The Behavioral Revolution? A Geneaology of a Concept

8/12/2019 The Behavioral Revolution? A Geneaology of a Concept

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THE BEHAVIORAL REVOLUTION? A GENEALOGY OF A CONCEPT

Josh BerkenpasWestern Michigan University

ABSTRACT

For this article, I ask the question where is the behavioral revolution? My aim is to

illuminate the discursive evolution of the behavioral revolution in American political

science through a non -rhetorical history of the behavioral revolution (Schmidt 1998,

11). I examine the way the analytic construct of the behavioral revolution evolved in the

discourse of the discipline over time. I begin with an illustrative example drawn from

contemporary reference material and then turn to an analysis of the writing of

behavioralists authors in the 1950s and early 1960s: Robert Dahl, Heinz Eulau, and David

Easton. I then discuss the emergence of the behavioral revolution in the discourse of the

discipline more generally and contrast a proponent of behavioralism (Easton 1968) with

a critic (Wolin 1969). I end the article with a discussion of the way that contemporary

disciplinary historians understand the behavioral revolution. While the importance of the

concept of the behavioral revolution is shown to be ongoing, the origin of the

conventional use of the behavioral revolution is traced to the late 1960s.

SEARCHING FOR THE BEHAVIORAL REVOLUTION

In this article, I ask the question Where is the Behavioral Revolution? Not wither the

behavioral revolution, but where did it first appear and subsequently proliferate in the discourse of

the discipline? The debate continues over the precise origins of behavioralism in political science.

As the disciplinary historian John Gunnell points out in the Oxford Handbook of Political Ideology ,


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it would be difficult to determine when the first shot was fired in what came to be called, by all

parties, the behavioral revolution (2013 a, 82; see also 2013b, 191). A common understanding

of the behavioral revolution is found in another contemporary reference work. The political

scientist Clyde Barrows entry on Political S cience in the International Encyclopedia of Social

Sciences summarizes the history of the discipline. B arrow states that during the 1920s, political

science began a paradigm shift that culminated in the behavioral revolution of the 1950s (2008,

312). The mention of the behavioral revolution is immediately placed in the context of a

transformation in the disciplines understanding of the scientific enterprise, which made the

science in political science positivist in the sense that political scientists increasingly came to believe that there is a single scientific method that starts with the formulation of a hypothesis,

followed by empirical observation or experimentation, which leads to falsification or verification

of the initial hypothesis (312).

By the 1950s, the positivist movement had culminated in the rise of behavioralism and the

behavioral revolution in political science. This revolution is considered by Barrow to be a

Kuhnian scientific revolution (312). Following the publication of Kuhns The Structure of

Scientific Revolutions in 1962 it quickly became de rigueur in American political science to speak

of the history of the discipline in the Kuhnian terms of normal science, paradigm shift, and

scientific revolution (Ricci 1977). By 1965, the language introduced by Kuhn to explain changes

in dominant scientific paradigms had entered the mainstream. This is reflected, for example, in

David Truman s 1965 APSA Presidential Address (1965, 865). Barrow understands the

behavioral revolution in Kuhnian terms of a scientific revolution because the organizing paradigm

of the discipline shifted from a focus on the state in the German tradition of Staatswissenschaft to

the political system , and because the reorientation of methodological focus to behavioral


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methods borrowed from the physical sciences. The first aspect of this paradigm shift, Barrow

describes the transition from positivism to behavioralism, was a redefinition of the meaning of

science [along] the same methodological foundations as the natural sciences (312). In

Bar rows narrative, the positivist movement of the 1920s was spearheaded by efforts at the

University of Chicago and especially the foundation of the Social Science Research Council and

the work of Charles Merriam. 1

Barrows entry is a textbook example of a political scientist using a form of historical

narrative to convey the triumphal and rapid transformation of the discipline after the behavioral

revolution. But how did we get here? When did political scientists first begin to incorporate theconcept of the behavioral revolution in their discussions of the disciplines past ? When was the

concept invented and how have prominent political scientists used it over time? To continue this

inquiry into the discursive origin of the phrase the behavioral revol ution, I now turn to the

literature of the behavioralists themselves. What better place to look for the behavioral revolution

than in the written works of the actors during this period? As we shall see this approach is useful

in only a limited way. After a review of behavioral period literature, I turn to two examples of

authors using the behavioral revolution in their writing. I then review the way contemporary

disciplinary historians use the concept in their writing. In conclusion I argue that the behavioral

revolution should not be understood as an event that can be given a precise dating . It is better

to understand the behavioral revolution as a discursive object created in the discourse of political

scientists writing in the past. This understanding allows one to see how the language of

revolution is misleading when discussing the discursive history of political science.


