet,andbuildingrelationships.Thepetitionsandprotesttacticsthatwereoutoffavourin
1997werestill
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rarely,ifever,usedbybroadcastingactivists
in2000.Thesestrategiessometimesneededtobe
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Thebroadcastingpublicsphere
implementedininternationalvenues;concernsattheEuropeanlevelmeantthatmost
ofthegroups,includingNVALA,wereattunedtoandinteractingwithregulatorsand
policymakersinBrussels,wheremostoftheEU/EC-centeredbroadcastingdecisionmakingtakesplace.
Notableactivitywithregardtothegovernment,selectcommittees
andITCas
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regulator
Oneusefulbarometerof
pressuregroupactivity,atableoforganisationsthatarekeyplayersin
thegovernmentalpublicsphere,wasgiventotheauthorduringaninterviewwith
ITCLibrarianMacdonald.116ThetableliststhoseorganisationsthathavegivenoralevidenceorwrittensubmissionstovariousGovernmentCommitteesofInquiryorWhite/GreenPapers,
orHouseof
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CommonsSelectCommittees,orrespondedtoITC
consultationsonarangeofissues.146Underthecategoryconsumerorganisations,CA
gavewrittensubmissionsfourtimesbetween1977and1998toGovernmentCommitteesof
InquiryorGreen/WhitePapersandtwice(1997,1998)toSelectCommittees.IthadrespondedtothreeITCConsultations(twoofthemin1996).NCCswritten
submissionstoGovernment
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werefourbetween1977and1998and
thegroupwrotetoSelectCommitteesin1993and1998.Ithad
respondedtothreeITCconsultationsin1998.DBCdidnotgiveneitheroral
orwrittentestimonytotheGovernmentorSelectCommittee,butitdidrespondtofourITCconsultations,in1996,1997(twice)and1999.DBCsdifficulty
ingivingoral
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testimonymaybeunderstood.Interestingly,theCampaign
forQualityTelevisiononlyoncepresentedwrittenevidencetotheGovernment,in
1988(beforeitsbig1990BroadcastingBillcampaign)andonce,in1993,to
theSelectCommittee.IthadneverrespondedtoITCconsultations.Onemayconjecture
CQTsreasonforthis,giventhatthegroupislargely
comprisedofITV,
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orformerITVproducers.PerhapsCQTfelt
thatITCwasalreadyawareofitsviews.Interestingly,NationalViewersand
ListenersAssociationsthricepresentedwrittentestimonytotheGovernment:once(togetherwithoral
testimony)in1977,oncein1986,andfinallyin1998.ItsperiodofgreatestactivityappearstohavecoincidedwiththatofMaryWhitehouse.It
hasneverwritten
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totheSelectCommittee,norhasit
respondedtoITCconsultations.Intermsofthisstrategy,Voiceofthe
ListenerandViewer,throughoutvirtuallyitsentireexistence,hasbeenextremelyprolific.Between
1986(itwasfoundedin1983)and1998,itsubmittedwrittentestimonytotheGovernmentfourtimes.Italsogaveoralandwrittentestimonybefore
theSelectCommittee
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in1993and1997andwrote,without
oralpresentation,totheCommitteein1998.Whatisstrikingisthat
VLVrespondedtoeightITCconsultationsbetween19961999.Thataveragesouttotwo
responsesperyear.Itssubmissions,includingoralones,total17,whichisnearlydoublethoseofCAandNCC,thetwonextmostactivegroups
inthisvein,
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forthatperiod.Thisdoesnotrender
VLVbetterorworse,ormoreorlesseffectivethantheother
groups;itjustmakesthegroupmorevisibleandmorelikelytobe
consideredaviablepartofthepublicsphere.
