Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1810012ARTICLES THE" ~ L U EWALLOF SILENCE"ASEVIDENCEOFBIASAND MOTIVETOLIE:ANEWAPPROACHTOPOLICEPERJURY .. Gabriel J.Chin* ScottC.Wells** Ah,thecopsarefarmorecomplexthan. criminals.Fortheycontainexplosivecon-tradictionswithinthemselves.Supposedtobelaw-enforcers,theytendtoconceive of themselvesasthelaw.Theyaremoreresponsiblethantheaverageman,they aremoreinfantile.Theyare attachedumbilicallytotheconceptofhonesty,they areprofoundlycorrupt.Theypossessmorephysicalcouragethantheaverageman, theyareunconscionablebullies;theyservethetruth,theyarepsychopathicliars (nocop'stestimonyisevertobetrustedwithoutcorroboration);theirworkisau-thoritarian, theyarecynical;andfmally,if somethingin their heartisdeeplyideal-.istic,theyarealsobloatedwithgreed.Thereisno humancreationsocontradictory, sofinallyenigmatic,as thecharacterof theaveragecop. 1 I.INTRODUCTION Fromtheperjuryconvictionof formerLos AngelesPoliceDetective * AssistantProfessor,WesternNewEnglandCollegeSchoolof Law(untilSpring1998);Asso-ciateProfessor,UniversityofCincinnatiCollegeof Law(asof Fall1998).B.A.,WesleyanUniver-sity;J.D.,MichiganLawSchool;LL.M.,YaleLawSchool.E-mail:gchin@aya.yale.edu. **ManagingEditor,WesternNewEnglandLawReview.B.S.,Universityof Connecticut;J.D., WesternNewEnglandCollegeSchoolof Law.E-mail:scwells@worldnet.att.net.Theviewsex-pressedinthisarticlearethoseof theauthorsalone,andarenotnecessarilyattributabletoanypast, present,or futureclientsor employers.TheauthorsaregratefultoJohnQ.Barrett,MichaelDinner-stein,AnneGoldstein,ScottHowe,ChrisIijima,DavanMaharaj,BarryStemandValorieVojdik for theircomments. 1.NormanMailer,TheGreat American Mystery:ANewDissent ontheMethodsand Findings of theWarrenCommission,BooKWEEK,Aug.28,1966,at1,12. 233 Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1810012234UNIVERSITYOFPITTSBURGHLAWREVIEW[Vol.59:233 MarkFuhrman,2 torevelationsthatFBICrimeLaboratoryofficerstai-loredtheirtestimonyincriminalcases, 3 severalhigh-profilescandals haveunderscoredtheproblemof policeperjuryincriminalprosecutions. 4 In1994,theMollenCommission,5 appointedtoinvestigatepolicemis-conductinNewYork,reportedthatpolice"falsification"-whichin-cludes"testimonialperjury,...documentaryperjury,...andfalsifica-tionofpolicerecords "-!s oneofthemostcommonformsofpolice corruption facingthenation'scriminaljusticesystem.6 In fact,theMollen CommissionindicatedthatinNewYork,"the practiceof policefalsifica-tion...issocommonincertainprecinctsthatithasspawneditsown word:'testilying.'"7 Theproblemhasbeenidentifiedinmanypartsof 2.See,e.g.,Editorial;Fuhrman'sPerjuryRevisited,S.F.CHRON.,Oct4,1996,atA26;Jim Newton&StephanieSimon,BothSidesGainAdvantagesbyCuttingaDeal,L.A.TIMEs,Oct.3, 1996,atAl. 3.See,e.g.,GaryFields,InspectorDefendsFBICrimeLab,USATODAY,May14,1997,at 6A(reportingallegationsof carelessworkandperjuredtestimonybyFBIlabemployees);Richard A.Serrano,MisconductAllegationsAriseinFBILabProbeInquiry,L.A.TIMEs,Jan.30,1997,at A 1(reportingthatFBIlabofficialssaidthattheywerepressuredbyagentstofabricatescientific findingstosupportcriminalprosecutions).See . generallyU.S.DEP'TOFJusTICE,OFFICEOFTilEIN-SPECTORGENERAL,THEFBILABORATORY:ANINvEsTIGATIONINTOLABORATORYPRACTICESANDAL. LBGEI)MlSCONDUCTINEXPLOSIVES-RELATEDANDOTHERCASES(Apr.1997) (comprehensivereportis-suedbytheOfficeoftheInspectorGeneralpursuantto18-monthinvestigationofalleged wrongdoingandimproperpracticesof theFBl CrimeLab). 4.Examplesof suchscandalsinclude:officersof theNewYorkPoliceDepartment's30thPre-cinctwhoengagedinillegaldrugactivity,perjury,andframe-upsof innocentcitizens,see,e.g., DavidKocieniewski,PerjuryD i v i d e ~Special Report,N.Y.TIMEs,Jan.5,1997,1,atA1;po-liceinvestigatorsinTroopsCandFinupstateNewYorkwhowereconvictedandimprisonedfor fabricationof fmgerprintevidenceandperjury,whichtaintedatleast36casesfrom1983to1992, see,e.g.,FormerInvestigatorGetsYearinJail forTampering,PosT-STANDARD(Syracuse),May20, 1995,atA7;Jolm O'Brien&ToddLighty,PointingtheFingerof Blame,SYRACuSEliBRALD J., Feb. 4,1997,atA7;StatePoliceLieutenantGetsPrison forLying,BUFFALONEws,Sept.9,1993,at A17;formerassistantprosecutorsandsheriff'sdeputiesof DuPageCounty,lllinois,accusedof con-spiringtowrongfullyconvict twoHispanicmenof murder-the twomenspentcloseto10yearson deathrow,see,e.g.,DonTerry,Ex-Prosecutorsand DeputiesinDeathRowCaseareChargedwith FramingDefendant,N.Y.TIMEs,Dec.13,1996,atA18;andofficersinPhiladelphiawhobeatand robbedresidentsof apoor,African-Americansectionofthecity,andthenfabricatedevidenceand liedagainsttheresidentsincourt, .resultinginat least 50bogusdrugconvictions,whichweresubse-quentlyoverturned,see,e.g.,Det.Vermin:EvenWorseThanHisRacismistheDamagethatCops LikeFuhrmanDototheSystem,NEWSDAY,Aug.31,1995,atA38;DavidShipler,LivingUnder Suspicion,N.Y.TIMEs,Feb.7,1997,atA2. 5.SeeREPORTOFTilECOMMISSIONTOINvEsTIGATEALLEGATIONSOFPOUCBCoRRUPriONAND THEANn-CORRUPriONPROCBDURBSOFTilEPOUCEDEPARTMENT(July7,1994)[hereinafterMoi.J.BN COMMISSION](MiltonMollen,Chair),reprintedin6NEWYoRKCITYPOUCBCORRUPriONINVESTIGA-noNCoMMISSIONS,1894-1994 (GabrielJ.Chined.,1997)[hereinafterCHIN]. 6.MOLLBNCOMMISSION,supranote5,at 36. 7./d.Thewordappearsinat leastsomeversionsof thereportitself as"testifying,"withanF ratherthananL.However,itisclearthatthereportcontainsatypographicalerror,andwasmeant Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=18100121998]BLUEWALLOFSILENCE235 thecountry,particularlyNewYork,8 LosAngeles,9 Chicago,10 andother largecities.11 Whiletheprecisescopeandpervasivenessof policeperjury onanationallevelhasbeenthesubjectof debate,12 thereis"a wide-tobe"testilying."See,e.g.,MorganCloud, Judges,"Testilying,"and theConstitution,69S.CAL.L. REv.1341,1352(1996)(quotingreportasusingword"testilying"). 8.See,e.g.,DavidA.Harris,FriskingEverySuspect:TheWitheringofTerry,28U.C.DAVIS L.REv.1,35-36(1994)(notingtheMollenCommission's fmdingsthatpoliceperjuryinNewYork iscommon,widespread,andaccepted);FredKaplan,NYCPoliceAccusedof Patternof Brutality, BosTONGLOBE,June27,1996,at8(notingreportbyAmnestyInternationalwhichaccusedNew YorkPoliceDepartmentof abusesperpetuatedbyacodeof silence);Kocieniewski,supranote4, 1,at A1(accordingtooneNewYorkpoliceofficer,"lyingunderoathwasstandardprocedure"); SelwynRaab,TheUnwrittenCodethatStopsPolice fromSpeaking,N.Y.TIMEs,June16,1985, 4, at 6(recognizingNewYork'spolicecodeof silence,andreportingtestimonybeforeaStateSenate committeewhichindicatedthatthecodeof silenceisanoldtradition'inallpoliceforces"). 