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Doctor Faustus

BRIEF BIOGRAPHY OF CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE

Born the same year as Shakespeare to a shoemaker and hiswife, Marlowe attended Corpus Christi College at Cambridgeon scholarship. He received his Bachelor of Arts in 1584 andhis Master of Arts three years later, despite a controversywhich almost robbed him of the Masters because ofaccusations that he converted to Catholicism, which it wasillegal to practice in 16th century England. His first playperformed on the London stage, Tamburlaine, was among thefirst English plays written in blank verse. Marlowe's plays wereenormously popular, but his career was cut short by his deathin 1593 – an event about which little is known for certain butmuch is rumored; he is said to have been a secret agent, and hisdeath by stabbing (in the eye!) in some kind of bar fight may infact have had more sinister or even political underpinnings. Heis now considered one of England's most importantplaywrights, second in his time period to only WilliamShakespeare.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The play can be seen in terms of a variety of cultural changesoccurring during the Renaissance, especially the newfoundstress laid on the power and ability of the individual (asopposed to an overarching stress on religious obedience andpiety). Conflict between the Protestant English church andRoman Catholicism doubtlessly influences the play'sunflattering portrayal of the pope. At the time the play wasbeing performed, Calvinism was on the rise within the Churchof England but remained a source of controversy. According toCalvinism, people's status as either saved or damned waspredestined. Readers and scholars have continually debatedthe stance Marlowe's play takes towards the Cavlinist doctrineof predestination: is Faustus fated to fall to hell?

RELATED LITERARY WORKS

Marlowe likely learned of the Doctor Faustus story fromHistoria von D. Iohan Fausten, an anonymous volume in Germanfrom 1587, an English translation of which was published in1592. Marlowe adds his own touches to the story to create anoriginal tragedy. The story of Faustus and the general motif of aFaustian bargain (giving up one's soul for limitless knowledgeor power) reappear frequently in modern literary, artistic, andfolk traditions.

KEY FACTS

• Full Title: The Tragical History of the Life and Death of DoctorFaustus

• When Written: Unknown. Possibly around 1592, when theEnglish translation of a German version of the story is knownto have surfaced.

• Where Written: Unknown.

• When Published: 1604 (A-text) and 1616 (B-text). Scholarsdebate the authenticity and relative merits of these twoversions of Marlowe's play that survive.

• Literary Period: English Renaissance

• Genre: Elizabethan Tragedy

• Setting: Wittenberg, Germany; Rome, at the pope's court; thecourt of emperor Charles V.

• Climax: Scene 13. With tension mounting, the hour ofFaustus's death and damnation draws near. His cries of regretfor having sold his soul to Lucifer and his pleas for more timeare unsuccessful, and devils drag him away to Hell.

• Antagonist: As is the case with any good tragic hero, Faustus isarguably his own antagonist. He certainly acts as a badinfluence on his friends and acquaintances (like his servantWagner) and with petty villainy towards his enemies (like theknight at Charles V's court). Ultimately, though, the title ofantagonist should probably go to Lucifer. Not only does heclaim Faustus' soul, but also, as the devil himself, he isostensibly everyone's antagonist.

EXTRA CREDIT

Fake Beards, Real Fear. The Puritan William Prynne reportedthat at a 17th century performance of Doctor Faustus, upon theapparition of the devil on the stage, the actors themselvesbroke character and fell to prayer in fear.

Celeb Gossip. Much of the popularity of Marlowe's play can beattributed to his star actor Edward Alleyn, who performed thetitle role in three of Marlowe's plays during his lifetime, and forwhom the part of Faustus was written. Ben Affleck plays Alleynin the movie Shakespeare in Love.

Doctor Faustus is a scholar living in Wittenberg, Germany.Feeling that he has reached the ends of all traditional studies,he decides to pursue magic, and has his servant Wagner bringhim Valdes and Cornelius, two men who can teach him how toperform magic incantations. Two angels (a Good Angel and anEvil Angel) appear. The Good Angel tries to convince Faustusnot to pursue unholy magic, but the Evil Angel encourages himto delve into sorcery. Valdes and Cornelius give Faustus spell-

INTRINTROO

PLPLOOT SUMMARYT SUMMARY

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books and Faustus is excited to begin casting spells andsummoning spirits.

Two scholars, who know of Faustus for his reputation as ascholar, wonder what he is up to and, running into Wagner, askhim. Wagner tells them that Faustus is with Valdes andCornelius, and the two scholars lament Faustus' interest inmagic.

Faustus begins conjuring, and summons up a devil namedMephastophilis. Faustus orders Mephastophilis to do hisbidding, but Mephastophilis informs him that he can do nothingthat is not commanded by Lucifer. Faustus asks him questionsabout hell and its devils, and then tells Mephastophilis to bringan offer to Lucifer: he will give his soul to Lucifer, on thecondition that he gets 24 years of unlimited power andknowledge, with Mephastophilis as his willing servant.Mephastophilis goes to Lucifer, and Faustus thinks that he hasmade a good deal.

Meanwhile, Wagner finds a clown and persuades him to be hisservant, promising to teach him some magic in return. In hisstudy, Faustus begins to hesitate about the deal he hasproposed with Lucifer. As he debates repenting and turningback to God, the two angels appear again and try to persuadeFaustus in their respective directions. Faustus renews hisresolve to give his soul to Lucifer.

Mephastophilis returns and Faustus questions him about hellbefore officially agreeing to his deal with Lucifer.Mephastophilis demands that Faustus certify the agreementwith a deed of gift written in Faustus' own blood. As Faustusattempts to sign the agreement, his blood congeals, as ifrefusing to sign. Mephastophilis fetches some hot coals to meltthe congealed blood, and Faustus signs the agreement. Faustusimmediately regrets the deal, but is distracted from his worrieswhen Mephastophilis summons up a group of devils bringingvarious riches to him. Faustus then asks Mephastophilis morequestions about hell. He asks Mephastophilis for a wife, butMephastophilis cannot do anything related to marriage (a holyceremony), so he summons a devil-woman instead.

Mephastophilis gives Faustus books containing all theknowledge of astronomy and the stars, as well as of all plantsand trees. Faustus again begins to regret giving up his soul andconsiders repenting. At this, the angels re-appear and againmake their cases to Faustus. Faustus again decides not torepent. Mephastophilis teaches him about the movement of theplanets and the composition of the universe. Faustus asks whomade the world, but Mephastophilis refuses to answer, as hedoes not want to say the name of God. This makes Faustuswant to repent again and turn to God. The angels appear again,and Faustus says that he wishes to repent. At this, Luciferappears with other devils, telling Faustus not to speak of Godand Christ. Faustus apologizes and assures Lucifer that he willreject God. Lucifer entertains Faustus by summoning uppersonifications of the Seven Deadly Sins, which parade past

Faustus for his enjoyment. Lucifer gives Faustus another bookto learn from, before leaving.

A stable-hand named Robin steals one of Faustus' spell-booksand tells his friend, the inn-keeper Rafe, that they should try tocast some magic spells. Wagner informs the audience thatMephastophilis has taken Faustus on a grand tour of the worldin a chariot drawn by dragons, in order to learn all the secrets ofastronomy. The pair is now headed for Rome.

Once in Rome, Faustus wants to see all the city's monuments,but Mephastophilis tells him to stay in the pope's privatechambers and play a joke on him. Mephastophilis makesFaustus and himself invisible, and they conduct mischief as thepope and his cardinals attempt to have a banquet. A group offriars attempt to sing a dirge to drive away malevolent spirits.

Back in Germany, a vintner (wine merchant) confronts Robinand Rafe about a goblet they have stolen. The pair usesFaustus' spell-book to summon Mephastophilis in order toscare the vintner away. Mephastophilis comes, but is frustratedthat he has been summoned by two lowly “slaves” (VIII, 39) forsuch a banal task. Meanwhile, after some more traveling,Faustus returns to Germany. His fame as a conjurer has spreadfar and wide. The German emperor Charles V has invitedFaustus to his court, having heard about his magic skills.

At the emperor's court, Faustus indulges the emperor bycalling up the spirit of Alexander the Great, essentially Charles'hero. Charles V is exceedingly impressed, but a knight of his isuncomfortable with the devilish magic and is skeptical ofFaustus. Faustus repays the knight's rudeness by making hornsappear on his head.

After Faustus' visit to the emperor, a horse-courser (horse-trader) finds him and asks to buy his horse. Faustus agrees buttells him not to ride the horse into water. Thinking that Faustusis trying to trick him, the horse-courser rides the horse into apond. In the middle of the pond, the horse vanishes, plungingthe horse-courser into the water. Angry, he attempts toconfront Faustus, who is sleeping. He yanks on Faustus' leg towake him up, but the leg comes right off Faustus' body. He runsoff, scared, while Faustus' leg is instantly replaced by magic.Wagner informs Faustus that his company is requested at thecourt of a nobleman, the Duke of Vanholt.

At the Duke's court, Faustus entertains the Duke and Duchesswith his magic. The Duchess asks for him to make grapesappear (it is the middle of winter and grapes are unavailable).Faustus does so, to the delight of the Duchess.

Wagner tells the audience that he is worried Faustus will diesoon, as he has given his property to Wagner. In any case,Faustus continues to impress people with his magic. A group ofscholars asks him to call up the spirit of Helen of Greece, themost beautiful woman in the world, which he does. An old manappears and urges Faustus to repent. Faustus is troubled andsays that he wants to repent. Mephastophilis calls him a traitor



and threatens to tear his flesh “in piecemeal” (XII, 59) for hisdisobedience. Faustus apologizes and resolves not to repent.He asks Mephastophilis to send demons after the old man, formaking Faustus doubt himself. Faustus asks Mephastophilis tomake Helen his lover, so that her beauty can distract him fromhis impending doom.