GiventhatthisauthorsfirstdataweregatheredinJanuaryandFebruaryof1997,it
appearsthatthe
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coregroups,withtheexceptionofDBC,
haveoftentakentheopportunitytopresentwritten,andsometimes,oraltestimony
beforeGovernmentandSelectCommitteesandprepareresponsestoITCconsultations.Themost
concentratedactivitytookplacebetween1988and1998,whichcouldbeexplainedbytheexistenceofsevenbroadcastinginitiativesonthetableduring
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thisperiod,in
bothvenues.Nevertheless,itshowsthewillingnessofvirtuallyallthecore
groupstogetinvolvedandstimulategreaterpublicparticipationinthepublicsphere.
Thiscouldhavesignificantimpactonraisingthelevelofdebateaboutcompellingissuesandthus,thatsphereshealthyfunctioning.
AccordingtoMcCulloch,131
atleastseveral
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tacticalchangesoccurredwithVLV:1)paid
adsinTheGuardianattractedaudiencestoconferences,2)strategictargetingof
newmembersandwideningofthedebateoccurredatout-of-Londonvenues(University
oftheThirdAgeandatfiveBritishuniversities).Porter123underscoredhowgroupsinsocietyneedtoappreciatethemediassocialconstructioniethat
mediaispart
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ofcivilsocietyandthus,citizensneed
tobeeducatedaboutit.
Themoststrikingmodificationin
strategiesbetween1997and2000wastheexpandeduseofelectronictechnologiesby
activistsforactivism.Inparticular,theuseofWebsitesforpostingdocumentsandcalendars,communicationandrecruitmentpurposesbyallgroups(evenCQT,which,
in1997,had
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nointerestinoutreach)grewexponentially.Increased
penetrationofnewelectronictechnologiesmeantthatmoremembers,andpotentialmembers,
ofviewerandlistenergroups,aswellastheirtargetshadaccessto
computers.Therefore,Internetaccesstothesepublicsthroughe-mailsandWeb-basedfunctionsbecameamoreintegralpartofgroupoutreach,informationsharinganddata
gathering.Also,issues
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flaggedbydevelopmentsindigitalbroadcasting,which
hadbeenemergentin1997butweretrulysalientin2000,were
beingaddressedinconsultationsbyanumberofthegroups.Suchinformationwas
morereadilyavailableonwebsitesanddisseminatedbye-mailwhereappropriate.Inaddition,asinmanyotherrealmsofpressuregroupendeavours,activistscouldbe
moreeasily,
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rapidlyandeffectivelymobilisedthroughelectronic
communication.
Therealmsofendeavourforthesestrategiesmovedfrom
primarilylocal,UKregional,ornational,toEUregionalandglobalvenues.The
EuropeanAllianceofListenersandViewers(EURALVA),catalysedbyVLVsHay,representsviewersandlistenersgroupsintheUK,France,Spain,Portugal,Denmark,Finlandand
theNetherlands(as
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wellasassociategroupsinAustralia,Canada
andNewZealand)andlobbiesinBrusselsonbehalfofviewerand
listenerinterestsaffectedbyEUlegislation.HaytravelstoBrusselstolobby,as
havedonerepresentativesfromtheothercore,includingtheconsumer,groups.
WithdirectivesfromtheEUandinternationaltradeissuesontherise,
ithasbecome
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customaryforcross-channel,andevenglobalvisitors,
toreciprocate.The2000VLVconferencefeaturedrepresentativesfromtheDanishViewers
andListenersAssociation,variousECdirectorates(egtheDirectorGeneralforTrade),the
EBU,CouncilofEurope,theEuropeanParliamentandtheCommonwealthBroadcastingAssociation.ForVLV,atleast,advocacyin2000,asopposedto1997,entailedextensive
regionalandglobal
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relationshipsinsupportofBritishpublicservice
broadcasting.AttheVLV2000conference,speakersandactivists,suchasPorter,123
expressedconcernabouttheimpactofelectronicconvergenceondiversityandavailabilityof
broadcasting.PortermaintainedthattheexistenceoftheInternetshouldnotleadtodominancebymajorcompaniesandthattheWTOshouldbeusedto
fightagainstthis.