9.See,e.g.,MauraDolan, JurySystemisHeldin LowRegard by Most,L.A.TIMEs,Sept.27, 1994,at A1(40%of LosAngelescounty residentspolledbelievethat"policeofficerscommonlylie onthewitnessstand");JimNewton,KingCaseProsecutorsGambleonEyewitnessTestimony,L.A TIMEs,Mar.7,1993,at1(assertingthat discrepanciesinpolicerecollectionof eventsof Kingbeat-ingareevidenceof apolice codeof silenceusedtothwartinvestigationof thebeating). 10.See,e.g.,MyronW.Orfield,Jr.,Deterrence,Perjury,andtheHeaterFactor:AnExclu-sionaryRuleintheChicagoCriminalCourts,63U.CoLO.L.REv.75,96(1992)(policeperjuryin Chicago"unquestionably"occurs);MyronW.Orfield,Jr.,TheExclusionaryRuleand Deterrence: An EmpiricalStudyof ChicagoNarcoticsOfficers,54 U.CHI.L.REv.1016,1018(1987)[hereinafter Orfield,TheExclusionaryRuleandDeterrence](notingthatpoliceperjuryinChicago"clearly exists"). 11.SeeCloud,supranote7,at1346-47(discussingnewsreportsaddressingpolicefalsifica-tioninPhiladelphia,LosAngelei,Atlanta,NewOrleans,Detroit,andMinneapolis,andstatingthat policemisconduct,includingperjury,"is anationalproblemandhasbeenfordecades");JosephD. McNamara,HastheDrugWarCreatedanOfficerLiars'Club?,L.A.TIMEs,Feb.11,1996,at M1 (notingrecentperjuryscandalshavesurfacedinpolicedepartmentsinLosAngeles,Boston,New Orleans,SanFrancisco,Denver,NewYork,and otherlarge cities);A1Neuharth,OJ., Jewell Lesson: Testifiers,Testiliars?,USA TODAY,Dec.13, 1996, at 15A ("[I]nsome major cities,perjury bypolice isbecomingashtick.");seealsoCloud,supranote7,at1347(notingallegationsof perjuryby membersof FederalBureauof Investigationcrimelaboratorytosecurecriminalconvictions). 12.SeeDonaldA.Dripps,Police,PlusPerjury,EqualsPolygraphy,86J.CRIM.L&Clu:MI-NOLooY693,698(1996)(assertingthattheincidenceof policeperjuryiscommon);Harris,supra note8,at 36(notingthepervasivepracticeof policeperjuryinNewYorkisprobablynodifferent elsewherearoundthenation);MartinA.Schwartz,Admissibilityof InvestigatoryReportsin1983 CivilRightsActions---AUser'sManual,19 MARQ.L.REv.453,454(1996)("Fromcoasttocoast, commissionsandinternalaffairsunitsarebeingemployedtoinvestigateallegationsof lawenforce-mentmisconduct andcorruption!');Comment,PolicePerjuryinNarcotics"Dropsy"Cases:ANew CredibilityGap,60Goo.U. 507,507(1971)(recognizinga"growing problem of police perjuryin casesinvolvingnarcoticsarrests,.);AlanM.Dershowitz,ControllingtheCops;AccomplicestoPer-jury,N.Y.TIMES,May2,1994,at A17(suggestingthat policeperjuryinthecriminal justicesystem ispervasive);AlanDershowitz,Police Perjury IsRampant,ROCHESTERTIMEsUNION,Mar.27,1995, atA6[hereinafterDershowitz,PolicePerjuryIsRampant](purportingthatallobjectivestudieson thetopicof police perjury indicatethat"the problemof pervasivepolice perjury isrampant in every majorcityinthecountry");LarryReibstein,UpAgainsttheWall,NEWSWEEK,Sept.4,1995,at24 (indicatingthat,accordingtodefenseattorneys,policeperjurycommonlyoccurs);DarleneRicker, BehindtheSilence:DoesSocietyCondonePoliceBrutalityinExchangeforGettingCriminalsOff 236UNIVERSITYOFPITTSBURGHLAW .REVIEW[Vol.59:233 spreadbelief thattestilyingisafrequentoccurrence''throughoutthena-tion.13Thoughlargelyanecdotal,theevidenceiscompellingthat,asNew theStreets?,A.B.A.J.,July1991,at46(quotingadeputydistrictattorneyintheLosAngeles CountyD.A.'sofficeasstating,"'Sure,copshavegottenupthereonthestandandliedormade misstatements'").ButseeCRIMINALJusTICESEcriON,AMERicANBARAss'N,CRIMINALJusTICEIN CRISIS:AREPORTTOTHEAMERICANPEoPLEANDTHEAMERICANBARONCRIMINALJUSTICEINTHE UNITEDSTATFS:SOMEMYTIIS,SOME REALITIES,ANDSoMEQUESTIONSFORTHEFUTURE21-22(1988) [hereinafterCRIMINALJuSTICEINCRISIS](concludingthat theproblemof testilyingis"isolated"and observingthat"noonehasestablishedthepervasivenessofthepractice(]");EdwardG.Mascolo, ImpeachingtheCredibilityof Affidavits forSearchWarrants:PiercingthePresumptionof Validity, 44CoNN.BJ.9,10n.8,29n.97(1970)(assertingthat fewcasesexistonpoliceperjurybecauseof theinfrequentoccurrenceof perjury);KevinR.Reitz,TestilyingasaProblemof CrimeControl:A ReplytoProfessorSlobogin,67 U.CoLO.L:REv.1061,1062(1996)(suggestingthatoneshould viewclaimsattestingtothecertaintyof theincidenceof testilyingsuspiciously,because"[w]e know ...nothingaboutthetestilying'rate,'itsvariationsacrossandwithinpolicedepartments,its changesovertime,or its etiology");Reibstein,supra,at 25(notingthatalthoughLAPDofficersad-mit thatperjuryoccurs,theydenywidespreadabuse). 13.Christopher Slobogin,Testilying:PolicePerjuryandWhattoDoAbout It,67U.CoLO.L. REv.1037,1041(1996);seealsoUnitedStatesexrei.Petillov.NewJersey,400F.Supp.1152, 1179(D.N.J.1975)(notingthat"[b]othcommentatorsandcourtshaverecognizedtheincidenceof policeperjuryincriminalproceedingsofalltypes"),vacatedandremandedsubnom.Albanesev. Yeager,541F.2d275(3dCir.1976);AlanM.Dershowitz,PolicePerjury?"I'mShocked!,"inTHE ABusEExcusE233(1994)(suggestingthat"recent disclosuresaboutrampantpoliceperjurycannot possiblycomeasanysurprise"tothosewhohavepracticedcriminallawinstateor federalcourts); ALANM.DERSHOWITL,THEBESTDEFENSEatxxi-xxii(1983)("Almostall policelieaboutwhether theyviolatedtheConstitutioninorder to convict guilty defendants.");H.RICHARDUvn.LER,VIRTUAL JusTICE131(1996)(arguingthat"todayvirtuallyeverycopisaccusedofperjurybythedefense ....[T]hepossibilityof perjuryremainsapervasivefactor.");MorganCloud,TheDirtyLittleSe-cret,43EMORYL.J.1311,1311-12(1994)("Judges,prosecutors,defenselawyers,and repeat offend-ersallknowthatpoliceofficerslieunderoath.'');Cloud,supranote7,at1344-45(purportingthat "[m]ostparticipantsinthecriminaljusticesystemknowthatinsomecasessomepoliceofficerslie underoath");JosephD.Grano,ADileminaforDefenseCounsel:Spinelli-BarrisSearchWarrants and thePossibility of PolicePerjury,1971LAwF.405,409(1971)("[T]hepoliceoftenarenotad-versetocommittingperjurytosaveacase.");Orfield,TheExclusionary Ruleand supra note10,at1051(Almostallof theofficersinauthor'sstudyadmittedthatthepolicecommitper-jury,and"itispossiblethatthefrequencyofpolicelyingincourtisgreaterthanthepolicead-mit.");Slobogin,supra,at1042(assertingthat"[f]ew knowledgeable personsarewillingtosaythat policeperjuryaboutinvestigativemattersissporadicorrare");DeborahYoung,UnnecessaryEvil: PoliceLyinginInterrogations,28CoNN.L.REv.425,427(1996)(assertingthat"the reportedcases of policelyingrepresentonlyafractionof