As Faustus' death draws nearer, he begins to despair and thegroup of scholars with him asks what is wrong. He finally tellsthem about the deal he has made with Lucifer and they arehorrified. They go to pray for his soul. Alone on stage, Faustusrealizes that he has only an hour left to live. He begs time tostand still and goes back and forth as to whether he will repent.He calls out to God, saying that one drop of Christ's bloodwould save him, but he is unable to commit to repenting. Hetries to bargain with God, asking for salvation in return for athousand or a hundred-thousand years in hell. The clock strikesmidnight: Faustus' time is up. He cries out, making a lastpromise to burn his books, as devils surround him and drag himaway.

The chorus delivers an epilogue to conclude the play,confirming that Faustus has fallen to hell, and telling theaudience to learn from Faustus' example not to try to learn“unlawful things” (Epilogue, 6) beyond the limits of appropriatehuman knowledge.

Doctor FaustusDoctor Faustus – A gifted scholar of humble origins living inWittenberg, Germany in the 16th century, Doctor Faustus isthe tragic hero of Marlowe's play. Having come to what hebelieves is the limits of traditional knowledge, he decides to sellhis soul to the devil in exchange for twenty-four years ofunlimited knowledge and power. To be Faustian is to berecklessly ambitious, and Marlowe's Faust uses his newfoundpower to travel around the world and attain all kinds ofknowledge. However, he also uses his magic to engage in pettypractical jokes (at the expense of the pope, for example) and toindulge his desire for a beautiful woman (summoning Helen ofTroy to be his lover). Faustus begins to see the error of his waysearly on in the play, and wavers in his commitment to his dealwith Lucifer, but it is not until the final scene of the play that herealizes his doom. While he tries to repent at the end of theplay, Christ is merely one out of a number of things he calls outto for help, and he still attempts to bargain with Christ, askingfor salvation in return for a thousand or more years in hell. It issomewhat ambiguous to what degree Faustus actually repents,but in any case it is to no avail. As the chorus informs theaudience at the play's conclusion, he ends up falling to hell.

MephastophilisMephastophilis – Mephastophilis is the devil Faustussummons when he first tries his hand at necromancy, and heremains at Faustus's side for much of the rest of the play, doing

his bidding, answering his questions, distracting him when hehas doubts about his decision to sell his soul, and even takinghim on an eight-day tour of the known universe on a chariotdrawn by dragons. It is Mephastophilis who encouragesFaustus to take a blood oath that Lucifer should have his soulwhen his twenty-four years are up. His motivations for pushingso hard to keep Faustus may seem ambiguous, since he admitsto being miserable in Hell and to regret having forsaken God,but he basically explains himself with the now-famous proverb:Solamen miseris socios habuisse doloris (loosely translated,misery loves company).

WWagneragner – Wagner is Faustus's student and servant. Althoughhe does not sell his soul to Lucifer alongside his master, he doesdabble in the dark arts by borrowing Faustus's spell book. He isfiercely proud of his connection with such an infamous man,and in comedic scenes amongst the clowns, he takes a high-and-mighty tone with respect to information and authority. Atthe end of the play, Faustus bequeaths to Wagner a generousshare of his wealth.

LuciferLucifer – Marlowe's Lucifer is distant. His interests in Faustus'saffairs are usually represented by Mephastophilis, who doeshis bidding above all else, and who does not have the authorityto make a deal for Faustus's soul without Lucifer's permission.This Lucifer may be powerful, but he is also a practicalbusinessman who is aware of his weaknesses. He is offendedwhen Faustus calls out to God, and he insists on an officialblood oath from Faustus as a guarantee of loyalty.

ChorusChorus – A traditional figure in Greek tragedy, the Chorusdelivers the Prologue, a monologue in the middle of the play,and an Epilogue that ends the play. Unlike traditional Greekchoruses, though, this chorus is a single person. Removed fromthe action of the play, the chorus helps introduce and set thescene for the main plot, and concludes the play, confirming forthe audience that Faustus was damned to hell.

Good Angel and Evil AngelGood Angel and Evil Angel – A pair of angels who appearonstage every time Faustus wavers in his resolve or considersrepenting. They usually deliver contradictory messages, onepromising God's forgiveness and the other swearing thatFaustus is irrevocably damned and so should embrace thepowers and treasures of dark magic. One can see these twospirits as representing the two conflicting impulses of Faustus'sconscience, but in the religious world of the play (in whichactual devils appear on the stage), they should also be seen asreal, literal angels.

VValdes and Corneliusaldes and Cornelius – A pair of magicians Faustus knows,Valdes and Cornelius have encouraged Faustus to try the darkarts in the past. They are more than happy to provide Faustuswith reading materials and instruction in the basics of devil-summoning, and thus help instigate Faustus' fall from grace.

RobinRobin – Robin is a stable-hand who steals a spell-book fromDoctor Faustus. He reappears in comic scenes throughout the

CHARACHARACTERSCTERS



play. His foolish attempts at magic act as a counter to Faustus'serious, ambitious sorcery. However, at times one may questionhow different the two uses of magic are: Faustus ends up usinghis magic to do parlor tricks for wealthy noblemen and tosummon a beautiful woman (Helen of Troy); in some ways,then, the ambitious Faustus is really not so different from thelowly Robin.

RafeRafe – Referred to as “Dick” in the B-text of Doctor Faustus,Rafe is a friend of Robin's. The two try to use Faustus' spellbook to learn incantations, but generally botch the process.

Horse-courserHorse-courser – A horse-trader who buys a horse fromFaustus. Faustus warns him not to ride the horse in water. TheHorse-courser assumes Faustus is trying to cheat him and ridesit in water; the horse promptly melts. The angry Horse-courserconfronts Faustus (whom he finds sleeping) and pulls on his legto wake him up. The leg comes apart from Faustus' body(through a magic trick), terrifying the trader, who flees.

The SeThe Sevven Deadly Sins (Pride, Coen Deadly Sins (Pride, Covvetousness, Enetousness, Envyvy, Wr, Wrath,ath,GluttonGluttonyy, Sloth, L, Sloth, Lechery)echery) – Lucifer summons up these spirits toentertain Faustus. Faustus is delighted by the show, butdoesn't seem to realize that his own sins (including excessivepride, which prevents him from repenting) may turn out to betruly deadly for him.

The PThe Popeope – Faustus and Mephastophilis visit the pope in hisprivate chambers in Rome. They annoy him and play practicaljokes on him. This antagonizing of the head of the Catholicchurch is an example of Faustus' rejection of religion, but theduped pope may also have been a source of comedicamusement for Marlowe's Protestant, anti-Catholic audience.

Emperor Charles VEmperor Charles V – Charles V is the powerful emperor of theHoly Roman Empire. Faustus visits his court and entertains himwith magic. While his magic thus brings him into the mostpowerful court in Europe, Faustus uses his sorcery for merecourtly entertainment.

A Knight at Charles' CourtA Knight at Charles' Court – Charles V's knight is skeptical ofDoctor Faustus and does not want to see him perform hismagic. Faustus makes horns appear on his head in return for hisskepticism and snide remarks. (In the B-text, the knight isnamed Benvolio and has a slightly expanded role, attempting toexact revenge on Faustus by killing him.)

Old ManOld Man – This unnamed man attempts to convince Faustus torepent, telling him that God is ready to forgive him and granthim mercy. He makes Faustus momentarily consider repenting,but Faustus ultimately ignores his advice.

Martino and FMartino and Frederickrederick – These two men at Charles V's courtappear only in the B-text, where they discuss the fame ofDoctor Faustus and help Benvolio try to kill Faustus.

Three ScholarsThree Scholars – Scholars in Wittenberg who gossip about andbemoan Faustus's interest in necromancy, rise to power, anddamnation. They are emblems of a wider public reaction to

Faustus's meteoric rise and fall, and also serve as examples ofthe scholarly, academic world in which Faustus lives. Whiledevoted to the pursuit of knowledge, they do not put theirdesire for knowledge ahead of their devotion to God (unlikeFaustus) and they pray for Faustus' soul at the end of the play.

BelzebubBelzebub – A devil whom Faustus sometimes summons, andwho sometimes accompanies or assists Lucifer andMephastophilis.

DukDuke of Ve of Vanholtanholt – Having heard of Faustus' powers, the Dukeinvites Faustus to his court. There, Faustus delights the Dukeand Duchess by making fresh grapes appear in the middle ofwinter. The Duke promises to pay Faustus for his marveloustrick.

Duchess of VDuchess of Vanholtanholt – The wife of the Duke, the Duchess asksFaustus to make grapes appear in the middle of winter. She isastonished and delighted by Faustus' magic.

AleAlexander the Greatxander the Great – The great general from Macedon whoconquered the entire Mediterranean world, Alexander issummoned by Faustus for the delight of Charles V, whoadmires Alexander's power.

AleAlexander's Pxander's Pararamouramour – Alexander's lover, who appears withAlexander when summoned by Faustus.

Helen of THelen of Troroyy – In Greek mythology, Helen is the mostbeautiful woman in the entire world and the cause of the TrojanWar (the Trojan prince Paris stole her from her Greek husbandMenelaus). The scholars ask Faustus to summon Helen andFaustus later asks Mephastophilis to make Helen his lover, sothat her beauty can distract him from his impending doom.

Cardinal of LCardinal of Lorrorraineaine – A cardinal in the Catholic church, who iswith the pope when Faustus and Mephastophilis visit.