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Thecross-geographicpursuitofbroadcastingobjectivesnecessitates
British,includingconsumer,activists,consciouslyextendingthemselvestoandbuildingrelationshipswith
regionalandglobalalliesandtargetsiftheywishtoconstructandpreserve
thetypeof
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culturallydiversepublicspheredescribedearlier
inthispaper.Shaw119feltthattheUKshouldmaintainpublicservice
forumsasapropforcivilsociety.
Coalitionsandadhoc
alliancesamonggroupsappearedtohaveincreased;theendof2000sawthebirthofPublicVoice,acoalitionformedtohelppreservepublicservice
broadcasting,inwhich
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bothVLVandCQT,amongothergroups,
participateasmembersofitsSteeringCommittee.PublicVoicealsoaimedto
introduceanindependentcitizenbodytohelpensurethattheforthcomingdraftsof
thenewcommunicationsbill,includingprovisiononOFCOM,theproposednewsingleregulator,wouldrepresentthepublicinterest.NCC,CAandVLVstillworkedcollaboratively,
aswellas
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independently,onpolicyissues.SianHealy,BBC
CorporateRelations,describedJocelynHayasacriticalfriend122insupportingand
workingtogetherwiththeBBCinthelatestlicencefeereview.
Useofthepressvaried.AsHay124wasquicktopointout,thepressstillthrivedonnegativenews,andso,itwashardto
getthemto
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focusonanythingsubstantive.ToMcCulloch131the
factthatsexandsentimentsellandthatthepresswantonly
soundbitesandextremeviewsgetsinthewayofeffectivecoverage.Conferences
venuessuchasthosecreatedbyVLVwereonewaytogetthepresstotakenoticeofthegroup,saidHealy.122Despitethegrowing
involvementofactivists
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ontheglobalEuropeanandregionallevels,
Sargant120notedthatmuchactivismoccursonthelocalandregional(UK)
levelswithinlocalnewpapersandthatactivistsworklargelythroughthepressand
MPs.VLVsPorter123saidthatjournalistswereusedonlyoccasionally,intheeventthattheorganisationwantedtosettheagendawithissuestowhich
noonewas
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willingtolisten.Abundantpresscoverage,though,
wasstillnotasubstitute
Thebroadcastingpublicsphere
forbuildinglong-termrelationshipswithtargetsaroundsignificantissuesinbroadcasting.
Relationshipsthatendure
Clearlywhatyousayformsapattern.Itis(all)aboutrelationship-building.117
Thissectioniscalledrelationships
thatendurerather
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thanstrategiesthatendurebecauseitwas
stronglysuggestedthatrelationshipswereatthecoreofallstrategies.For
example,Paterson117pointedtoVLVsabilitytoidentifyandgettheattentionof
keyindividuals(egLordGeorgeThomson,aPatron),whoarethentakenseriouslyandusedtohelpthegroupdrawattentiontoitselfthroughmajor
events.Relationshipbuilding,
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hesaid,isparticularlyimportantgiventhe
revolvingdoorthroughwhichpeopleinthetelevisionindustrypass(especiallyin
broadcasting,and,inregulatoryorganisations)andrapidchangeintechnology,bothofwhich
mayaffectquality.
Relationshipsalsohavecrucialimpactonpresscoverage.Paterson117describedHayscultivationoflong-termrelationships,suchthatthepressfeels
comfortableenoughto
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ringherupforaquote.Sargants120
viewwasthatactivistsoftenoperateatthelocalandregionallevel,
workinglargelythroughthepress(localnewspapers)andMPs.Thisisasignificant
areainwhichNVALAfelldown.