theactualcasesinwhichpolicelyingoccurred");Irving Younger,ConstitutionalProtectiononSearchandSeizure Dead?,3TRIAL41(1967)(assertingthat policeperjuryiscommonplace);Kocieniewski,supranote4,1,atAI(notingthat accordingto oneNewYorkpoliceofficer,"lyingunder oathwasstandardprocedure");Lie DetectorsCould Curb PolicePerjury,USATODAY(mag.),Aug.1,1996,at13("[M]anyexperiencedtriallawyershave saidtheybelievepoliceofficersfrequentlylieonthestand.'');McNamara,supranote11,atMl ("[H]undredsof thousandsof law-enforcementofficerscommitfelonyperjuryeveryyeartestifying aboutdrugarrests.'');WilliamK.Rashbaum,TheOddCouple,Styleof NewCopWatchdogDoesn't MatchPredecessor,NEWSDAY,Feb.1,1995,atA17(recognizingthatmostpoliceofficersprivately acknowledgethatcommittingperjuryisnotuncommon);ScottTurow,SimpsonProsecutorsPay for TheirBlunders,N.Y.TIMES,Oct.4,1995,atA21(asserting .thatdistrictattorney'sdecisiontoplace 1998]BLUEWALLOF Sll..ENCE237 York'sMollenCommissionhasrecognized,policeperjuryisa"serious problemfacingthe... criminaljusticesystem."14 Policeperjurymay have. terribleconsequences.Inindividualcases,notonlymaytheguilty bewronglyacquitted,buttheinnocentmaybewronglyconvicted.Over time,averagecitizensmaylosefaithin thepolicedepartmentandinthe lawitself. Part ITof thisarticleidentifiesanddiscussessomeof thebasiccate-goriesof policeperjury.Policeoccasionallycommit perjuryformalicious reasons,forexample,inordertoframetheinnocent.Amorecommon motivation forpolice perjuryistoevadetheexclusionaryrulebylyingin asuppressionhearing. Policeofficersalsosometimeslieunderoathbecauseof the"blue wallof silence,"anunwrittencodeinmanydepartmentswhichprohibits disclosingperjuryor other misconduct byfellowofficers,or eventestify-ingtruthfullyifthefactswouldimplicatetheconductofafellowof-f i c e r ~ 15 Theexistenceof someformof apolicecodeof silenceinmany policeofficersonthewiblessstandatpretrialhearingtotellperjuriousstoryis"routine");Irving Younger,ThePerjuryRoutine,THBNATION,May8,1967,at 596-97[hereinafterYounger,ThePer-jury Routine](assertingthat"[e]verylawyerwhopracticesinthecriminalcourtsknowsthatpolice perjuryincommonplace").ButseeWilliamJ.Stuntz,Warrantsand FourthAmendmentRemedies, 77VA.L.REv.881,935& n.142(1991)(arguingthat"[t]hereisagooddealof anecdotaldiscus-sionbyactorsin thesystemwhobelieve perjury occurswithsomefrequency,but little in thewayof evidencethat wouldindicatehowoftenorwithwhat effects")(footnoteomitted). 14.MOlLENCOMMISSION,supranote5,at 36. 15.SeeRobinK.Magee,TheMY,thof theGoodCopand,theInadequacyof FourthAmend-ment Remedies for Black Men:ContrastingPresumptionsof Innocenceand Guilt,23CAP.U.LREv. 151,203(1994);DavidRudovsk.y,PoliceAbuse:CantheViolenceBeContained?,21HAR.v.C.R.-C.L L.REv.465,481n.60(1992);Michael Cooper, 2d Officer Gives Account of Sex Assault of Hai-tian,N.Y.TIMBs,Aug.18,1997,at B3;JohnKifner,OfficersAssignedtoHaitiAretoJoin70th Precinct,N.Y.TIMEs,,Aug.20,1997,~ tB3;CarolA.Watson,ComplaintsMeetaWallof Silence, LA. TIMEs,Mar.10,1991,at 5 (codeof silenceperpetuatescorruption);All ThingsConsidered:Blue Wallof Silence(NPRradiobroadcast,Aug.20,1997),availablein1997WL12832487;seealso MOlLENCOMMISSION,supranote5,at 53;REPoRTOFTHEINDEPENDENTCOMMISSIONONTHBLosAN-GBLESPoUCBDEPARTMENT168(1991)[hereinafterCHRISTOPHERCOMMISSION](WarrenChristopher, Chair).Manydifferent termsmaybeusedto refer tothepracticeof policerefusingtoprovideinfor-mationaboutfellowofficers'corruption,including:"codeof silence:see,e.g.,CHRISTOPHERCoM-MISSION,supra,at168;JEROMBH.SKOLNICK& JAMBSJ.F'YFE,ABOVETHBLAW108(1993);"blue wallof silence,'see,e.g.,Magee,supra,at203;"bluecurtain,''see,e.g.,AlisonL.Patton,Note, TheEndlessCycleof Abuse:Why42U.S.C.1983isIneffectiveinDete"ing PoliceBrutality,44 HASTINGSLJ.753,763(1993);"codeofthe'bluefraternity,'"see,e.g.,MOlLENCOMMISSION, supranote5,at 58;the"brotherhoodof lies,''see,e.g.,Serpico:Patternof LiesLingers,LAS VEGASREv.J.,Oct 3,1993,at 9A;the"blue codeof silence,''see,e.g.,Magee,supra,at156;and the"BlueCocoon,'seePouCBSTRATEGY:No.7:ROOTINGOurCORRUPriON;BUILDING0RoANJZA-TIONALINTBGRITYINTHENEWYoRKPOUCBDEPARTMENT77(June14,1995)[hereinafterPoUCB STRATEGYNo.7] (quotingPoliceCommissioner WilliamJ .. Bratton).Thisarticlewillcommonlyuse theterms"codeof silence"and"blue wallof silence"interchangeablytorefertosuchpractice. 238UNIVERSITYOFPITISBURGHLAWREVIEW[Vol.59:233 policedepartmentsacrossthenationiswelldocumentedincourtopin-ions, 16 scholadyliterature, 17 newsreports, 18 andpoliceinvestigatorycom-16.SeeSpellv.McDaniel,824 F;2d1380,1392-95(4thCir.1986)(affmning juryverdict im-posingmunicipalliabilityforarrestee'sinjuriesfromexcessiveuseof force;evidenceof codeof si-lenceandforcetrainingwassufficienttodemonstratemunicipalcustomandusage);UnitedStatesv. Ambrose,740F.2d505,521(7thCir.1984)(appendixtocase,reprintingremarksof Grady,J.,of theUnitedStatesDisbictCourtfortheNorthernDistrictof lllinois,madeatsentencinghearingof defendant,whostatedthat"it isafact... thatthereisacodeof silence[intheChicagoPoliceDe-partment],andthatmostpolicemenobserveit");Myattv.Cityof Chicago,No.90-C-03991,1991 WL 94036,at*7(N.D.Til.May23,1991)(determiningthat allegationsbyplaintiff inpolicebrutal-itycase,including,interalia,admissionof officersof existenceof codeof silence,weresufficient to withstandmotiontodismiss);McLinv.Cityof Chicago,742F.Supp.994,1002(N.D.Til.1990) (holdingthatallegationsbyplaintiffof codeof silenceaspolicyorcustomof cityproperlystated claimunder42U.S.C.1983);Brandonv.Allen,645F.Supp.1261,1266'-67(W.D.Tenn.1986) (findingacodeof silencethroughoutthepolicedepartmentanddeterminingthatthecitywasliable forthecodeof silencewhichpermittedabusivepolicebehavior).In arecent lineof casesfromNew Yorkregardingthepolicecodeof silence,policebrutalityplaintiffshavesoughttoinvoketheMol-len Commission reportandotherevidenceof theexistenceof thepervasivecodetodemonstratecus-tomorpolicy liabilityonbehalfofmunicipalities.See,e.g.,Shawv.CityofNewYork,No.95-CIV.-9325AJP,1997WL187352,at *5,7-10(S.D.N.Y.Apr.15,1997).Similarly,theMollen Com-missionreporthasbeeninvokedincasesinvolvingclaimsbyofficersagainsttheirdepartmentsor othermunicipaldefendants.TheofficerscJaimthatthedefendantsviolatedtheirFirstAmendment righttofreespeechwhenthedefendantsretaliatedagainsttheofficersin responsetoofficersbreak-ingthecodeofsilence. ThecruxoftheargumentinmanyofthesetypesofcasesisthatFrrst Amendmentfreespeechrightsareviolatedbecausetheestablishedpolicyprecludestheofficer from assertingarighttospeakoutaboutpolicemisconduct.See,e.g.,White-Ruizv.Cityof NewYork, No.93-CIV.