ClownClown – Wagner finds this rustic peasant and makes himpromise to be his servant, in return for which he will teach himmagic.

VintnerVintner – The vintner is a wine merchant, who demands thatRobin and Rafe return or pay for a goblet they have stolen fromhim. Robin and Rafe summon demons to scare him off, thoughMephastophilis is annoyed that he has been summoned by twolowly clowns for this unexciting task.

BrunoBruno – The pope's rival, who is supported by Charles V. Thepope has him as a prisoner, but Faustus and Mephastophilishelp him escape back to Germany. Bruno only appears in the B-text.

TTwo Cardinalswo Cardinals – Two cardinals are with the pope when Faustusvisits the pope's chambers. In the B-text, Faustus andMephastophilis disguise themselves as these cardinals.

CarterCarter – A carter, or cart-driver, who encounters Faustus onthe road. He sells Faustus some hay and is amazed whenFaustus eats his entire wagon-load of hay. The carter appearsonly in the B-text.



BenBenvvolioolio – A knight who is skeptical of Faustus's magicalpowers. Faustus, in revenge, gives him a horn on his head.

In LitCharts each theme gets its own color and number. Ourcolor-coded theme boxes make it easy to track where thethemes occur throughout the work. If you don't have a colorprinter, use the numbers instead.

1 TEMPTATION, SIN, AND REDEMPTION

Deeply immersed in Christianity, Marlowe's play explores thealluring temptation of sin, its consequences, and the possibilityof redemption for a sinner like Doctor Faustus. Faustus'sjourney can be seen in relation to the possible trajectory fromtemptation to sin to redemption: Faustus' ambition is temptedby the prospect of limitless knowledge and power, he sins inorder to achieve it, and then he rejects possible redemption. Heis so caught up in his desire for power that he neglects theconsequences of his deal with Lucifer. Giving into histemptations, he rejects God in favor of Lucifer andMephastophilis, a sin if there ever was one.

In portraying Faustus' sinful behavior, Marlowe reveals thenegative effects of sin on Faustus himself. Despite his originallylofty ambitions, Faustus ends up using his magic for practicaljokes, parlor tricks, and the summoning of a beautiful woman(Helen of Troy). As the play's scholars lament, Faustus wasonce an esteemed scholar but after his deal with the devil heseems a mere shade of his former self.

While Faustus hurts himself and others through sin, he still hasthe possibility of redemption throughout the play. As the GoodAngel tells him, it is never too late to repent and thereby gainGod's mercy. But Faustus is persuaded by the Evil Angel not torepent, primarily by convincing Faustus that he's so damnedalready that he would never actually be able to return to God.These two angels can be seen as representing the opposingpulls of redemption and the temptation to sin even more.Faustus listens to the Evil Angel for the most of the play, butseems to repent in the final scene. Or does he? The question ofwhether Faustus really repents at the end of the tragedy isdebatable and has important implications for whether the playsuggests that at some moment it really is too late for a sinnerlike Faustus to repent and be redeemed. In any case, whetherbecause he repented too late or didn't repent truly, Faustusrejects the possibility of redemption and is ultimately damnedfor his sins.

2 THE BARGAIN

Faustus' bargain with Lucifer is the most famous part ofDoctor Faustus. The so-called “Faustian bargain” has become astandard way of referring to some kind of “deal with the devil,” a

motif that recurs throughout Western literary and culturaltraditions (from a version of the Faust story by the Germanpoet Goethe to the blues musician Robert Johnson, who legendsays sold his soul to Satan for his skill on the guitar). But theimportance of the bargain extends beyond this famous plotdevice. The idea of some kind of economic exchange or dealpervades the tragedy. Just as Lucifer cheats Faustus in theirdeal, Faustus cheats the horse-courser who buys a horse fromhim and Wagner gets a clown to agree to be his servant inreturn for learning some magic. These deals might be taken tosuggest that bargains are often simply occasions for oneindividual to exploit another.

However, there is another system of bargaining in the play,related to Christianity. The very word “redemption” literallymeans “a buying back.” In Christian thinking, Jesus redeemsmankind by “buying back” their sins at the expense of his owndeath. If Faustus' bargain with Lucifer is sealed with blood,God's agreement with mankind is, too—with the very blood ofJesus, shed on the cross. Moreover, Faustus can strike a dealwith God at any point in the play, gaining eternal salvation bysimply repenting his sins. Lucifer may hold Faustus to hisoriginal agreement, threatening him when he thinks aboutrepenting, but God is willing to take mercy even on sinners whodon't uphold their end of the divine bargain. Faustus, however,refuses to make this ultimate deal. At the end of the play, he isdesperate but still attempts to haggle with God, begging forsalvation in return for a thousand or a hundred-thousand yearsin hell.

Thus, one could see the play as ultimately about good and baddeals. And through this profusion of deals and exchanges,Marlowe is able to raise questions of value: what is worth more,power in this world or salvation in the next? How much is a soulworth? Can it even be put in terms of money and profit? As atragic hero, Faustus is done in by his excessive ambition andpride, but he is also doomed by his tendency to under-value thethings he bargains with and over-value the things he bargainsfor.

3 THE RENAISSANCE INDIVIDUAL

Marlowe lived and wrote during the English Renaissance, andhis play has much to say about the transition from a moremedieval society to the Renaissance. Greatly simplified, thismeans a shift in a variety of ways from reliance on some kind ofauthority figure to reliance on one's own individual self.Humanist scholars of the Renaissance refocused their studieson the individual human subject, while the Protestantreformation affirmed the individual's prerogative to interpretscripture instead of relying on the pope and the hierarchicalCatholic church. A flourishing of education and other socialchanges made it more and more possible for people to rise upthrough society through their own hard work and ambition.

THEMESTHEMES



Faustus embodies many of these changes: he is a self-mademan, from humble origins, who has risen through education. Heis ambitious and constantly desires to learn and know moreabout the world through various forms of scholarly inquiry. ButFaustus also demonstrates some possible dangers in theRenaissance stress on one's own individual self. His self-reliance shades into selfishness and excessive pride. Aftermaking his deal with Lucifer, Faustus is too proud to admit thathe was wrong and repent. He rejects the authority (and thehelp) of God and tries to handle things himself. While someresistance to authority and celebration of the individual may bea good thing (the play has no problems poking fun at the popeand the Catholic church, for example), Marlowe demonstratesthe pitfalls of excessive individualism. Not only does Faustusserve as an example of excessive individualism. So does Luciferhimself, who originally rebelled against the authority of God.The tension between the Renaissance notion of the power andimportance of the individual and the Christian stress onobeying God fills and animates Doctor Faustus. AlthoughFaustus suffers for erring too far in the direction of theindividual, Marlowe's tragedy leaves the question of how tobalance these opposing values unresolved (some may, after all,sympathize with the fiercely ambitious Faustus), forcingreaders to come to their own answers.

4 FATE VS. FREE WILL

In addition to the Renaissance more generally, the Protestantreformation and questions surrounding the changing nature ofEuropean Christianity in Marlowe's time have a profoundinfluence on Doctor Faustus. One such question that the playtackles is the issue of predestination. According to Calvinism (abranch of protestant Christianity started by John Calvin),people are predestined to be either saved in heaven or damnedin hell. In other words, they are born fated to go to one or theother and there's nothing they can do to change that.

One overarching question in Marlowe's play is whetherFaustus' fall from grace is his own fault or whether he is fatedto be damned. (The question can be extended also to Luciferand his renegade angels-turned-devils: were they fated to fallfrom heaven to hell?) Faustus seems to choose his own path,voluntarily agreeing to his deal with Lucifer. And he appears tohave the choice to repent at any moment in the play. But,according to a Calvinist interpretation, such free will is anillusion, as these “choices” are already predetermined by God.Even the two versions of the play can't seem to agree on ananswer. In a crucial line, the A-text has the Good Angel tellFaustus it is “Never too late, if Faustus will repent,” (V, 253).The B-text reads, “Never too late, if Faustus can repent.” In oneversion, the only question is whether Faustus “will” or will notrepent. In the other, it is questionable whether Faustus evenhas the option (“can” or can't he repent?). Regardless, that the

play engages in this kind of questioning at all suggests thatthere may be limits to and constraints upon free will.

5 EDUCATION, KNOWLEDGE, AND POWER

Faustus is identified as a character by his status as a doctor(that is, someone with a doctoral degree), and the backdrop ofmuch of the play is the university environment in which DoctorFaustus lives. It is thus no surprise that issues of formaleducation are of great importance to the play, in which evenmagic spells are learned from a kind of text-book. Systems ofeducation obviously exist to help people learn, but Marlowealso explores the associations of formal education with powerand social hierarchy. Education helps people positionthemselves in higher social classes. It is through education thatFaustus rises from his humble origins and that the play'sscholars differentiate themselves from lowly clowns like Robinand Rafe. And when Wagner promises to teach a clown magic,he uses his superior knowledge as a way to gain power over theclown, getting him to agree to be his servant.

But not everything can be learned in school and from books. Inhis opening soliloquy, Faustus rejects traditional areas of studyand, although his magic does rely on a spell-book, what heseeks from Mephastophilis is knowledge that he can't attain intraditional ways. For the ambitious Faustus, even beyond theimplications of educations affect on social hierarchy, knowledgemeans power. He desires limitless knowledge largely becauseof the massive riches and power that come with it. And indeedwhatever power Faustus possesses with his magic is dueentirely to his knowledge of certain magic incantations. Thisclose connection between knowledge and power can becontrasted with the idea of knowledge for its own sake, whichideally characterizes learning in universities.