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THE BEHAVIORAL PERIOD

In his 1991 Study of Electoral Behavior, Jack Dennis discusses the behavioral

revolution in terms of a movement which began to emerge and to change the intellectual

concerns of political scientists by the late 1940s and early 1950 (1991, 54). Dennis is a prominent

behavioral scholar and a former student of one of the founders of behavioralism, David Easton

(Easton 1965, note 11). In his discussion of the behavioral revolution, Dennis cites three prominent

behavioralist works: Robert Dahls 1961 American Political Science Review ( APSR) article The

Behavioral Approach in Political Science ; Heinz Eulaus 1963 The Behavioral Persuasion in

Politics; and David Eastons 1965 A Framework for Political Analysis . Dennis describes the

behavioral revolution in particularly Dahlian terms as a new mood, style and focus of political

inquiry and one where the study of voting behavior became the subfield par excellence for

scientific applications to the study of human behavior (1991, 54; cf. Dahl 1961; Easton 1965,

165).

In this section, I interrogate the citations Dennis provides for his discussion of the

behavioral revolution , and see if I can discover any clues as to when that phrase was first used,

or perhaps more realistically when the phrase first began to enjoy a wide currency in the discourse

of the discipline. Of course this investigation takes us a full sixty years back in time, so it is

reasonable to expect that the phrase the behavioral revolution will not yet be in wide circulation.

If this is the case though, why does Dennis cite these three pieces together by way of substantiating

his brief definition of the behavioral revolution? Might the origin of the behavioral revolution be

found in these early writings of three prominent proponents of behavioralism in political science?

In Dahls classic APSR article, The Behavioral Approach in Political Science: Epitaph for

a Monument to a Successful Protest, he begins by noting that there is no consensus concerning


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the nature and origin of the term behavioral. 2 It is much easier to identify the concept in terms

of what it is not, and for Dahl, the behavioral approach to political science is not the same as that

of the speculative philosopher, the historian, the legalist, or the moralist (1961, 763). 3 In

beginning his investigation, Dahl identifies the first use of the phrase political behavior in the

literature of American political science following the First World War. 4 Dahl identifies six

stimuli that helped establish the behavioral approach in American political science: (1) the early

work of Charles Merriam at the University of Chicago and the flowering of behavioral political

science at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s, (2) the influx of German migr

scholars in the 1930s, (3) the Second World War and the experience of the war generationsconfrontation of theory and reality, (4) the establishment of the Social Science Rese arch Council,

(5) the development of the social scientific survey at the University of Michigan and Columbia

University, (6) the impact of the great philanthropic foundations in Carnegie, Rockefeller, and

Ford (1961, 763-765).

In opening his essay, Dahl de votes considerable attention to David Trumans 1951 article

written for the Social Science Research Council titled, The Implications of Political Behavior

Research. 5 Dahl s narrative continues, and he mentions who he understands to be founders of

behavioralism: Charles Merriam, Harold Lasswell, David Easton, V.O. Key, Jr., Herbert Simon,

Pendleton Herring, and Gabriel Almond. Dahl also discusses the importance of institutional

support from the University of Chicago and Columbia University, the Social Science Research

Council and its Committee on Political Behavior, the Survey Research Center and the Bureau of

Applied Research at the University of Michigan, the support of philanthropic foundations like the

Ford Foundations Behavioral Science Program, and stemming from this last effort, the Center for

Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University.


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By the second section of his essay, Dahl is ready to define the behavioral approach as a

protest movement within political science which:

Through usage by partisans, partly as an epithet, terms like political behavior

and the behavioral approach came to be associated with a number of political

scientists, mainly Americans, who shared a strong sense of dissatisfaction with

the achievements of conventional political science, particularly through

historical, philosophical, and the descriptive-institutional approaches, and a

belief that additional methods and approaches either existed or could be

developed that would help to provide political science with empirical propositions and theories of a systematic sort, tested by closer, more direct and

more rigorously controlled observation of political events (1961, 766).

By the third section, Dahl flatly equates the behavioral mood with the scient ific

outlook, and he transitions to using the later term in place of the former. By the time he concludes

his essay, the behavioral approach has disappeared altogether. For example, Dahl closes his study

with a reminiscence of how from time to time in the past the study of politics has been altered,

permanently, by a fresh infusion of the spirit of empirical inquiry by, that is to say, the scientific

outlook ( 772). In effect, Dahl views the behavioral approach to the study of American politics as

a mood , which is characterized by the effort to be more empirical in the scientific sense

imported from the physical sciences (i.e. positivist inspired scientific method ). Once again, Dahl

is asserting a basic equivalence between behavioralism and the scientific outlook.

Where is the behavioral revolution in Dahls essay and why does Dennis (1991) cite this

article in his discussion of it? Even though Dahl does not use the concept behavioral revolution ,

the idea is already there in his writing on the subject of behavioralism and the scientific outlook


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in political science. He comes closest to mentioning the behavioral revolution at the end of section

one and the beginning of section five. In closing section one, Dahl refers to the radicals and the

revolutionary sectarians who first initiated the behavioral approach in the 1920s and 1930s at

the University of Chicago. The justification for the use of this language is not offered by Dahl.