-7233(DLC)(MHD),1996WL603983(S.D.N.Y.Oct.22,1996);Domenechv.Cityof NewYork,919F.Supp.702,711(S.D.N.Y.),onreargument,927F.Supp.106(S.D.N.Y.1996); Arizav.CityofNewYork,No.CV-93-5287,1996WL118535(E.D.N.Y.Mar.7,1996).Many claimantsinotherpolicebrutalityandpolicedepartmentretaliationcaseshaveatleastallegedsome evidenceof theexistenceof acodeof silencetohelpestablishliabilityagainstamunicipality.See, e.g.,Sleddv.Linsday,102F.3d282,287,288-89(7thCir.1996)(excessiveforceclaimantalleged injuryasaresultof code ,of silencepolicyof departmentbecauseofficersinflictinginjuryon claim-antknewtheywouldnotbesubjecttoscrutinybysuperiors);Marshallv.Gates,44F.3d722,723 (9thCir.1995)(allegingcodeofsilencetodemonstratepolicedepartmentretaliation);Masonv. Stock,955F.Supp.1293,1313-14(D.Kan.1997)(excessiveforceclaimantallegedpolicyandcus-tomof departmentthroughcodeof silence);Sharpv.Cityof Houston,960F.Supp.1164,1174-76 (S.D.Tex.1997)(poliC:eofficersallegedcustomandmunicipalpolicyof retaliationforspeakingout against departmentmisconductbyproviding evidenceof codeof silence);Williamsv.Morris,956F. Supp.679,682(W.D.Va.1996)(policeofficerallegedviolationof freespeechduetohistermina-tionbydepartmentinretaliationforbreakingcodeof silence);Alexanderv.VillageofGlenwood, No.95-C-2326,1996WL6545,at*1(N.D.m.Jan.8,1996)(plaintiffallegedthatpolicecodeof silencefacilitatedandencouragedcivilrightsviolationsbypolice);Bradleyv.Fisher,688A.2d527, 529(Md.Ct.Spec.App.1997)(policeofficersallegedwrongfuldischargeduetoretaliationfor breakingcodeof silence);seealsoWilsonv.Meeks,52F.3d1547,1556-57(lOthCir.1995)(find-ingthat inap o l i ~shootingcase,allegationsof cover-upresultingfromcodeof silencedidnotes-tablish constitutionalviolationfordeprivationoftherighttoaccesstocourts);Davisv.Wayne CountySheriff,507N.W.2d751(Mich.Ct.App.1993)(holdingthatallegationsbyplaintiffthat codeof silencecontributedtoinjuriesshesustainedasaresultof theshootingrampagebyher hus-band,apoliceofficer,wereinsufficienttodemonstratepolicybywhichthedepartmentwasunable 1998]BLUE WALLOF SILENCE239 toobtainevidenceregardingtheofficer'spropensityforviolence). 17.SeeSKOLNICK&FYFB,supranote15,at110(attestingtotheexistenceof acodeof si-lence);David S.Cohen,Official Oppression:AHistorical Analysis of Low-Level Police Abuse and a ModernAttempt at Reform,28CoLUM.HUM.RTs.L.REv.16S,190-92(1996)(recognizingtheexis-tenceof"theinfamous'bluecodeof silence, "andassertingthatabuseof policeauthoritycannot bealleviatedbyprovidingformandatoryadditionalofficersonthescenebecauseof thecode); Dripps,supranote12,at 701(assertingthatpoliceabusecansurviveonlyif itiseffectivelycov-ered-upthroughapolicecodeof silence);Alexa P.Freeman,Unscheduled Departures:TheCircum-ventionof JustSentencingforPoliceBrutality,47HAsTINGSLJ.677,725(1996)(recognizingthe codeof silenceasoneof theobstaclestoprosecutionof policebrutality);Magee,supranote15,at 156,203(discussingtheMoDenCommission's fmdingsregardingthepolicecodeof silence);Robert M.Myers,Code of Silence:PoliceShootingsand theRight to Remain Silent,26GoLDENGATEU. L. REv.497,520(1996)(assertingthatapoliceofficer'srighttoremainsilentaboutpoliceshootings "can onlyfurthertheunwrittencodeof silencethat isprevalentinmanypoliceagencies")(footnote omitted);Rudovsky,supranote15,at481,486-87(indicatingthat thecodeof silencemayfrustrate investigationand adjudicationof claimsof policeabuse);Schwartz,supranote12,at 454 (recogniz-ingtheexistenceof acodeofsilencefromthefmdingsof boththeMollenCommissionandthe ChristopherCommission);CliffordS.Zimmerman,Toward aNewVisionof Informants:AHistory of AbusesandSuggestions forReform,22HAsTINGSCaNsT.L.Q.81,177(1994)(assertingthatestab-lishingmunicipalliabilityforcustomaryinformantmisconductormishandlingisdifficulttoprove becausethecodeof silenceofteneliminatesappropriateavenuesof proof);Patton,supranote15,at 763(recognizingthatthe"codeof silence"or"blue curtain"isamajorbarriertoplaintiffs'attor-neysin1983policebrutalityactions). 18.SeeMichaelBeebe,IndictmentCracksPoliceSilence,BUFFALONEWs,June30,1996,at Al(recognizingthatindictmentchatgingpoliceofficerwiththedeathof asuspectwas"theflrst publicsign that aspecial grand jurypierced apolice'blue wallof silence'");Alan Dershowitz, Edi-torial,SomeCopsGoBadWhenWeDon'tInsistTheyBeGood,ROCKYMoUNTAINNBWS,OCL4, 1993,at34A[hereinafter Dershowitz,SomeCopsGoBad](pervasivebluewallof silence);Dersho-witz,PolicePerjury IsRampant,supranote12,at A6(describingthebluewallof silence);Kaplan, supranote8,at 8(notingreportbyAmnestyInternationalwhichaccused NewYorkPoliceDepart-mentof abusesperpetuatedbyacodeof silence);AtheliaKnight&BenjaminWeiser,D.C.Chief PraisesOfficerWhoBrokePoliceSilenceCode,WASH.PosT,Dec.16,1983,at Bl(citingan inter-viewwithD.C.policechief whostatedthat"the'codeof silence'isanunavoidablefactof lifein hispolicedepartment,andothers");DavidKocieniewski,RootingOut RogueCops,NBWSDAY,Apr. 21,1994,at AS(reportingrecommendationsof theMollenCommissiontousemeasuressuchaslie-detectorteststodefeatthebluewallof silence);CliffordKrauss,InquiryonWashingtonSpreeIs SeenasTestofPolice Resolve,\N.Y.TIMBS,May24,1995,atB1("famedbluewallof silence"); LeonardLevitt,Cracks Appear intheBlueWallof NYPDSilence,NBWSDAY,Apr.21,1997,atA22 (notingthat11of the30policeofficerssentencedinthe30thprecinctscandalturnedinotherof-ficers;thusassertingthat thebluewallof silencehasbeen pierced);Claude Lewis, Fa/lout Fromthe BrooklynTortureCase;PoliceRisk LosingaCriticalAlly,TheirCommunity,TimREcoRD(Bergen County, NJ.), Sept.9,1997, at L13(assertingthat policeofficerscoveringupforabusive fellowof-ficerS"hasbecomesomewhatof atraditionalloverthecountry");Newton,supranote9,at1(as-sertingthatdiscrepanciesinpolicerecollectionof eventsof Kingbeatingareevidenceof apolice codeof silenceusedtothwartinvestigationof thebeating);RichardT.Pienciak,BinerTaleNears End,DAD...YNsws(NewYork),Sept.7,1997, at 29(reportingthat officer admittedto givinginaccu-mtetestimonyinYonkerspolicebrutalitycasetosupportpolicedepartment's"bluewallofsi-lence");MauricePossley&AndrewMartin,'Code'isCrackinginAustin .Case;Wallof Secrecy Around CorruptionBeginstoCrumble,Cm. TRIB.,Feb.3,1997,at1(recognizingdilemma of police officerschargedwithrobbingdrugdealersbetweenmaintainingacodeof silenceandcuttingadeal whichwouldinvolveimplicatingformerpoJicepartners);Raab,supranote8, 4, at 6(recognizing 240 UNIVERSITYOFPITISBURGH. LAWREVIEW[Vol.59:233 missionreportsexaminingthesubject.19 Indeed,theMollenCommission recognizedastrongpolicecodeofsilenceinNewYork,20 asdidthe ChristopherCommission,appointedbyLosAngelesMayorTomBradley inresponsetothebeatingof RodneyKing,whichfoundthatthecodeof silencewas"[p]erhapsthegreatestsinglebarriertotheeffectiveinvesti-gation. andadjudicationofcomplaints"againsttheLosAngelesPolice 'Department. 