Ultimately, Marlowe's play suggests that there are limits toproper knowledge and education. The desire to learn is notinherently bad, but Faustus goes too far and seeks to know toomuch. He himself seems to recognize this, as his last line in theplay contains a promise to burn his books (XIII, 113) and thusrepudiate his ambition for learning. The chorus that deliversthe final lines of the play sums up the moral of Faustus' story:“Regard his hellish fall, / Whose fiendful fortune may exhort thewise / Only to wonder at [i.e. be amazed at but don't seek tounderstand] unlawful things,” (Epilogue, 4-6). But even if thismoral is clear-cut, where to draw the line between appropriatesubjects of study and “unlawful things” that we shouldn't seekto know is unclear. Knowledge is power, but how much is toomuch?

Symbols appear in red text throughout the Summary & Analysissections of this LitChart.

SYMBOLSSYMBOLS



THE GOOD AND EVIL ANGELSThese two angels appear on-stage when Faustus wavers in hisdecision to give his soul to Lucifer and considers repenting. TheGood Angel encourages him to seek God's mercy and tells himthat it is never too late to do so. The Evil Angel persuadesFaustus not to repent, arguing that he is too damned to ever beable to return to god and so he should just keep indulging hisdesire for knowledge, power, and enjoyment. The angels can beseen as symbolizing the opposing pulls of sin and repentance,or the opposing sides of Faustus' own conscience. However,they also have a presence as actual entities, real angels on thestage.

BLOODMephastophilis is very clear that Lucifer will only make a dealwith Faustus if he signs a formal deed of gift signed with hisown blood. Faustus' blood thus symbolizes some true essenceof himself, which Lucifer desires as a sign of his commitment.When Faustus tries to sign the agreement, the blood congeals,and Faustus interprets this as a sign that his own body isreluctant to make the bargain with Lucifer. As Faustus' deathdraws near and he considers repenting, he says that a singledrop of Christ's blood would save him. Christ's blood alsoserves as a symbolic guarantee of a bargain, though a holy onein contrast to that between Lucifer and Faustus. Christ's bloodis shed through his crucifixion, the sacrifice by which Jesusredeemed mankind's sins. While the imagery of blood is thus animportant symbol throughout the play, there is also a tensionbetween blood as a physical part of Faustus' body, of which heis aware (he fears devils tearing his flesh and causing him pain),and blood as a symbol of someone's inner essence or soul,which Faustus entirely neglects.

THE SEVEN DEADLY SINSLucifer entertains Faustus by calling up the Seven Deadly Sins,personifications of Pride, Covetousness, Wrath, Envy, Gluttony,Sloth, and Lechery. These figures rather obviously symbolizethe sins for which they are named, but they also serve to revealFaustus' foolish neglect of sin. He takes pleasure in seeing themparade past him, but does not seem to make the connectionbetween these sins and his own (including his own excessivepride and, with Helen, lechery), which will turn out to be quitedeadly for him.

The color-coded boxes under each quote below make it easy totrack the themes related to each quote. Each color correspondsto one of the themes explained in the Themes section of thisLitChart.

PROLOGUENow is he born, his parents base of stock,In Germany, within a town called Rhodes;Of riper years to Wittenberg he went,Whereas his kinsmen chiefly brought him up.So soon he profits in divinity,The fruitful plot of scholarism graced,That shortly he was graced with doctor's name. (11-17)

•Speak•Speakerer: Chorus

•Mentioned or related char•Mentioned or related charactersacters: Doctor Faustus

•Related themes•Related themes: The Renaissance Individual, Education,Knowledge, and Power

••Theme TTheme Trrackacker codeer code:

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...Till, swollen with cunning, of a self-conceit,His waxen wings did mount above his reach,And melting heavens conspired his overthrow.For falling to a devilish exercise,And glutted more with learning's golden gifts,He surfeits upon cursed necromancy. (20-25)



•Related themes•Related themes: Temptation, Sin, and Redemption, Fate vs.Free Will, Education, Knowledge, and Power


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SCENE 1Is to dispute well logic's chiefest end?Affords this art no greater miracle?Then read no more, thou has attained the end.A greater subject fitteth Faustus' wit. (8-11)

•Speak•Speakerer: Doctor Faustus

•Related themes•Related themes: Education, Knowledge, and Power


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The end of physic is our body's health.Why Faustus, hast thou not attained that end? [...] Couldst thoumake men to live eternally,Or, being dead, raise them to life again,

QUOQUOTESTES



Then this profession were to be esteemed.Physic farewell! (17-27)




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Why then belike we must sin,And so consequently die.Ay, we must die an everlasting death.What doctrine call you this? Che sara, saraWhat will be, shall be! Divinity, adieu!These metaphysics of magicians,And necromantic books are heavenly! (44-50)


•Related themes•Related themes: Temptation, Sin, and Redemption, Education,Knowledge, and Power


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O Faustus, lay that damned book aside,And gaze not on it, lest it tempt thy soul,And heap God's heavy wrath upon thy head. (70-72)

•Speak•Speakerer: Good Angel and Evil Angel




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How am I glutted with conceit of this!Shall I make spirits fetch me what I please,Resolve me of all ambiguities,Perform what desperate enterprise I will?I'll have them fly to India for gold,Ransack the ocean for orient pearl,And search all corners of the new-found worldFor pleasant fruits and princely delicates. (78-85)


•Related themes•Related themes: Temptation, Sin, and Redemption, TheRenaissance Individual, Education, Knowledge, and Power


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Philosophy is odious and obscure,Both law and physic are for petty wits;Divinity is basest of the three,Unpleasant, harsh, contemptible, and vile.‘Tis magic, magic that hath ravished me. (106-110)




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And I, that have with concise syllogismsGraveled the pastors of the German church,And made the flowering pride of WittenbergSwarm to my problems, [...] Will be as cunning as Agrippa was,Whose shadows made all Europe honor him. (112-118)


•Related themes•Related themes: The Renaissance Individual, Education,Knowledge, and Power


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SCENE 3I am a servant to great Lucifer,And may not follow thee without his leave;No more than he commands must we perform. (40-42)

•Speak•Speakerer: Mephastophilis

•Mentioned or related char•Mentioned or related charactersacters: Doctor Faustus, Lucifer

•Related themes•Related themes: Fate vs. Free Will


44

For when we hear one rack the name of God,Abjure the Scriptures, and his savior Christ,We fly in hope to get his glorious soul. (47-49)



•Related themes•Related themes: Temptation, Sin, and Redemption




11

Go bear these tidings to great Lucifer,Seeing Faustus hath incurred eternal deathBy desperate thoughts against Jove's deity:Say, he surrenders up to him his soulSo he will spare him four and twenty years,Letting him live in all voluptuousness,Having thee ever to attend on me,To give me whatsoever I ask,To tell me whatsoever I demand,To slay mine enemies, and aid my friends,And always be obedient to my will. (87-89)


•Mentioned or related char•Mentioned or related charactersacters: Mephastophilis, Lucifer

•Related themes•Related themes: Temptation, Sin, and Redemption, TheBargain, Education, Knowledge, and Power


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Had I as many souls as there be stars,I'd give them all for Mephastophilis.By him I'll be great emperor of the world. (102-104)


•Mentioned or related char•Mentioned or related charactersacters: Mephastophilis

•Related themes•Related themes: Temptation, Sin, and Redemption, TheBargain


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SCENE 4Well, wilt thou serve me, and I'll make thee go like qui mihidiscipulus? (13-14)

•Speak•Speakerer: Wagner

•Mentioned or related char•Mentioned or related charactersacters: Clown

•Related themes•Related themes: The Bargain, Education, Knowledge, andPower


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SCENE 5Now Faustus, must thou needs be damned,And canst thou not be saved.What boots it then to think of God or heaven? (1-3)




11

But Faustus, thou must bequeath it solemnly,And write a deed of gift with thine own blood,For that security craves great Lucifer. (34-36)


•Mentioned or related char•Mentioned or related charactersacters: Doctor Faustus, Lucifer

•Related themes•Related themes: The Bargain


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Thanks, Mephastophilis, yet fain would I have a book wherein Imight behold all spells and incantations, that I might raise upspirits when I please. [...] Nay, let me have one book more, andthen I have done, wherein I might see all plants, herbs, andtrees that grow upon the earth. (163-173)





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When I behold the heavens, then I repent,And curse thee, wicked Mephastophilis,Because thou hast deprived me of those joys. (177-179)





11



My heart's so hardened I cannot repent!Scarce can I name salvation, faith, or heaven,But fearful echoes thunder in mine ears,“Faustus, thou are damned.” (194-197)


•Related themes•Related themes: Temptation, Sin, and Redemption, Fate vs.Free Will


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Why should I die then, or basely despair?I am resolved! Faustus shall ne'er repent.Come, Mephastophilis, let us dispute again,And argue of divine astrology. (207-210)





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Never too late, if Faustus will repent. (254)

•Speak•Speakerer: Good Angel and Evil Angel




11

SCENE 8How am I vexed with these villains' charms!From Constantinople am I hither come,Only for pleasure of these damned slaves.( 37-39)




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CHORUS 3They put forth questions of astrology,Which Faustus answered with such learned skill,As they admired and wondered at his wit.Now is his fame spread forth in every land. (9-12)





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SCENE 10Well, come give me your money; my boy will deliver him to you.But I must tell you one thing before you have him: ride him notinto the water at any hand. (10-12)