Therelationshipdimensionsderivedfromthe1997datawerestillrelevant.Sharedinterestsbroughtmanyatarget
ordiverseset
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ofgroupstogether.Respectingtheconstraintsof
broadcasterswasstillparticularlyproblematicforinstance,SianHealy,122BBCCorporate
Relations,indicatedthatdisabilityactivistswouldhavelikedthebroadcasterstomovemore
quicklyinimplementingchange.ForHealy,broadcastersandpressuregroupsneededtoworktowardsrecognitionof
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mutualinterestsand
realisticgoalsandtimescales(egdeafgroupswant100percent
subtitlingimmediately,whentheBBChasahugedeficitofpeoplewiththose
skills).Healydescribedoutcomesasgenerallymorepositivewhentherelationshipisoneofconstructiveandconstantdialogue,suchaswhentheBBCmetwith
VLVsHayand
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Porterregardingthelicencefee.Wefelt
confidentthatwhenthepresswhentoJocelynforcomment,sheknew
ourpointofview.Inotherwords,Haywaswellinformedandcould
betrustedtorelateaccuratelytheBBCspositiontothepress.AccordingtoPaterson,117VLVwasthemostadvancedinitsthinkingaboutthenew
communicationsbilland
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wouldgetthemostsympathetichearingwithin
thegovernmentandwithinpublicservicebroadcasting.Ithadrespondedtoevery
relevantconsultation.
AverypublicVLV
Overtheprevious
threeyears,VLVhasbuiltupcredibilitybeyondanybodysexpectations,saidSargant.120Buttherehavebeensoberingmoments.Wearereachingaplateau,saidVLVs
Porter,123asregards
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manpowerandresources.Asidefromconsultations,it
hasbeenheavilyengagedinbroadcastingatthepan-European,nationaland,
morerecently,globallevels(VLVappliedforNGOstatus124andHaywentto
Seattleduringthe1999WTOmeetings).Itscredibilityandfinesseinbuildingrelationshipsallowedittomountarelativelysophisticateddefenseofpublicservicebroadcasting.
117Porter123cited
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additionalvariablescontributingtoVLVsuccess,including
itsuseofthemediatosettheagenda,facilitatedbystrategic
relationshipbuilding.Everyonetruststhem,saidGroombridge.125Thevalueofgainingtargetstrust
andrespectingtheirconstraintsclearlyaffectsrelationships.Haysaid:
Intheend,youdontgetanywhereifyouconfront.Ifyourenotcareful,
youpushpeople
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intoacorner,especiallypowerfulpeople.
.
.youdontgettobepowerfulunlessyouredominating.
..provideface-savingarguments,youachievealot...
Wearemorereasonablethanotherpressuregroups.124
Cooptationandtheactivistagenda
Asdiscussedearlier,effectiveactivismraisesseveralcogent
issuesthatrelate
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totheintegrityofactivistgroups.Groups
thatarerespectedbyandgetalongwiththeirtargetsareinvited
backbythelattertheyarerewardedforbeingreasonablebybeing
askedtoconsult,bybeinginvitedtoeventshostedbythetarget,andbyhavingthetargetsrepresentativeattendorspeakattheactivistsevents.
Whensuchclose
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cooperationoccurs,onemightaskwhethersuccessful
adjustmentsbypressuregroupstotargetsexpectationssubtlytearatthegroups
agendaorweardownitsintegrity.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthesebroadcasting
activistsmayhavebeenunwittinglyorevenwillinglymanipulatedtomeettargetsagendas.Afewrespondentsproposedthatcoregroupsmayhaveactedasmouthpieces
fortheirtargets
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orotherwisecompromisedtheirgoals.Forexample,
MaryWhitehousesNVALAwasaccused,in1997,ofbeingusedbythe
presstowhipuppublicsentimentagainstbroadcasters,96withwhomthepapershad
arivalry.Theextentofriskforthecoregroupswasunclear,buthistoricalprecedentsforcooptationofactivistgroupsexist.Boththepoliticalscience
literatureandcross-cultural
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developmentssuggestedthatsuccessfulpressuregroupshave
beenabsorbedorcooptedbyinstitutionstheysoughttochange.Barlik126indicated
thatassoonasPolishdissidentgroupshaveachievedtheirgoals,theyare
absorbedaspoliticalparties.Etzioni-Halevys127discussionofthecooptation/absorptionofpressuregroups
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Thebroadcastingpublicsphere
pertainedtoWesterndemocraciesandwasinpartinformedbyherearlier,
thoroughanalysisoftheUKbroadcastingsystem.128Coregroupssoughttofurtherpublic
servicevalues,ademocraticpublicsphere,standardsoftasteanddecency,theconsumerinterestandqualityanddiversityinbroadcasting.Politicalcloutwasonlya
meanstothe
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endofbroadcastingchange.TheBBCsSteel129
haddiscussedabsorptionintheUK:
Idontunderestimatethe
extenttowhichinthiscountrythingsdonthappenbydirectactionof
theconsumerupontheprovider,butbyabsorptionintovariousinstitutional,orquasi-institutionalwaysofmanagingevents...ThewaytheVoiceof
theListenerand
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Viewergotsortofincorporatedintothe
discussion...wasbyinvolvementinapilotgroup.