21 Consistentwiththeloyaltyobligation,inmanydepart-ments,anofficerwhobreaksthecodeof silencecanexpect brutalretali-ationfromhisor hercompanions.22 PartIIalsosuggeststhatpoliceper-juryisaseriousproblembecauseit leadstoinaccurateresults;evenwith respecttotheguilty,policeperjuryisundesirablebecauseitundermines thelegitimacyof thelegalsystemandrespectforlaw. Becausepoliceperjuryconstitutesacriminaloffenseandhasunde-sirableeffectsonthecriminaljusticesystem,itwouldbelogicaltoas-sumethatprosecutors,courts,andthemajorityof policeofficerswhoare New .York'spolicecodeof silence,andreportingtestimonybeforeaStateSenatecommitteewhich indicatedthatthecodeof silenceis"'an oldtradition'inallpoliceforces");Reibstein,supranote 12,at24 (indicatingthatdefenseattorneysbelievethatcovering-upthroughapolicecodeof silence occursoften);Ricker,supranote12,at46(LAPDofficerswhobeatRodneyKinginfrontof nu-merouswitnesseswereconfidentthatotherswouldnot ' tellbecauseof codeof silence);Serpico:Pat-tern of Lies Lingers,supranote15,at9A (reportingformerNewYorkpoliceofficer FrankSerpico's commentsthatthecodeof silenceisperpetuatedintheNewYorkpolicesystem);BarryTarlow,Do-ingtheFuhrmanShuffle;TooManyCopsThinkTheyCanEnforcetheLawby BreakingIt,WASR PoST,Aug.27,1995,atC2(notingthatthevideotapesof RodneyKingbeating"describewhat thosefamiliarwithourcriminaljusticesystemhavealwaysknown-thatpoliceperjury,racism, manufacturingof evidenceandacodeof silencetocoveritallup,occurfartoooften");Watson, supranote15,at5(assertingthatcodeof silenceprovides"virtuallyimpenetrablelayerof protec-tionforviolence-proneofficers");SandraWidener,FromBrassonDown, SilenceIsOrderof Day, NBWSDAY,Sepl25,1986,at5 (recognizingabluewallof silenceinthe77thPrecinct inNewYork City). 19.See,e.g.,MoLLBNCOMMISSION,supranote5,at 53-58(discussingthepervasivenessof the codeof silence);CHRISTOPHERCOMMISSION,supranote15,at168(referringtotheLosAngelesPo-liceDepartment's"codeof silence").Theexistenceof thecodeofsilencehasbeenrecognizedin NewYorkbytheKnappCommissionreportaswell,preparedtwodecadesbeforetheMollenCom-missionreport,inresponsetoaseriesof newsarticlesappearingintheNewYorkTimesalleging widespreadpolice corruptionandlaxityin handlingsuchcorruption.SeeREPORTOPTHBCoMMISSION TOINVBSTIOATBAl.LBGATIONSOFPOUCBCORRUPTIONANDTHBCITY'SANTI-CORRUPTIONPROCBDURBS, at preface&60(Dec. 26,1972)[hereinafter KNAPPCoMMISSION](WhitmanKnapp,Chair), reprinted in5CHIN,supranote5.TheKnappCommissionindicatedthatduringitsinvestigation,individuals experiencedin policeworkinformedtheCommissionthat"[t]he traditionof thepoliceman'scodeof silencewassostrong... thatitwasfutiletoexpecttestimony[regardingcorruptactivities]from anypoliceofficer."KNAPPCoMMISSION,supra,at47. 20.SeeMOLLBNCOMMISSION,supranote5,at 53. 21.CHRisTOPHERCOMMISSION,supranote15,at168. 22.Seeinfrapartm.A(discussingtheconsequencesofficersmayfacebybreakingthecode of silence). 1998]BLUE WALLOF SILENCE241 honestwouldbeeagertodeterit,detectitwhenithappens,andpunish itseverelywheneveritisdiscovered.However,foravarietyof reasons, eliminationof policeperjuryhasbeen difficult.Part m discussestherea-sonsthatthecriminaljusticesystemhas,todate,failedtocontrolpolice perjury. Neitherprosecutorsnorcourts appeartohavemadeeliminationof policeperjurya toppriority.Perhapsthemostimportant reasonforthisis thebluewallof silence,which,inadditiontobeinga cause of perjury,is alsoasignificantimpedimenttoitsdiscoveryinindividualcasesandto itssuppressioningeneral.Officerswhoviolatethebluewallof silence canbesubjectedtosevere,evenlife-threateningretaliation;asaconse-quence,evenhonestofficershaveastrongdisincentivetoviolatethe bluewallof' silencebytestifyingtruthfullyor disclosingthatanotherof-ficerhastestifiedfalsely.Asaresultofthethreatofretaliation,ex-plaineddetectiveFrankSerpicowhiletestifyingbeforetheKnappCom-mission,"the honestofficerfearsthedishonestofficerandnottheother wayaround. "23 The pervasivenessand forceof thebluewallof silence inNewYork Citywasunderscoredbyashockingincidentinvolvingthe .tortureand brutalizationofAbnerLouima,aHaitianimmigrant,by of Brooklyn,NewYork's70thPrecinct.24 Theincidenttippedoffatorrent 23.JAMESLARDNER.CRUSADBR:THEHELL-RAISINGPOUCB CARBBROFDBTBCTIVBDAVIDDURK 212(1996). 24.InAugustof1997,AbnerLouimawasarrestedbyNewYorkpoliceofficerJustinVolpe outside of anightclub on Flatbush Avenue,inBrooklyn.SeeJohnKifner,NurseSaysSomeHospital SupervisorsTriedtoCoverUpFactsinPoliceBeatingCase,N.Y.TIMBS,Aug.26,I997,atB3 [hereinafter Kifner, NurseSaysSomeHospitalSupervisorsTriedtoCoverUpFacts].Onthewayto thestationhouse,fourofficersallegedlybeat Mr.LouimaandasecondHaitianimmigrant.Seeid.; seealso Kifner,supranoteI5, at B3(indicatingthatprosecutorsarelookingintoallegedbeatingof secondHaitianimmigrant).Uponarrivalatthe70thPrecinctstation,OfficerVolpe,withtheaidof twoother officers,allegedlytook Mr.Louimaintothebathroomandforcedawoodenstickintohis rectumandtheninto hismouth,resultingin atom rectumandalacerated bladder,brokenteeth,see DanBarry,2d PoliceOfficerChargedin Attack on Arrested Man,N.Y.TIMBS,Aug.16,I997,I, at1[hereinafterBarry,2d PoliceOfficerChargedinAnack on A"ested Man];DanBarry,Charges of Brutality;TheOverview,N.Y.TIMBS,Aug.I5,1997,at AI[hereinafterBarry,Chargesof Brutal-ity];Kifner,NurseSaysSomeHospitalSupervisorsTriedtoCoverUpFacts,supra,atB3,anda broken jaw,seeMerrillGoozner, NYCCutinCrimeHas BrutishSide,CHI.TRia.,Aug.16,1997, at 1.Mr.Louima wasleftin aprecinct holdingcellformorethan90 minutesbeforeEmergencyMedi-calServicearrivedinresponsetoa"lowprioritycall"fromtheprecinctinvolving"lacerations." Barry,Chargesof Brutality,supra,atAI;Kifner,NurseSaysSomeHospitalSupervisorsTriedto CoverUpFacts,supra,at B3.Aftera90-minutewait forapoliceescort,theambulanceleft forthe hospital.SeeBarry, Chargesof