•Mentioned or related char•Mentioned or related charactersacters: Horse-courser

•Related themes•Related themes: The Bargain


22

SCENE 12Master Doctor Faustus, since our conference about fair ladies,which was the beautifulest in the world, we have determinedwith ourselves that Helen of Greece was the admirablest ladythat ever lived. Therefore, master doctor, if you will do us thatfavor as to let us see that peerless dame of Greece, whom allthe world admires for majesty, we should think ourselves muchbeholding unto you. (1-7)

•Speak•Speakerer: Three Scholars




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Ah stay, good Faustus, stay thy desperate steps!I see an angel hovers o'er thy headAnd with a vial full of precious graceOffers to pour the same into thy soul!Then call for mercy, and avoid despair. (42-47)

•Speak•Speakerer: Old Man




11



Accursed Faustus, where is mercy now?I do repent, and yet I do despair:Hell strives with grace for conquest in my breast! (53-55)




11

Sweet Mephastophilis, entreat thy lordTo pardon my unjust presumption;And with my blood again I will confirmMy former vow I made to Lucifer. (60-63)





11 22

One thing, good servant, let me crave of thee,To glut the longing of my heart's desire:That I might have unto my paramourThat heavenly Helen which I saw of late,Whose sweet embracings may extinguish cleanThese thoughts that do dissuade me from my vow:And keep mine oath I made to Lucifer. (72-78)



•Related themes•Related themes: Temptation, Sin, and Redemption, TheBargain, Education, Knowledge, and Power


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SCENE 13A surfeit of deadly sin, that hath damned both body and soul.(11-12)




11

Yet Faustus, look up to heaven; remember God's mercies areinfinite. (13-14)

•Speak•Speakerer: Three Scholars




11

But Faustus' offense can ne'er be pardoned! The serpent thattempted Eve may be saved, but not Faustus. (15-16)




11

On God, whom Faustus hath blasphemed? Ah my God—I wouldweep, but the devil draws in my tears! gush forth blood, insteadof tears—yea, life and soul! O, he stays my tongue! I would liftup my hands, but see, they hold them, they hold them! (27-31)




11 44

O I'll leap up to my God! Who pulls me down?See, see where Christ's blood streams in the firmament!One drop would save my soul, half a drop: ah my Christ. (69-71)




11 44

Let Faustus live in hell a thousand years,A hundred thousand, and at last be saved. (92-93)






11 22

Ugly hell gape not! Come not, Lucifer!I'll burn my books—ah, Mephastophilis! (112-113)





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EPILOGUECut is the branch that might have grown full straight,And burned is Apollo's laurel bough,That sometime grew within this learned man. (1-3)



•Related themes•Related themes: Fate vs. Free Will, Education, Knowledge,and Power


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Regard his hellish fall,Whose fiendful fortune may exhort the wiseOnly to wonder at unlawful things:Whose deepness doth entice such forward witsTo practice more than heavenly power permits. (4-8)





11 55

The color-coded boxes under "Analysis & Themes" below makeit easy to track the themes throughout the work. Each colorcorresponds to one of the themes explained in the Themessection of this LitChart.

PROLOGUEThe Chorus enters anddelivers the Prologue. Hebegins by assuring theaudience that the play will dealwith neither epic, nor heroic,nor courtly matters, butmerely with “the form ofFaustus' fortunes, good orbad” (Prologue, 8).

The chorus's modest claimscontrast with Faustus's soaringambition. The tragedy will focusupon the fortune of a singleindividual.

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The Chorus summarizesFaustus's biography, includinghis humble origins,precociousness as a student,interest in necromancy, andeventual fall from grace,comparing him to Icarus,whose “waxen wings”(Prologue, 20) melted when heflew too close to the sun.

Faustus's humble originsexemplify the Renaissanceindividual's ability to rise topower from nothing. But at thesame time, the allusion to themyth of Icarus brings to light thefolly of excessive ambition for anindividual.

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SCENE 1Alone in his study (inWittenberg, Germany),Faustus delivers his firstsoliloquy. He professes to havesounded the depths of eachmajor field of study and tohave found each undeservingof his full attention: logic,because he has alreadymastered its “chiefest end,” (I,8), which is to dispute well;medicine, because even anexcellent doctor cannot makemen live forever or rise fromthe dead; law, because it “aimsat nothing but external trash”(1, 33-4); and theology,because sin is unavoidable andits consequences too hard toface.

Faustus is very well-learned andconfident in his intelligence andability as an individual.Paradoxically, his dismissal ofordinary areas of study such aslogic is dependent upon hismastery of logic andargumentation. His detachedexamination of sin foreshadowshis future inability to avoidsinning, but also shows thatFaustus does not realize howrelevant the nature of sin is to hisown life.

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SUMMARY & ANALSUMMARY & ANALYSISYSIS



Faustus decides instead todevote himself to gainingpower through a mastery ofmagic. He praises the“necromantic books” (1, 48)filled with “lines, circles,letters, characters” (1, 49)from which he will learn thedark arts and obtain immenseprofit and power.

Faustus is attracted to magicbecause he craves knowledge ofthe occult, but he desiresknowledge largely for the powerand profit that will come with it,not for its own sake.

55

Wagner, Faustus's servant,enters. Faustus tells him toinvite the magicians Valdesand Cornelius to visit him.Wagner agrees and exits, andFaustus says, “Theirconference will be a greaterhelp to me / Than all my labors,plod I ne'er so fast” (1, 65-6).

While Faustus is a rather self-reliant individual, confident (evenarrogant) in his own abilities, hestill relies heavily on the help ofothers to teach him.

33

As Faustus waits for Valdesand Cornelius to arrive, theGood Angel and Bad Angelenter. The Good Angel begsFaustus not to be tempted bythe dark arts, and to readScripture instead. The BadAngel encourages him to goforward with it, hinting that hestands to gain both treasureand power. Both Angels exit.

The angels symbolize Faustus'tempting desires and hispotential for redemption.Faustus appears to be free tochoose which angel to listen to.At this point, before he has madethe deal, the bad angel lures himtoward sin with promises ofpower and wealth.

11 44

Alone again, Faustus deliversanother soliloquy, imaginingthe “pleasant fruits andprincely delicates” (1, 82) hisdevil servants might fetch forhim, the secrets and “strangephilosophy” (1, 83) they willshare with him, and the glorythey will help him bring toGermany (and Wittenberg inparticular) by both politicaland military means – not tomention his own possibleascent to the throne.

Again, Faustus' desire forknowledge is revealed to be, at itscore, a desire for power. While hewishes to bring glory to Germany,he is mostly focused on what hecan attain for himself as anindividual person. At this pointhis ambitions extend all the wayto becoming king.

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The magicians Valdes andCornelius arrive, and Faustuswelcomes them, revealing hisintention to listen to their pastencouragement to studynecromancy and asking fortheir help.

Despite his confidence in his ownabilities, Faustus relies uponValdes and Cornelius to learnmagic.

33

Valdes and Cornelius areexcited that Faustus is going totry magic. Valdes compares thepower he'll have to Spanishlords, lions, Germancavalrymen, and even giants.Cornelius assures Faustus thathe has all the background inminerals, languages andastrology he needs to excel inthe dark arts and obtainlimitless riches. Faustus,Valdes and Cornelius makeplans to dine together, andafterwards to hold Faustus'sfirst magic lesson. All threeexit.

Faustus is tempted by Valdes'description of immense power.But this power is dependentupon a knowledge of minerals,languages, astrology, and magicspells. It is not that Faustus'desire for knowledge is merely ared herring, when what he reallywants is power. The twoconcepts are inevitablyentangled, and Faustus wantsboth.

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SCENE 2Two Scholars enter and lingeroutside Faustus's house. Onewonders what became ofFaustus, who was once wasfamous for his passion forlogic.

The scholars stand in for theacademic university environmentwithin which Faustus lives, whereknowledge and argumentativeskill are prized.

55

The Scholars catch sight ofWagner, who enters. Theyquestion him as to Faustus'swhereabouts, and Wagnerhedges, mocking theiracademic language beforefinally revealing that Faustus isat dinner with Valdes andCornelius. Wagner exits.

The scholars' educated statusallows them to feel superior tothe servant Wagner. Wagnermocks them by aping theiracademic language, showing thathe too can talk like a scholarwhen he wants.

55

The Scholars bemoanFaustus's turn towardsnecromancy, and resolve toinform the head of theuniversity of this development.They both exit.

Like Faustus, the scholars valueknowledge and learning. But,unlike him, they will not resort tonecromancy to gain knowledge.

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SCENE 3Faustus enters, looking up atthe night sky as athunderstorm rages. Faustusdescribes how he has prayedand sacrificed to the devils,drawing circles, signs andanagrams. (In the B-Text,Lucifer and some devils are on-stage to hear this.) He beginshis Latin incantation, calling anumber of devils by name,including Mephastophilis.

Faustus' incantation is acomplicated matter, requiringknowledge and time spentstudying spells. Magic is thus notsome innate ability, but a field ofstudy that requires specificknowledge, in some ways similarto the subjects Faustus has spenthis life studying at university.

55

One devil, Mephastophilis,appears before Faustus, whoimmediately commands him toleave and come back in adifferent shape: “Thou are toougly to attend on me” (3, 26).He jokingly suggests aFranciscan friar, since “thatholy shape becomes a devilbest” (3, 28). The devil exits,and Faustus marvels at howobedient he is.

The joke at the expense of friarsis both a cheap shot at Catholics(unpopular in 16th centuryEngland) and an example ofFaustus' skepticism towardreligion, a sign of his Renaissanceindividualism. Faustus exults inthe power he has overMephastophilis.

