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The Bomb Test Programs1946 - 1963
Art work by Grant Powell
Between 16 July 1945 and 23 September 1992 the United States of America conducted (by official count) 1054 nuclear tests, and two nuclear attacks. Whatare the reasons and results?
List of US atmospheric Bomb tests
Operation Year Location #
Crossroads 1946 Bikini Atoll 2
Sandstone 1948 Enewetak Atoll 3
Ranger 1951 Nevada Test Site 5
Greenhouse 1951 Enewetak Atoll 4
Buster-Jangle 1951 Nevada Test Site 7
Tumbler-Snapper 1951 Nevada Test Site 7
Ivy 1952 Enewetak Atoll 2
Upshot-Knothole 1953 Nevada Test Site 11
Castle 1954Bikini Atoll
Enewetak Atoll6
Teapot 1955 Nevada Test Site 14
Wigwam 1955 Pacific Ocean 1
Pacific Atolls and Nevada desert areas
Project 56 1955 Nevada Test Site 4
Redwing 1956Bikini AtollEnewetak Atoll
17
Plumbbob 1957 Nevada Test Site 30
Project 58 1957 Nevada Test Site 2
Project 58 A 1958 Nevada Test Site 2
Hardtack I 1958Bikini AtollEnewetak AtollJohnston Island
35
Argus 1958 South Atlantic 3
Hardtack II 1958 Nevada Test Site 37
Nougat1961-1962
Nevada Test Site 32
Dominic(with Fishbowl)
1962Christmas IslandJohnston IslandCentral Pacific
36
Storax(with Sunbeam and Roller Coaster)
1962-1963
Nevada Test SiteNellis Air Force Range
56
316 tests until October 10, 1963; Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
Preparation of PopulationTest program needed psychological preparation of populationdown-playing internal impact while up-playing external enemy
familiarizing population and society through media & propaganda
The Commies are coming, the Commies are coming!
The Red Nightmare:Federally funded propaganda film. The tale of an ordinary American town and its life as a Communist satellite, with everyone becoming emotionless automations.
Invasion, USA is the key cold war 'scare' picture. Unlike pacifist weepies such as Arch Oboler's Five, this show depicts a Soviet Union so aggressive, SenatorJoe McCarthy wouldn't recognize it.
The Fear Factor
Comic Book Industry
Presenting violence and horror with “the good guys” beating “the bad guys”
The American Hero at the End of Times
No doubt or criticism was voiced in media, film, and popular literature towards arms race, weapons development and testing!
Duck and Cover
Training to be prepared and to accept the “unavoidable”!
The public warning system
Preparation and Shelter
Public shelter and warning system was installedPurchasing private “atomic bunker” system became big business. Business based on fear and false information.
CAT 25 Military Shelter $186,400.00
Hatch Dome Class I -------------
Food/Fuel Package Included
Communications Package Included
Solar charging option $ 950.00
Manual Septic Pump/25 feet hose Included
Air Blower (spare) Included
45 AMP Battery Charger Included
Product On Site Assembly, Installation, Delivery Quoted
Total Order - NH has no sales tax
50% Down Payment - check or wire transfer only
Balance Due 10 days Prior to Shipping Payment by check or wire transfer See Conditions Of Sale - Cancellation Fee is 20% of order.
Back in business?
But there were limits …
To realistic movies and or satire was suppressed or forbiddento avoid the generation of criticism and/or panic reactions.
Nukes as business motivatorMarch 1, 1954 Hydrogen Bomb test on Bikini Atoll;Louis Réard, thought his daring new swimsuit would have an impact comparable to the impact of the bomb.
Fall-Out Pattern
Crater
Nukes became normal part of everybody’s life
But accidents occurred and criticism grew slowly but surely!
The Nature of the Blast
Kind and shape of blasts Blast effects, range & damage Thermal effects Radiation effects
The results of the weapons test programs
Blast—40-60% of total energy Thermal radiation—30-50% of total energy Ionizing radiation—5% of total energy Residual radiation (fallout)—5-10% of total energy
Classifications of blasts Surface Blast:
fireball in touch with surfacevaporization of surface structures through blastand firestorm, immediate radioactive fallout
High Altitude Air Blast: fireball > 100,000 ft (>3000m)interrupts satellite based communicationthrough electromagnetic pulse (EMP)
Low Altitude Air Blast:fireball < 100,000 ft (without touching ground)generates shock waves, pressure differenceartificial for large areal damage, sea battle
Subsurface Blast:Underwater burstgenerates surge
Surface Blast – the fireball
Central temperature: ~10,000,000 KImmediate vaporization of material!Central pressure: ~33000 atm
Radiation release & absorption in surrounding matter generates red-glow intense luminosity. Expansion of fireball through internal pressure Fireball rises like hot air balloon
StokesAugust 1957
1500 Foot Balloon19 kt
Fireball expansion
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Pressure evolution within the fireball:
Initial expansion speed vcs is the speed of sound in the vaporized gas is the specific heat ratio of the gas
Five times earth gravitation escape velocityte
mpe
ratu
re
pressure
The shock front developmentAfter ~10 second the fireball expands with constant rate of ~300 ft/s
After ~ 1minute fireball has cooled and radiation emission ceases!
18 ms
16 ms
6ms
90 ms
109 ms
15.0 s
General Features – the mushroom the emergence of the mushroom shape
Absorption of cool airtriggers fast toroidal circulation of hot gases and causes upwardmotion forming the stem and mushroom.
Condensation of water changes red brownish color ofcloud towards white!
Strong upward windDrags dirt and debrisInto the cloud mixingwith radioactive material
Cloud rises in heightwith ~ 440 ft/s
Evolution of Mushroom cloud
Dirt
Cloud AltitudeMaximum altitude for cloudrise is reached after ~ 4min. RATE OF RISE OF THERADIOACTIVE CLOUD FROM a I-MEGATON AIRBURSTHeight Time Rate of Rise(miles) (min) (mph) 2.0 0.3 330 3.0 40.7 270 4.0 61.1 220 5.0 102.5 140 6.0 123.8 27
Cloud height & cloud radiusdepend on the magnitude ofthe explosion, increase ofboth radius & height scaleswith explosion yield.