Brutality,supra,atA1;Kifner,NurseSaysSomeHospitalSupervi-sorsTriedtoCoverUpFacts,supra,atB3.Uponarrivalatthehospital,officerstoldthemedical staff thatMr.Louimahadbeeninjuredin ahomosexualact at agaybar.SeeJohn Kifner, Investiga-242UNIVERSITYOFPITTSBURGHLAWREVIEW[Vol.59:233 ofmediacommentaryaboutthecodeofsilenceinNewYork.25 Of the torsLookingatNewAllegationsinBrutalityCase,N.Y.TIMES,Aug.21,1997,atBl[hereinafter Kifner,InvestigatorsLookingat NewAllegations];DeWayneWickham,Another Voice:After Haitian Immigrant Assault,N.Y.Police HousecleaningNeeded,GANNETINEwsSERV.,Aug.21,1997,availa-blein1997WL8835004. In responsetotheseallegations,PoliceCommissioner HowardSatir"swept theprecinctclean" byreassigningtwosupervisors,suspendingadesksergeant,andplacingat least10otherofficerson deskduty.Barry,Chargesof Brutality,supra,atA1;seealsoLeonardLevitt,ADetectiveTrans-ferred,NEWSDAY,Aug.28,1997,atA33(indicatingthat atotalof 19officershavebeendisciplined inconnectionwiththeincident).OfficerVolpehasbeencriminallychargedintheincidentwithsex-ualabuseandassault.SeeBarry,Chargesof Brutality,supra,atAl.Asecondofficer,whohelped Volpeholddownthevictim,wasalsocharged,aswellastwoother officersinvolvedintheincident. SeeBarry,2d PoliceOfficerCharged inAttack on A"ested Man,supra,1,at1;Wickham,supra. Mr.Louima andhis familywereplaced underpoliceprotectionduetothreatsmadebyhisattackers. See,e.g.,TomHays,ViciousAttackStainsCity'sImprovedImage,Hous. Aug.16,1997,at 3. 25.SeeBarry,Chargesof Brutality,supranote24,atA1(indicatingthat difficultieswithin-vestigationof 70thPrecinctbrutalityisaresultof "reluctanceofsomeofficers... . tocooperate," thatthereispressureonofficersfrombothcolleaguesandunionofficialstowithholdinfonnation, andthat thereisevidencethat officers attemptedto"'cover tracksand cleanthingsup'");JoelBer-ger,See-No-EvilOfficersShould Pay,N.Y.TIMES,Aug.24,1997,4,at13(discussingcover-upof policebrutalityinNewYork);LawrenceGoodman,LouimaCoverupTry?TeenSezCopsOrdered Silence,DAD..YNEWs(NewYork),Sept.4,1997,at 6(reportingthat witnessin70th Precinct holding cen sawpoliceofficersandatleastoneparamedicconspiretocoverupinjuriestovictim);Tom Hays,NewYorkPoliceDenyInjuringHaitiImmigrant,AusTIN-A.M.-STATESMAN,Aug.23,1997,at A4 {reportingthat explanation givenbypolicethat victim'sinjurieswereresultof "homosexual act" was,accordingtolawyerforvictim,cover-up);Kifner,InvestigatorsLookingatNewAllegations, supranote24,at B 1 (reportingthat prosecutOrsinvestigatingalleged70thPrecinctbrutalitywidened inquirytodetenninewhetherofficersattemptedtocoverupattack);Editorial,KnowThembyTheir Silence,DAD..YNBws(NewYork),Aug.20,1997,at 32(suggestingtheexistenceof codeof silence inalleged70thPrecinctbrutalitycase);DavidKocieniewski,DetectiveMishandled Earlynp inTor-tureCase,thePoliceSay,N.Y.TIMES,Aug.24,1997,1,at27(reportingthatlawyersforvictim of alleged70thPrecinctbrutalitycitedelayinloggingnumbertocaseasevidenceof policecover-up);Lewis,supranote18,atL13(discussingcodeof silencesurrounding70thPrecinctbrutality scandal);Wickham,supranote24(detailingsubstanceof 70thPrecinctconspiracyandcover-up amongofficers);All Things . Considered,BlueWallof Silence,supranote15(discussingthe"blue wallof silence");NewsForum(WNBCtelevisionbroadcast,Aug.24,1997),availablein1997WL 10281561(discussingthe"blue wallof silence"inNewYork).But see Goozner, supranote24,at 1 (assertingthat"shakeup"at 70th Precinct, including removalof captainandreassignment of nineof-ficersforfailingtocooperateininvestigation,indicatescollapseof wallof silence,.);CBS EveningNews:PoliceOfficersBeginningtoCooperateinCaseof SexualAbuseand Assaultof a HaitianNewYorkResident by aFellowOfficer (CBStelevisionbroadcast,Aug.16,1997), available in1997WL5614872(assertingthat"bluewallof silence"hasbeguntocomedowninNewYork dueto70thPrecinctbrutalitycase,andquotingpolicecommissionerHowardSafirasstating "[t]here absolutelyisnotabluewallof silence");Nightline:Voices fromtheNYPD'sBrooklynPre-cincts(ABCtelevisionbroadcast,Aug.21,1997),availableinLEXIS,NewsLibrary(accordingto NYCpoliceofficerinterviewed,"[i]f someoneiscommittingacriminalact,there'snosuch thingas abluewallof silence"). Evidenceof theoperationof thecodeofsilenceintheBrooklyntorturecaseisabundant.For example,investigatorsinthecaseindicatedthat"the sequeilceof eventsinsidethestationhousere-1998]BLUE WALLOFSll...ENCE243 some100officersgranteddepartmentalimmunityandinterviewedbyin-mainedcloudedbycontradictionandthereluctanceof someofficersat the70thPrecincttocooper-ate,"andthat"'thereisalotof pressure'onofficers,fromcolleaguesandunionofficiaJs,notto provideinformation."Barry,Chargesof Brutality,supranote24,at Al.Somecommentatorsallege thatdelaysinkeyeventsbypoliceofficersandofficialsisaproductof acover-upinthecase.In particular,adelayof 36hoursbetweenthetimeoftheincidentandthetimeinvestigatorseven steppedfootinthe70thPrecinct stationhousemayhaveallowedfellowofficerstimetohideor de-stroyevidenceimplicatingOfficer Volpe,includingthewoodenstickusedtosodomizeMr.Louima, seeBarry,Chargesof Brutaiity,supranote24,at A1;Lewis,supranote18,atL13,andotherin-criminatingevidence,seeDanBarry,Officers'SilenceStillThwartingTortureInquiry,N.Y.TIMEs, Sept.5,1997,atA1[hereinafterBarry,Officers'SilenceStU/ThwartingTortureInquiry](asserting thatOfficerVolpe'slockerhadbeen"cleanedout"bythetimeinvestigatorsarrivedtosearch); Kifner,supranote15,at B3(reportingthat accordingtoinvestigators,policecompanionsof Officer Volpecleaned dreadlockscut byVolpefromthehair of Jamaicansuspectsfromhislocker beforeIn-ternalAffairsinvestigatorscouldsearchforevidence).In fact,detectivesdidnot beginsearchingfor thestickallegedlyusedintheattackuntilfourdaysafter theattack,see JohnKifner,NurseClaims Staff Cover-UpOnLouima,N.Y.TIMEs,Aug.25,1997,atB1[hereinafterKifner,NurseClaims Staff Cover-UpOnLouima],anddidnotbeginageneralinvestigationuntilreceivingasecondcall ontheincident,36hoursaftertheinitialreportsof theattack,seeBobHerbert,InAmerica,N.Y. TIMEs,Aug.24,1997,4,at13.Moreover,anursewhowasinvolvedintreatingMr.Louimare-portedthatwhenshecalledintemaJaffairstoreporttheincident,"[i]tseemedlike[theofficer] didn't care,"that she feltthat her callwasnottaken seriously,and that thelax attitudewasevidence that thepolicewerebidingtimeto securethescenein furtheranceof acover-up.Kifner,NurseSays SomeHospitalSupervisors1tied toCoverUpFacts,supranote24,atB3.In addition,NewYork MayorRudolphGiuliani"demandedthatotherofficersatthe[70th]precinctset