..thatisaverycharacteristicwayinwhich...
youmightsaygrassrootsactivismiskindofabsorbedthroughofficialsintoofficialchannels...itisanotablefeatureofthiscountry,
ascontrastedwith
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theUS,thattoalargeextent,
itwillbemediatedthroughinstitutionsorlargelyinstitutional-lookingarrangements.
Onecouldhypotheticallyextendthenotionofcooptation/absorptiontoconsultations,testimonyat
SelectCommitteehearingsandanynumberofactivitiesinvolvingactivistinput.Tolabelallthosevenuescooptationseemsabitextreme,butanytimeatarget
raisesthebar
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forbehaviourleadingtoactivistacceptance,then
thetargetisdefiningthetermsoftherelationship.Ontheother
hand,effectiveactivistgroupsmaynegotiate,buttheydonotnecessarilycave.Nevertheless,
perceptionsofriskofabsorption/cooptationforactivistsstillprevail.Paterson117(callinghiscommentsabitunfair)suggestedthatVLVisoftenaneutralconduitfor
BBCpropaganda.Others
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proposedthatthegroupservesauseful
functionfortheBBC.GiventhecitizenparticipationaspectofBritishpolitical
culture,7274this
wasprobablynot
absorption/cooptationasdefinedbyEtzioni-Halevy127and
Barlik.126TheUKdoesnotnecessarilyconformtothepostcommunistmodel,wherecollaborationwithofficial,includingmedia,institutions,stronglyimpliedabsorption.NCCsgovernmentfundingis
notproofof
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itscooptation.Hay102andothergroupleaders
knewtheriskswellandjudiciouslyguardedagainstthem.Nevertheless,itwas
anenormouschallenge.OneisremindedofIsaacs111commentthatanygroupthat
tellsitstargetoritsconstituentsithasachievedallitsgoalswillbeputimmediatelyoutofbusiness.Itisironicthatthetrue
testofsuccess
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forasingle-issuegroupmaybewhen
itplantstheseedsofitsowndemise.Sometimes,itwasharder
forgroupstoplanttheseedsfortheirownperpetuity.
Heeding
thecallfromwithin
Anotherconcernregardingpressuregroupswastheirinternalpublics.Althoughthe1997studyfocusedonpressuregroupsrelationshipswith
theirexternalpublics,
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itwasclearby2000thatgroups
internalrelationshipsfactoredheavilyintogroupstrategiesandimpact.Porter103andother
VLVmembers
consulted119,120,123,125,131
concededthatplansforVLVsinternal
structureandHayssuccessionwereimportant,butthatfocusingprematurelyonthem,eventhoughtheorganisationwashighlydependentonherleadership,woulddetractfrom
groupgoals.Similarly,
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NVALAsmarginalisation(or,saidPaterson117irrelevance)was
based,inpart,onlackofastrongsuccessorafterWhitehousesretirement,
itsreputationforbeingill-informedandintolerant,123anditsalienationofkeyindividuals
intargetpublics.100
Groupsthatendure:Astatusreport
Allgroupsatthetimeofthefollow-upfieldworkwereactivelypursuing
their
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agendas,andCQT
seemedtohavebeenre-energisedbyitsresearcheffortsandnewleadership.