33

Mephastophilis re-enters andasks Faustus what he wantshim to do. Faustus commandshim to wait on him, to dowhatever he tells him to do,but Mephastophilis repliesthat he can't obey withoutLucifer's permission. Faustusasks if Mephastophilis camebecause Lucifer ordered himto. Mephastophilis says no.Faustus then asks if hisconjuring madeMephastophilis appear. Again,Mephastophilis says no. Heexplains that devils go toanyone who renounces Godand Christ in the hopes ofgetting the person's soul. Thisis what has drawnMephastophilis to Faustus.

Faustus at first has troubleunderstanding the hierarchy ofhell. Initially Faustus seems tobelieve that his knowledge ofnecromancy has madeMephastophilis into his servant.But Mephastophilisanswers'—that he came neitherat Lucifer's nor Faustus'command, but rather because hecomes to anyone who seemsready to renounce God—turnsthat idea on its head.Mephastophilis is there, andwilling to give Faustus power, inorder to get Faustus to damnhimself.

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Faustus asks Mephastophilisabout Lucifer and the fallenangels: why they fell, wherethey are damned, and howthey can be outside Hell.Mephastophilis explains thatLucifer and other angels wereexpelled from heaven for theirpride and insolence. Hellfollows them; it is a state ofmind rather than a literal place.He begs Faustus to stopquestioning him, since thememory of being cast out ofheaven is painful, and Faustuscruelly mocks him for hismisery.

Faustus' first concern is toexpand his knowledge and learnmore about hell. Mephastophilis'pain at speaking about Lucifer'sfall from heaven shows thesuffering caused by sin withoutredemption, an example thatFaustus is not only too arrogantto heed but actually mocks.Faustus cannot comprehendwhat hell is like at this point. Hecan only imagine the power he isto gain.

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Faustus tells Mephastophilisto propose a deal to Lucifer:Faustus will give Lucifer hissoul in return for 24 years withMephastophilis as his servant.Mephastophilis vows to conferwith Lucifer and return withnews. Faustus delivers asoliloquy, reaffirming that hethinks the deal is worth thepower he will get throughMephastophilis and saying,“Had I as many souls as therebe stars / I'd give them all forMephastophilis” (3, 101-2).

Faustus himself comes up withthe idea of the bargain. But is hissupposedly free will really justpredetermined by God?Regardless, Faustus is pleasedwith the deal; he clearly does notknow the value of his own soul.

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SCENE 4Wagner enters and calls out toa Clown, calling him “boy” –which the clown, entering too,takes as an insult. Wagneropines that the poor clownwould give the devil his soulfor some mutton, and the twotrade some wordplay.

While Wagner disliked thescholars' sense of superiority inScene 2, here he himself uses hisknowledge and relative socialclout to talk down to the rusticclown.

55

Hoping to enlist the clown ashis servant, Wagner threatensto turn all of his lice intodemons if he doesn't go intoservice for him for seven years,and he even offers severalcoins, but the clown refuses.

Like Faustus' bargain withLucifer, this deal is simply anattempt for one party (Wagner)to exploit the other (the clown).

33



Insisting that the clown has nochoice, Wagner calls up twodevils to prove his point. Theclown says he isn't afraid ofdevils, but when two devilsenter, he is terrified. Wagnersends the devils away, and theyexit.

Wagner continues to try toexploit the clown through a badbargain. He uses his knowledgeof magic and what little power hehas to exert influence over theclown.

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After the devils exit, the clownasks Wagner if while he's in hisservice he can teach Robinmagic. Wagner agrees, butreminds the clown to call him“Master Wagner” and to walkattentively behind him at alltimes. Thus, they exit.

Wagner seems most concernedwith establishing a clearhierarchy, with him as theclown's master. Again, it is hisknowledge (of magic spells) thatgives him this power over theclown.

55

SCENE 5Faustus begins to doubtwhether he has made a gooddeal. He considers turningback to God, but ultimatelyrejects the idea, telling himself,“The god thou servest is thineown appetite,” (5, 11).

Faustus considers the path ofredemption, but continues togive into his own temptationsand desires. Here he is literallysaying that his own desire—thathe himself—will be his god.

11

The Good Angel and EvilAngel appear. The Good Angeltries to convince Faustus torepent and seek God again,asking him to think of heaven.The Evil Angel counters bytelling Faustus to think ofwealth, which excites Faustus.The angels leave.

The angels again make theircases to Faustus. Faustus valuesmaterial wealth over the spiritualwealth of heaven. In continuingto follow the Evil Angel, he isessentially exchanging one forthe other.

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Faustus resolves to go with hisdeal, thinking of all the wealthhe will amass. He summons upMephastophilis and asks ifthere is news from Lucifer.Mephastophilis announcesthat Lucifer has accepted thedeal, and that Faustus mustsign an agreement with hisown blood to finalize the deal.

All of this deliberation seems toimply that Faustus is makingdecisions based on his own freewill. Lucifer insists on a formal,legalistic document for theirbargain, with Faustus' bloodsymbolizing his totalcommitment to the agreement.

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Faustus asks what Luciferwants with his soul.Mephastophilis informs himthat Lucifer seeks to enlargehis kingdom and make otherssuffer as he does. Faustuseagerly cuts his arm andprepares to sign a deed of giftto give his soul to Lucifer. Hisblood congeals almostimmediately, though, andFaustus wonders, “What mightthe staying of my bloodportend?” (5, 64)

Faustus realizes that hiscongealing blood does not bodewell. It seems to signify that hisbody, and to the extent that hisblood represents his veryessence, his soul, are trying tostop him from damning himself.He has another opportunity tofreely repent and seekredemption.

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After Mephastophilis bringshot coals to warm his bloodback into liquid, Faustus signsthe agreement. Immediately,he sees written on his arm thewords homo fuge (Latin for“Flee, man”). He panics andwonders where he could fleeto: “if unto God, he'll throw medown to hell.” (5, 77)

The critical moment has passed,and the agreement is signed.Note how Faustus' reasons fornot repenting now change: beforesigning the agreement hefollowed the bad angel becauseof the temptation of wealth andpower. Now that he has signedthe agreement, now that he is adamned sinner, he finds it hard tobelieve that God would actuallytake him back. This is a classictorment of the sinner, who (withthe same sort of aggrandizementof himself that led him to sin inthe first place) believes that hissin is so uniquely awful thatrepentance is impossible. Putanother way, he loses faith inGod's infinite love.

11



Mephastophilis leaves and re-enters with more devils,bringing Faustus crowns andexpensive clothing.Mephastophilis promisesFaustus that he now hasaccess to riches and the abilityto call forth spirits. Thiscomforts Faustus' anxietiesabout the deal, and he givesMephastophilis the signedagreement. He reads thecontract, which states that, inreturn for his soul, Faustus willhave the powers of a spirit,while Mephastophilis will be athis service, doing and bringinghim whatever he wants.Mephastophilis will appearwhenever Faustus calls himand will be invisible.Mephastophilis accepts theagreement.

Faustus' anxieties are assuagedby his desire for riches andpower, for the ability to orderMephastophilis around. Thecontract is read out in full,emphasizing its status as abinding, legal document to whichFaustus willingly assented.

11 22 44

With his newfound power,Faustus first seeks to increasehis knowledge. He asksMephastophilis exactly wherehell is. Mephastophilis answersthat hell “hath no limits” (5,120) and is wherever devilsare. Faustus says he doesn'tbelieve in hell and is thereforenot worried that he has givenhis soul to Lucifer and will bedamned to hell.Mephastophilis says that hehimself is proof of hell'sexistence, since he is damnedand in hell.

Faustus immediately sets aboutacquiring knowledge. Onceagain, he does not heed theexample of Mephastophilis andother devils, who demonstratethe painful consequences ofunrepentant sinning.

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Faustus ordersMephastophilis to get him awife and he returns with adevil in women's clothing,which Faustus angrily rejects.Mephastophilis gives Faustusa book filled with magic spells.He tells Faustus that the bookcontains spells to raise upspirits, as well as knowledge ofthe planets, the heavens, andall plants, herbs, and trees.

The spell-book is almost like atext-book for magic. The realm ofmagic thus seems just like theother things Faustus has studiedover the course of his life. Thebook contains a wealth ofknowledge for the eager Faustus.

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The mention of the heavenscauses Faustus to think ofheaven and he debatesrepenting and renouncingmagic. At this, the Good Angeland Evil Angel appear. TheGood Angel encouragesFaustus to repent andpromises God's forgiveness,but the Evil Angel says thatGod would not pity Faustus.The angels leave and Faustussays he cannot repent.

Faustus continues to haveopportunities to repent, but hecontinues to listen to the EvilAngel, who claims that it is toolate. There are two alternate butrelated paradoxes at work here.First: it is only too late forFaustus to repent because hethinks it's too late. At the sametime, if Faustus was predestinedto go to hell, then he thinks it'stoo late and can't repent becausehe's fated not to be able torepent.

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After resolving not to repent,Faustus continues askingMephastophilis questions. Heasks him about astronomy, theplanets, and the universe. Heasks who made the world andMephastophilis refuses toanswer, saying that giving theanswer would be “against ourkingdom,” (5, 245).Mephastophilis leaves andFaustus again questionswhether he should repent.

Faustus continues to seek moreknowledge from Mephastophilis.Mephastophilis can tell him allabout the universe, but will notmention God. Again, Faustus'seems unable to take a hint fromMephastophilis' suffering andrepent.

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As soon as Faustus mentionspossibly repenting, the angelsappear again. The Evil Angeltells him it is too late to repent,but the Good Angel says thatit is never too late. The angelsleave and Faustus cries out forChrist to save his soul.

This is one of the moments whereFaustus is the closest to actuallyrepenting his sins and voluntarilyseeking redemption through God.