asideallegianceto colleaguesandstepforwardwithanythingtheyknow."Barry,Chargesof Brutality,supranote24, at Al. Twoofficershaveconfmnedtheallegationsof brutaJity,butonlyafter"parrot[ing]thegay-bashingversionof whathappenedtoLouima."Wickham,supranote24.Moreimportantly,outof almost100officerswhohavebeengrantedlimited immunityinthecaseandinterviewedbyinvesti-gators,onlytwosteppedforward,whiletheothers commentedthat theyknewnothingabout theinci-dentorwerenotpresent.SeeBarry,Officers'SilenceStillThwartingTortureInquiry,supra,atA1; Lewis,supranote18,at L13.PoliceCommissionerHowardSafrrplacedall700internalaffairsin-vestigatorsonthecase-an indicationthat Commissioner Safrr has"reason tobelieve there's aprob-lem"inNewYork.EditoriaJ,Brutal Attack of NYCManinPoliceCustodyand OtherStudiesUn-derscorethe NeedtoAddressPoliceBrutalityIssue,PosT-STANDARD(Syracuse),Aug.20,1997,at A12. Therearealsoindicationsthattheoperationofthecodeofsilenceinthisinstanceisfar-reaching.For example,nursesat thehospitaltowhichMr.Louimawasbrought reportedthat super-visorsattemptedtopressurethemtoadheretothestorythatMr.Louimawasinjuredatagaybar, even thoughMr.Louima haddescribedthenatureof hisinjuriesto nurses.SeeKifner,NurseClaims Staff Cover-Upo, Louima,supra,atB1;Kifner,NurseSaysSomeHospitalSupervisors1tied to CoverUpFacts,supranote24,at B3.In fact,one nurseindicated that officialshadpressuredherto changeherwrittenreport of theincident.Seeid.Moreover,awitnesswhowaspresent inone of the 70thPrecinctholdingcel1sstatedthatparamedicswhorespondedtothecallconspiredtocoverup theattackwiththeofficersinvolved.SeeGoodman,supra,at6.Finally,inaparticularlyalarming incident,oneof thesurgeonswhooperated onMr.Louima"was threatenedbyananonymouscaller whoencouragedthedoctortoend"Mr.Louima'slife,orelsethecallerwould"get him[thesur-geon]."DanMorrison,Louima'sSurgeonThreatened,NBWSDAY,Sept.6,1997,atA29.Officials statedthatinvestigatorswere"consideringthepossibilitythatthecallcamefromapoliceofficer." /d. I II Il l il l l[l ' :rl 1. ! .. 'I ':! "'I! :!i iJ II' 244UNIVERSITYOFPITTSBURGHLAWREVIEW[Vol.59:233 vestigators,onlytwocameforwardtotellthestory. 26 Thecitywascom-pelledtoplacethetwoofficersandtheirfamiliesundertwenty-four- armedguard,fearingretaliationfromfellowofficersofthe NewYorkCityPoliceDepartment.27 PartNof thisarticleproposesapartialsolutiontotheproblemof policeperjury.Insomejurisdictions,defendantswillbeabletoshow, throughexperttestimonyorcommissionreports,thatofficersaresubject toacodeof silence.Incaseswheretestimonyhelpfultoadefendant wouldviolatethecodeof silence,thejuryshouldbeallowedtohearthat factwhenevaluatingthetestimonyof theofficer.Whileourresearchhas uncoverednocasesinwhichthisapproachwasusedinacriminalprose-cution,theproposalinvolvesnothingmorethanapplicationof traditional rulesallowingawitnesstobeimpeachedforbiasormotivetolieto a novelsituation. Thisapproachwouldhaveseveralsalutaryeffects.First,bygiving juriesmoreinformationaboutthecredibilityofwitnesses,itshouldin-creasetheaccuracyofcriminaltrials.Perhapsmoreimportantly,it .shouldcontribute tobreakingdownthebluewallof silence.If policeof-ficialsandprosecutorseliminateacodeof silenceinaparticular jurisdic-tion,therewouldnolongerbeanybasistoallowimpeachmentofof-ficersonthegroundthattheymightbeinfluencedbyit. Thisproposalisconsciouslyincrementalandpractical.Theremight bewaysof solvingtheproblemof policeperjurymorequicklyandmore effectivelyby, forexample,givingprosecutorsdirectcontroloverthepo-licewithintheirjurisdiction.If policeofficersweresubjecttodirection 26.SeeLewis,supranote18,at L13. 27.SeeBarry,2d PoliceOfficerChargedinAttack onArrested Man,supranote24,1,at1; JamesBone,Blacksin Anti-Police Protest,TIMBsOFLoNDON,Aug.18,1997,at 11;Brutalityinthe Precinct;N.Y.P.D.'sReputationSoiled by theCodeof Silence,Prrr. PosT-GAZETIE,Aug.25,1997,at AS;Cooper,supranote15,atB3;JohnKifner,Chargesof Brutality:TheOverview,Thousands MarchtoProtestPolice,N.Y.TIMBs,Aug.17,1997,1,at1;PaulSchwartzman,2d CopHeldin TortureCase,DJ.n.yNEws(NewYork),Aug.16,1997;at 3;FrankSerpico,SettingtheTone forPo-liceReform,N.Y.TIMES,Aug.30,1997,1,at 23;seealsoEditorial,KnowThemby TheirSilence, supranote25,at32(assertingthat"Thretzky[officerwhofirstcameforwardinLouimacase]is underpoliceprotection,whichsaystwothingsquiteclearly.1)Whenitcomestocertaincops,a manwithaconsciencecanbeindanger;and,2)Obviously,thereareenoughdecentsortsinthe NYPDtoaffordThretzkytheprotectionhedeserves.Andneeds.");Lewis,supranote18,atL13 (quotinginterviewwithaManhattanpoliceofficer:"Whenwe'reouttherelateatnight,weonly haveeachother.... Whenaproblemarises,he'donlyhavetotumhisback.Imightgetblown away.... Trustme,it'shappened.");NewsForum,supranote25(PoliceCommissioner Saftr com-mentedthatOfficerBoria,whotestifiedatthetrialofaNewYorkofficerwhoappliedafatal chokeholdtoasuspect,hadtobeprotectedbecausesheindicatedthatthesuspectwasnotstrug-gling,butlyingmotionlesswhentheholdwasapplied). 1998]BLUEWALLOFSILENCE245 anddisciplinebyprosecutors,it mightwellbethatpoliceconductwould improve.Suchareformmightbeworththinkingabout;becausepolice investigatoryworkisultimatelyonbehalf of prosecutors,it mightbe jus-tifiabletogiveprosecutorsauthorityoverhowinvestigationsareper-formed.Inaddition,althoughprosecutorsareunderpressuretowin cases,theyarealsosubjecttodisciplinebycourtsinawaythatpolice officersarenot.Whateverthemeritanddeficienciesof thisstructuralre-form,itisinconceivablethatit could ever actuallyhappen.Theapproach setforthinthisarticleislessgrand,but,wehope,morerealistic. II.THEPROBLEMOFPOLICEPERJURY It seemsself-evidentthattruthisgenerallygoodandliesaregener-allybad.28 Nevertheless,policeperjurycreatesparticularproblemsthat otherkindsof perjurydonot,andthusshouldbetreatedasamatterof specialconcernbythecriminaljusticesystem.Policetestimony,even perjurioustestimony,ismorepersuasiveto juries thantestimonybycivil-ianwitnesses.29 Policeareprofessionalwitnesses,perhapsthemostex-periencedwitnessesof anyoccupationalgroup. 30 Moreover,officershave specialcredibility.Inaconfrontationbetweenaciviliananda"blue knight,"aclear-eyec:iUniformedpoliceofficer, jurors maywellbend over backwardstobelievethepersoninblue.31 Whilepoliceofficersmaynotbeinherentlymorelikelytocommit perjurythancivilianwitnesses,unlikewitnessesincivilmatters,theytes-tifyincaseswherelibertyor evenlifeisroutinelyatstake.Thus,asdis-cussedinpart II.A,policeperjuryismorelikelyto leadtoseriousinjus-tice-imprisonmentor evenexecutionof aninnocentperson. 