Intervieweesin1997and2000suggestedthattheall-issuegroupswouldfarebetter
overtimethanthesingle-issueones.Thisbeggedthequestionofhowtodefineall-issue.CAandNCCwereall-issueintermsofoverall
consumerissues,but
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theyonlyaddressedviewersandlistenersas
consumers.Incontrast,VLVhadoccasionallybeencalledasingle-issuegroupwith
theheadingpublicservicebroadcasting,butabroaderfocusontheviewer/listeneras
citizenissuesopeneduparangeofissues.CQT(quality,includingdiversity),DBC(access)andNVALA(taste/decency)qualifiedassingle-issuegroups.Theallvs.single-issue
classificationwasnot
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aclearpredictorofsuccessifone
weretofollowthe1997grouprankings(seesectiononeffectiveness,above).
Thatmay,inpart,havebeenattributabletothedilemmaofclearlydefining
singlevs.all-issueandinevaluatingthebroadcastingcontributionsoftheconsumersgroups,whosefociweremainlyrelatedtocostandproductquality.Below,
summaryevaluationsof
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groupstrategies/resultsaregiven.
The
consumersgroups
CAandNCC,respondentsnoted,sometimesalliedwith
eachotherandVLVandoftenoperatedindependently.Althoughtheywerenotknown
fortheirdynamicleadershiportheirideologicalcommitmenttopublicservicevalues,theyprovidedcredibleresearch,funding,andpromotedvalueformoney.114NCCsfree-marketorientation
broughtfairmarket
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valuestoitsengagementwithbroadcastingissues,
Porter123said.Aloneandintandem,theconsumergroupssucceededincalling
attentiontocriticalissueslikeaccessandcostandqualityofdigitalbroadcasting
hardware/software.Forthem,Internetuse(websites)andpublicationsstrengthenedtheirabilityto
providecredibleinformationtotheiraudiences.Mediaadvocacyandlobbyingeffectively
laidouttheir
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agendaitemstotargets,andstrategicrelationship
buildingandallianceshelpedthemtothengettheseitemsdebated,if
notlegislated.
DBC
Thispermanentcoalitioncontinuedtopersevere
andsucceedinincreasingdeafaccesstosigningandsubtitlingandimprovedtechnicalqualityofbroadcastingservices.Thegroupslimiteduseofthemediadid
notimpairits
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success.Instead,itsuccessfullymobiliseditsconstituent
publicsthroughitsMailshotnewsletterandconferencescombinedwitheffectiveletterwriting.
Itislikelytosurvive,atleastshortterm,becauseofitsongoing
determined,assertive,strategicrelationshipbuildingwithbroadcasters,politicians,andpolicymakers.AccordingtoHealy,122PartIIIoftheDisabilityDiscriminationAct133andITC8changeswill
increasebroadcastersaccountability
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tothehearingimpairedandtheblind
(inpart,throughaudiodescriptionrequirements).TheBBCwaspressedtodouble
thecurrentsubtitlinglevel(50percent)byNovember,2008andinMay,
2000,thoughnotobligatedtodoso,itbegantosign1percentofallprogrammes(eighthoursperweekdigital/analogue)matchingITCs
levelfordigital
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terrestrialtelevision.Currently,DBChasaraison
detre.Whensubtitlingreaches100percentandsigningisatthe
maximumlevelthatbroadcasterscanhandle,oneknowsnotwhatwillholdthe
grouptogether,ifnotfornewtechnologiesthataffectdeafaccess.
CQT
ThefutureofCQTislessclear.Spearheadedin
2000bythe
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zealousnessofRayFitzwalter,asitwas
in1990bySimonAlbury,itsstrategyofconductinganddistributingcredible
research130,147hasbolstereditsreputation.Nevertheless,ifit
JournalofCommunication
ManagementVol.7,3209238#HenryStewartPublications1363254X(2003)
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Thebroadcastingpublicsphere
continuesasproducer-drivenandoriented,usingpastartisticanddocumentaryachievementsas
itsyardstick,anddoesnotreachouttoabroadermembership,asMills12
predicted,thenitisunlikelytohaveawiderimpact,evenintermsofpublicdebat