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At Faustus' invocation ofChrist, Mephastophilisappears with Lucifer andBelzebub (another devil).Lucifer tells Faustus thatChrist cannot save him andthat his talk of Christ “injures”the devils. He tells Faustus notto think of God, but rather ofthe devil, with whom he hasmade his agreement. Faustusvows not to speak of God orheaven anymore.

However, Faustus' about-face isquickly reversed, as Luciferconvinces him to continuesinning. Is Lucifer right thatChrist cannot save him now thathe has given away his soul, or ishe merely lying to keep Faustusin tow? He is, after all, the devil.Note how Lucifer resorts to akind of legalese here, remindingFaustus of his agreement, of thebargain. The thing aboutrepentance, in contrast, is that itisn't the same sort of bargain.Instead it is total, complete—yougive yourself freely to God, andGod gives you grace (i.e.everything) in return. There is noexploitation in the "deal" withGod.

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Lucifer announces that he hascome to show Faustus theSeven Deadly Sins “in theirproper shapes,” (5, 274) forwhich Faustus is excited. Aseach personified sin enters,Faustus questions them. Thesins are Pride, Covetousness,Wrath, Envy, Gluttony, Sloth,and Lechery. Each describesthe qualities of their own sin.

Faustus is entertained by seeingthese sins right in front of him,but still does not think of his ownsins. It seems not to register thathe is committing the same sins.

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Faustus is pleased at seeingthe sins, and eagerly asksLucifer to see hell. Lucifer saysthat he will send for Faustus atmidnight and encourages himto peruse the book of spells inthe meantime, from which hecan learn how to change hisshape.

Faustus' insatiable desire toknow includes even a desire tosee hell. Lucifer keeps playinginto Faustus' desires byencouraging him to learn moreand more spells.

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SCENE 6A stablehand named Robinenters and announces that hehas stolen one of Faustus'conjuring books. He is eager tolearn some magic, but isinterrupted by Rafe, anotherstablehand, who comes to tellRobin that a gentleman needshis horse and things lookedafter. Robin tells Rafe that hehas a book of spells and claimsthat he can do all sorts offantastic things with magic.They leave to attempt somemagic.

Robin and Rafe offer some comicrelief. Without Faustus'education, their awkwardattempts at magic seem like acounterpoint to Faustus' loftyambitions of power andknowledge. (But how differenttheir ridiculous motivationsreally are from Faustus' "lofty"ambitions of gaining knowledge,wealth, and power will soonbecome more ambiguous.)

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CHORUS 2Alone on the stage, Wagnerannounces that Faustus hasridden in a chariot drawn bydragons through the sky tolearn the secrets of astronomyand is now flying around theglobe. Wagner guesses thatFaustus will go to Rome first.

Faustus continues to gatherknowledge far beyond thenormal human scope ofexperience. He is, in a sense,taking the ambitions of aRenaissance individual to theirextreme, reaching literallysoaring heights.

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SCENE 7Faustus enters withMephastophilis. Faustusrecounts how they havetraveled throughout Europeand asks Mephastophilis ifthey are now in Rome, wherehe had orderedMephastophilis to bring him.Mephastophilis answers thatthey are in the pope's “privychamber,” (7, 24). Faustus iseager to see the monuments ofthe city of Rome.Mephastophilis suggests thatthey stay in the pope's room,instead, and play some trickson the pope. Faustus agreesand Mephastophilis casts aspell that makes Faustusinvisible.

Upon arriving in Rome, Faustusseeks to expand his cultural andintellectual horizons, visiting thecity's monuments. ButMephastophilis easily persuadeshim to use magic for cheap tricksand pranks at the expense of thepope. Faustus's lofty ambitionsare sliding a bit as he uses hispower to indulge his baserinstincts.

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In the B-text, the pope entersalong with attendants andBruno, a rival for the office ofpope who was supported bythe German emperor. Thepope humiliates and ridiculesBruno for opposing him.Mephastophilis and Faustusdisguise themselves as twocardinals and the pope givesBruno to them to be executed.Instead, they help Brunoescape to Germany. When theactual two cardinals return tothe pope, he asks themwhether Bruno has beenexecuted but they areconfused and swear they werenever given Bruno. All of this isonly in the B-text and does notoccur in the A-text.

This scene from the B-textfurthers the unflatteringportrayal of the pope in the A-text. The pope is characterized aspower-hungry and moreconcerned with himself than thechurch. Marlowe's audienceswould have gladly seen thiscritical portrayal of the leader ofthe Roman Catholic church,which was seen as standing inopposition to the newRenaissance ideals of individualambition (exemplified by bothFaustus and Bruno) and also,more importantly, as beinghostile to England.

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In the A-text, the pope enterswith a cardinal and some friars,ready to eat at a banquet.Faustus and Mephastophilis,invisible, curse loudly andsnatch dishes from the table.The pope and the friars thinkthat a ghost is harassing them.The pope crosses himself, andthe friars sing a dirge to drivethe spirit away. Faustus andMephastophilis beat the friars,fling fireworks everywhere,and then leave.

Faustus' use of magic has nowdeteriorated to pulling cheappranks. In fulfilling his desires, heseems to have lost some of hisnoble motivations, and his ownsinning seems to have affectedhimself, hurting his character.(Still, Protestant members ofMarlowe's audiences might nothave thoroughly enjoyed someslapstick comedy at the expenseof the pope.)

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SCENE 8Robin and Rafe enter with asilver goblet they have stolen.They are attempting to useFaustus' book to conjure. Avintner (wine merchant)interrupts them, demandingthey pay for the goblet. Theydeny that they have the goblet,and Robin casts a spell toconjure up Mephastophilis,who scares the vintner away.Mephastophilis is angry atbeing summoned by the lowlyRobin and Rafe and beingcalled away from Faustus (whois in Constantinople). Hethreatens to transform Robinand Rafe into animals andleaves.

Robin and Rafe continue to offera counterpoint to the educatedFaustus. Mephastophilis isirritated at being summoned forsuch an unimportant task. Buthow different is this from Faustusand Mephastophilis' own pranksin Rome? Regardless ofeducation and social status, bothgroups' use of magic seemsmotivated by simple desires.Faustus is just pulling pranks onimportant people like the Pope,while Robin and Rafe are doingthe same to a lowly winemerchant.

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CHORUS 3The chorus enters and tells theaudience that Faustus hasreturned home from histravels, amazing his friendswith what he has learned ofastrology and the world. Asword of his knowledge hasspread, Faustus has now beeninvited to feast with theGerman Emperor Charles V.

Faustus' newfound knowledgehas indeed brought with it greatpower and prestige. Magic hasallowed him to rise even furtherthrough societal ranks, gainingan invitation to the royal court.

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SCENE 9In the B-text, two men at thecourt of emperor Charles V,named Martino and Frederick,discuss Bruno's escape fromthe pope and the now-famousDoctor Faustus. A knightnamed Benvolio arrives. He isnot impressed by Faustus'devil-inspired conjuring andsays that he will not go to courtto see Faustus. This entirescene is not in the A-text at all.

In this B-text scene, Martino andFrederick are evidence ofFaustus' meteoric rise to fame,while Benvolio (simply anunnamed knight in the A-text)offers a critical point of view onFaustus' sinful magic.

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At the court of the emperor,Charles V eagerly asksFaustus to prove his skills inmagic by performing a spell,though a knight (the samecharacter as Benvolio in the B-text) at court is skeptical ofFaustus. Faustus agrees andthe emperor asks him to bringforth the spirit of Alexanderthe Great, since the emperorgreatly admires the famousconqueror.

Faustus employs his magic notfor lofty goals but for petty parlortricks. The knight, much like thescholars from earlier, is critical ofFaustus' sinful turn to demonicmagic.

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The skeptical knight doesn'tbelieve that Faustus can bringAlexander forth, and leaves,not wanting to be present forthe conjuring. Faustus hasMephastophilis leave andreturn with the spirits ofAlexander and Alexander'sparamour. The emperorexamines the spirits andremarks that he thinks theyare the true bodies ofAlexander and his lover. (In theB-text, Alexander appears withhis rival Darius, king of Persia,whom he then defeats.)

Alexander represents theepitome of a powerful individual.Faustus too has achieved muchpower through his magic, butagain there is a disconnectbetween the grandness of hisoriginal ambition to become aking (much like Alexander theGreat) and his behavior here as amere court entertainer. Perhapsfulfilling his wildest desires hasmade Faustus stop desiringthings and has thus robbed himof ambition.

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The spirits leave, and Faustusasks for the emperor to callthe skeptical knight back tocourt. The knight re-entersand now has horns on his head,the result of a curse fromFaustus in return for hisrudeness. The emperor asksFaustus to take the hornsaway; Faustus relents. Theemperor promises Faustus areward for his display of magic,before leaving. Faustus tellsMephastophilis that he wantsto return to Wittenberg.

Faustus continues to play tricksthrough his magic. Hisindulgence in sin seems to havedeteriorated his character as arespectable scholar.

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In the B-text, after Faustusleaves, Martino and Frederickre-enter with Benvolio.Irritated by Faustus' prank,Benvolio plots to kill Faustus.Martino and Frederickreluctantly agree to help. Theyhide to ambush Faustus,unaware that he has a false(prosthetic) head to trick them.Benvolio decapitates Faustusand celebrates his victory. Thethree men plan to disfigure thehead, when they realize thatFaustus is still alive. Faustussends devils to punishBenvolio, Frederick, andMartino for their attemptedambush, tormenting them andputting horns on all theirheads. Again, none of thisoccurs in the A-text.