32 28.SeeExodus21:23("[A]ndGodspakethesewords,saying:. 'thoushallnotbearfalse wiblessagainsttheyneighbor.'");2Mloum.CERVANTES,DoNQUIXOTE33("Honestyisthebest policy."). 29.Seeinfranotes107-08andaccompanyingtext 30.See,e.g.,StanleyA.Goldman,GuiltbyIntuition:TheInsufficiencyof PriorInconsistent StatementstoConvict,65N.C.L.REv.1,20 (1986)(suggestingthat policeofficershaveexperience testifyingincourt);Comment,GoodCop-BadCop:ReassessingtheLegal Remedies forPoliceMis-conduct,1993UTAHL.REv.149,185(assertingthat sincepoliceofficersareexperiencedwiblesses theyarewellrespectedbyjurors,appearingtobe highlycredible). 31.Seeinfranotes107-08andaccompanyingtext 32."[T]hedeprivationof aninnocent defendant'slifeor libertybytheuseof falsetestimony tosecurehisconvictionviolateshisconstitutionalrighttodueprocessandisthemostseriousmis-carriageof justiceimaginable."LisaC.Harris,Note,PerjuryDefeatsJustice,42WAYNEL.REv. 1755,1758(1996)(citingMICHAELL. RADELBTETAL.,INSPITEOFINNOCENCE:ERRONEOUSCONVIC-TIONSINCAPITALCASES(1992)andBryanK.Fair,UsingParrotstoKillMockingbirds:YetAnother Racial Prosecutionand WrongfulConvictionInMaycomb,45ALA.L.REv.403,426(1994)). 246UNIVERSITYOFPITTSBURGHLAWREVIEW[Vol.59:233 Whatisprobablyamorecommonforniofpoliceperjuryoccurs withrespecttodefendantswhomthepolicebelievetobeguiltyandwho mayinfactbeguilty.Manycommentatorsbelievethatpolicefrequently lieinthecontextof pretrialsuppressionhearingswhichdetermineclaims thatevidencewasseizedastheresultof anunconstitutionalsearchor ar-restandthusshouldbesuppressedpursuanttotheexclusionaryruleand deemedinadmissibleattrial. 33 Criticsof theexclusionaryrulemayfeel somesympathytopolicewhoshadethetruthinthiscontext.34 Buteven f ~ rthosewhorejecttheexclusionaryrule,therearereasonstodemand thatthepolicetellthetruth. A.Frame-Ups Inarecentcase,NewYorker . DanielBatista,whohadacleanre-cord,wasconvictedofcriminalpossessionofaweapon.35 Batista's claim,supportedbyseveralcivilianwitnesses,wasthattheofficers plantedthegunafter keystheyconfiscatedfromhimfailedtoopendoors of apartmentstheofficerswantedtorob.36 Theofficers,bycontrast,testi-fiedthattheyfoundafrrearminBatista'spossession.37 Oneoftheof-ficerswaslaterimprisonedforframinganotherdefendant;theotherwas convictedofextortingmoneyfromdrugdealers.38 Batista'sconviction wasvacatedonlyafterhehadservedhisprisonsentence.39 The juryfore-womanlaterexplainedhervoteinacasewhichnowappearstohave beenamiscarriageof justicebysaying,"'(i]tcamedowntothepolice officers'wordagainsthimandhisfriends .... Andwejustcouldn't thinkofanyreasonwhythepoliceofficerswouldgotothetroubleof makingupastoryandframingsomeone.'"40 Unfortunately,policesometimessimplyframeinnocentpeople. Whenthecitiesarefullof crime,itmayseemoddthatthepolicewould choosetoframetheinnocent,ratherthanframetheguiltyorsimplyuse legitimatemethodstoprosecutecriminals.However,a number of circum-33.Seeinfrapartll.B. 34.Somesuggestthat judgesdenysuppressionmotionsin caseswherepolicetestimonyisdu-biousbecausetheydonot wanttoexcludeprobativeevidence.SeeU.S. DEP'TOPJusTICEOPPICBOP LEGALPOUCY,REPoRTTOTHEATTORNEYGENERAL:THESEARCHANDSEIZUREExCLUSIONARYRULB 27(1986);Cloud,supranote13,at1323. 35.SeeKocieniewski,supranote4,1,at Al. 36.Seeid. 37.Seeid. 38.Seeid. 39.Seeid. 40.Jd. 1998]BLUEWALLOFSILENCE247 stanceshavemotivatedpoliceofficerstoframeinnocentpeople.Some-timespolicefinditnecessarytoprosecuteaninnocentpersontomakeit appearthatpoliceofficersaredoingtheir jobs.For example,viceofficers receivingprotectionmoneysometimesarresta"stand-in"providedby thegamblers.Inthisway,thebusinessof actualgamblersisundisturbed andtheofficerslookbusy. 41 Inothercircumstances,unwilling .citizens havebeenframedtoprovidecoverforofficersonthetakewhocannot, of course,arresttheirbenefactors.Forexample,oneinvestigationof the NewYorkPoliceDepartmentconcludedthat"wheretheendof amonth approached,andtherecordofarrestsandconvictionswaslow,theof-ficerswouldarrestwomenindiscriminately,andframeupcasesagainst them,untilthenumbersoarrestedwassufficienttobringtheofficers' recordsuptothedesirednumber. "42 Underaphenomenonknownas "coliarsfordollars,,officersmakequestionablearrestsneartheendof theirtourof dutytoearnovertimepaywhileprocessingadefendant throughthesystem. 43 Policeofficershaveframedinnocentpeopleaspart of extortionschemes.44 Policealsosometimesframetheguilty,"tocon-cealotherunderlyingactsof corruptionortoconcealillegalstepstaken forwhatofficersoftenperceiveas'legitimate'lawenforcementends."45 41.SeeEDWARDS.SILVER,REPoRTOPSPECIALINvEsTIGATIONBYTHEDISTRICI'ATTORNEYOP K.INGSCOUNTYANDTHEDECEMBER1949GRANDJURY,DBCBMBBR1949TOAPRIL1954at54-55 (1955)[hereinafterHBLPANDREPORT],reprintedin4CHIN,supranote5;seealsoKNAPPCoMMIS-SION,supranote19,at28,83. 42.FINALREPORTOPSAMUBLSEABURY,RBFmum,INTHEMATTBROFTHEINvEsTIGATIONOP THEMAGISTRATB'sCoURTSINTHEFIRsTJUDICIALDEPARTMENTANDTHEMAGISTRATES'fHERBoP,AND OPATTORNEYSATLAWPRAcnCINGINSAIDCOURTSat 95-96(Mar.28,1932)[hereinafterSEABURY REPORT],reprintedin3CHIN,supranote5. 43.See,e.g.,1 CHIN,supranote5,at xixn.44;MoLLBNCOMMISSION,supranote5,at 39-40; DAVIDHBILBRONBR,ROUGHJUSTICE:DAYSANDNIGHTSOFA YOUNGD.A.65-66(1990)(notingexis-tenceof"collarsfordollars"phenomenon). 44.See1CHIN,supranote5,atxixn.45;KNAPPCOMMISSION,supranote19,at83-84 (describingpracticeof arrestingbookmakerswithoutevidenceandthenreleasingthemwithout filing charges,or,if chargeswerefiled,intentionallybotchingcasesforafee);id.at94-98(describing threatsof falsenarcoticscharges);REPoRTOPTHESPECIALCOMMITTBBAPPOINTBDTOINvBsTIGATB THEPOUCBDEPARTMENTOPTimCITYOPNBWYORKat43-45[hereinafter LEXOWREPoRT](Clarence Lexow, .Chair)(describingframe-upofimmigrantwomanonprostitutioncharges,resultinginher lossof herchildren,andnotingthat"[m]anycasesof similaroppressionarefoundintherecord"), reprintedin1 CHIN,supranote5;SEABURYREPoRT,supranote42,at80-96(discussingframe-ups ingeneralanddescribingseveralindividualcases). 45.MoLLENCoMMISSION,supranote5,at 37;seealsoid.at 36-43(noting perjuryandfalsifi-cationof documents). 248UNIVERSITYOFPITISBURGHLAWREVIEW[Vol.59:233 B.PolicePerjuryinSuppressionHearings Perhapsthemostcommonformof policeperjuryoccursin suppres-sionhearings-pretrialproceedingsdesignedtodetermineclaimsthatev-idenceseizedinthecourseof anillegalsearchorarrestshouldbesup-presse