This B-text addition furtheremphasizes themes already inthe A-text version: the knight'sdisapproval of Faustus andFaustus' great power but cheapapplication of it. Sinning seemsto have made Faustus a morewicked character, driven more bybasic desires for revenge andentertainment than by a questfor knowledge.

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SCENE 10Back in Wittenberg, Faustusmeets with a horse-courser(horse trader) and sells him hishorse. He warns the trader notto ride the horse into water.Faustus begins to worry abouthis impending death anddamnation. He falls asleep.

Though less significant thanFaustus' bargain with Lucifer,this deal (which we will soonlearn is a bad one) furthers theplay's exploration of bargains,deals, and exchanges as potentialchances for exploitation.

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The horse-courser returns,completely wet, and angrilycalls for Faustus. He hadridden the horse out into themiddle of a pond (thinking thatFaustus' warning was anattempt to hide some magicskill of the horse), at whichpoint the horse turned into apile of hay and he fell into thewater. The horse-coursershouts in Faustus' ear andpulls on his leg to wake him.Faustus' leg comes off, and theshocked horse-courser flees.Faustus' leg is instantlyrestored, and he laughs at thehorse-courser. Wagner arrivesto tell Faustus that hiscompany is requested by theDuke of Vanholt, “anhonorable gentleman,” (10,74).

Faustus uses the bargain tocheat the horse-courser, butdoesn't seem to realize thatLucifer may be cheating him intheir own deal. With the fake leg,Faustus continues to use magicfor essentially cheap jokes,further evidence of his degradedcharacter.

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In the B-text, Robin and Rafehave a drink at a tavern. At thebar, a carter (a cart-driver)tells them that he ran intoFaustus on a road and Faustuspaid him to give him all of thehay from his wagon, whichFaustus then promptly ate.The horse-courser is also atthe bar, and joins in theconversation, telling everyoneabout the horse he boughtfrom Faustus and how ittransformed on the water. Thehorse-courser acts as if he gotrevenge, though, by tearingFaustus' leg off, neglecting totell the other bar patrons thatthis was only a fake leg. Thistavern scene does not appearin the A-text.

This additional scene in the B-text offers more comic relief. Thehorse-courser's story, inparticular, elicits laughs as theaudience knows that he is lying.The courser's story shows thecontinued decline of Faustus, asthis use of magic makes himsimply grotesque.

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SCENE 11The Duke and Duchess ofVanholt entertain Faustus(and Mephastophilis) at court.Faustus asks the Duchesswhat he can conjure thatwould please her, and she askshim to make a plate of grapesappear, since it is the middle ofwinter (and grapes are onlyavailable in the summer).Mephastophilis leaves andbrings back grapes. The Dukeis intrigued and asks Faustushow he procured grapes in themiddle of winter. Faustusanswers that when it is winterin Germany, it is summer inopposite parts of the globe. Hesent “a swift spirit that I have”(11, 21) to bring the grapesfrom afar. Faustus encouragesthe Duchess to eat the grapes,and she says they are the bestshe's ever tasted. The Dukeand Duchess promise toreward Faustus for his displayof magic.

Once again, Faustus' greatpowers are put to lowly uses.Faustus was once a respected,wise scholar. Now he has gainedmuch knowledge and power, buthe spends his time currying favorby fulfilling the whims of thepowerful. His sinning has hurtnot only others, but also his owncharacter.

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CHORUS 4In a brief interlude betweenscenes, Wagner thinks aloudto the audience that Faustusmust be nearing death,because he has given Wagnerall of his possessions. ButWagner is confused, becauseFaustus is feasting, carousing,and enjoying himself, whichdoes not seem to Wagner likethe behavior of someoneabout to die.

Faustus seems to realize that hisend is near, as he gives Wagnerhis possessions. But this does notseem to compel Faustus torepent, as he continues to enjoyhimself and indulge in his life ofsinning against God.

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SCENE 12Faustus and Mephastophilisare with several scholars. Oneof them asks Faustus toconjure up Helen, the mythicalGreek woman who wassupposedly the most beautifulwoman in the world. Faustussummons her. Helen walksacross the stage, to the aweand delight of the scholars,who leave after Helendisappears.

While the scholars like todistinguish themselves fromlower characters like Rafe andRobin, all they ask Faustus for isnot anything noble orparticularly learned, but simply abeautiful woman. Evidently, theyare not so superior to theuneducated clowns.

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An old man enters and tries toattempt Faustus to repent.Faustus is enraged and shoutsthat he is damned and ought todie. Mephastophilis givesFaustus a dagger. The old mansays he sees an angel overFaustus' head, offering himmercy. Faustus tells the man toleave him so he can think abouthis sins.

The old man plays a similar roleto that of the Good Angel, urgingFaustus to repent and telling himthat redemption is still possible.For his part, Faustus seems atonce despairing (much asMephastophilis describes himselfas being in despair) and yetpreferring to wallow in thatdespair than to repent orrecognize the beauty and love ofGod—a state of being describedby the deadly sin of Sloth.

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Faustus says he wants torepent. In response,Mephastophilis calls him atraitor and threaten to “inpiecemeal tear thy flesh,” (12,59). Faustus apologizes andsays he will re-confirm his vowto Lucifer. Faustus tellsMephastophilis to torment theold man for making him doubthis bargain, and then asks himto make Helen his lover, sothat her “sweet embracingsmay extinguish clean” hisanxieties about his deal withLucifer.

Faustus again comes close toseeking God's mercy andredemption. At the mention ofrepentance, Mephastophilisthreatens him, holding tight tothe agreed-upon bargain. In theface of the fear of torture (whichone might characterize as thefine print of his bargain withLucifer), Faustus gives in. Hisfaith in God is not great enoughto overcome his fear of pain. Hisasking for Helen shows theextent to which the formerlygreat scholar now simplydistracts himself with simplepleasures. And even he knowsit—as he explicitly describesHelen as something he wants tohelp ease his anxieties about hisbargain.

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Helen appears and Faustusbegs for her kiss, asking her to“give me my soul again,” (12,85). The old man re-enters.Faustus is obsessed withHelen's beauty, and the pairleave. The old man lamentsFaustus' miserable fate. Agroup of devils appear totorment the old man, who saysthat his faith in God willtriumph over the devils.

Faustus seeks a “soul” throughphysical pleasure with Helen,rather than simply repenting hissins, showing the extent of his fallfrom grace. The old man, bycontrast, puts his trust in Godeven as devils come to harm him.

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SCENE 13Faustus enters with thescholars from earlier. Faustusis in despair, as the end of hisdeal with Lucifer isapproaching. Faustus lamentshis sins, and the scholars tellhim to seek God's mercy. ButFaustus answers that Godcannot pardon him. He revealsthat he has given away his soulfor all the knowledge he hasacquired. The scholars arehorrified.

The scholars value knowledgejust as Faustus does, but eventhey are horrified at whatFaustus has sacrificed to get hisknowledge and power. To them,Faustus' bargain was clearly ahorrible deal. Like the GoodAngel and the Old Man, theyencourage him to repent.

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Faustus explains that hewanted to go back on his deal,but Mephastophilisthreatened to tear him topieces. The scholars leave togo pray for Faustus. The clockstrikes eleven and Faustusrealizes he has one hour left tolive. Faustus cries out and begstime to stand still and for theday not to end.

The scholars still think thatFaustus may have a chance torepent. Faustus begs for time tostop—he's looking for someloophole in his deal—but still willnot admit his mistake and ask forGod's mercy. Is he simply tooproud or foolish, or is heconstrained by some force offate?

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Faustus cries to God for help,but at the name of God hefeels pain in his heart (becausehe has given Lucifer his soul).He begs Lucifer to spare him,then asks the earth to gapeopen and save him from hell.He asks the stars to carry himup to the sky.

Faustus comes close torepenting, but feels pain at thevery name of God. Perhaps it istoo late for him, but it is alsopossible that he is not trulyrepenting. God is only one ofmany things he addresses,desperately seeking help.

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The clock rings out: Faustushas half an hour left. He begsGod for mercy and asks to bein hell a thousand or a hundredthousand years and then besaved, rather than beingeternally damned. He cursesLucifer and himself. Midnightcomes, and Faustus despairs.Devils enter and carry Faustusoff as he continues to cry out,promising to burn his books.

Faustus now tries to strike a kindof deal with God, asking forsalvation in return for time spentin hell, instead of openly andcompletely asking for mercy andgiving himself to God. Whetherhe never really had a choice orwhether his downfall wasthrough his own will, he isultimately damned. With his lastline, he is even willing to burn hisbooks, symbolically giving up hisdesire for learning andknowledge, but it is too late.

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EPILOGUEThe chorus announces thatFaustus is gone and tells theaudience to see his downfall asan example of why they shouldnot try to learn “unlawfulthings,” (Epilogue, 6) thattempt wise men “to practicemore than heavenly powerpermits,” (Epilogue, 8).

The chorus' moral encouragesthe audience to learn fromFaustus and set limits to whatthey seek to learn and know. Butwhile this moral may seem clear,the question of where to drawthe line between appropriate andinappropriate knowledge andambition is anything but clear.

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HOW THOW TO CITEO CITEIt's easy to cite LitCharts for use in academic papers and reports.

MLA CITMLA CITAATIONTIONFredericksen, Erik. "Doctor Faustus." LitCharts. LitCharts LLC, 3Nov 2013. Web. 24 Aug 2016.

CHICACHICAGO MANUGO MANUAL CITAL CITAATIONTIONFredericksen, Erik. "Doctor Faustus." LitCharts LLC, November 3,2013. Retrieved August 24, 2016. http://www.litcharts.com/lit/doctor-faustus.



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