Presumably t he sectarians of the behavioral approach were radical and revolutionary

because they represented a new mood or outlook in the discipline which was markedly different

than what had come before. In section five, Dahl refers to the behavioral approach variously in

terms of a revolt and a protest against the traditionalists in the discipline.

Dennis also cites Eulaus 1963 The Behavioral Persuasion in Politics , but does Eulaumention the behavioral revolution in this work? Like Dahl, Eulau begins with the q uestion what

is political behavior? In his search for the meaning of behavioralism, Eulau famously

characterizes the behavioral approach in American political science as the behavioral persuasion

(1963, 4). For Eulau, the behavioral persuasion in pol itics is a return to a tradition of research

beginning with ancient authors in Greece and neglected by modern researchers. In making this

presentist point, Eula u notes how behavioralist make use of techniques of research that the

classical writers woul d have used had it been available to them (Eulau 1963, 32). Similar to the

great scientists of the ancient world, the behavioral researcher eschews mythologies and normative

theories and instead focuses on what people do and what beliefs they understand to be motivating

their actions (7). In returning to man as the root of politics, says Eulau and echoing Dahl, the

behavioral persuasion reveals itself as a radical orientation in the study of politics (10). By

radical Eulau is referring to the etymological meaning of going to the root of something (the

title of the chapter is The Root is Man after all). More specifically, Eulau means to highlight

the Popperian criterion of validity or falsificationism since the behavioral persuasions


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radi calism stems from the conviction that a proposition may be worn out when, on being tested,

it can be disproved ( 10-11). 6

Although there are many individual differences among practicing behavioralists in

American political science in the early 1960s, Eulau identifies four areas where a broad consensus

exists. First, there is widespread agreement on the appropriate units of analysis. Echoing other

behavioralists, Eulau emphases that the core of the approach is the focus on the individual person

as the empi rical unit of analysis (1963, 13). Second, the common agreement that research must

engage all realms of discovery relevant to political behavior whether social, economic, or cultural.

This acknowledgment of the necessity of approaching phenomena from multiple levels of analysisnecessitates an interdisciplinary approach. Third, the interdependence of theory and research;

where by theory , Eulau means the theoretical activit y which postulates and ultimately

presupposes a framework or model for analysis ; and by research he means the activity of

formulating testable hypotheses and then testing them using empirical data (e.g. voting or other

decision-making phenomena).

The fourth area of general consensus is an agreement on the utility of behavioral methods

for the analysis of political phenomenon. Here Eulau makes near explicit use of the phrase the

behavioral revolution. Eulau is discussing the methods and/or techniques of behavioral political

science and, similar to Easton (discussed below), he states that the revolution in the behavioral

sciences has been predominantly a technological revolution (1963, 31) . Unlike Easton, Eulau is

adamant that the revolution is not a revolt against classical or traditional theory. 7 In his telling,

the beh avioral persuasion represents what one might call the coming of age of social science .

Among the techniques that Eulau singles out are the probability survey sample, the use of


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panels of informants, the invention of metric techniques such as scalogram and factor analysis,

and the analysis of political group behavior (1963, 33 -34). 8

In an oral history, Eulau registers his opinion that there really never was a behavioral

revolution (Baer et al. 1991). In his account and similar to other behavioral founders accounts of

the disciplines past, two key moments stand out in the early emergence of the behavioral

revolution in the discourse of political science: Trumans 1955 article for the Social Science

Research Article, titled The Impact on Political Science of the Revolution in the Beha vioral

Sciences, and the publication of Thomas Kuhns 1962 The Structure of Scientific Revolutions .

Eulau remarks that the origin of the phrase the behavioral revolution probably came fromTruman s 1955 article (Baer et al. 1991, pp. 193 -194). 9

Despi te Eulaus reference to Truman (1955), there is no explicit mention of the behavioral

revolution. Truman opens his article by asking what is the nature of the alleged revolution

marked out by himself in his title (1955, 202). For Truman, the behavioral sciences may be

defined in the special sense of academic departments in social science that provide or aspire to

provide verified principles of human behavior through the use of methods of inquiry similar to

those of the natural sciences (1955, 203). In 1955, these departments are overwhelmingly to be

found in psychology, sociology, and anthropology (203). Truman (1955) goes on to

conventionally relate all the advances in technique and/or method which would in just a few short

years become the focus of tremendous controversy (e.g. see Barber 2006). There is no sense in

Trumans remarks that anything he is saying is controversial. From the perspective of the present,

his naivety (or perhaps his political astuteness?) is a consequence of the fact that the impact of

Kuhns 1962 The Structure of Scientific Revolutions had yet to be felt in the sociology of

knowledge. Truman is decidedly not a partisan of any revolution, and he preaches caution


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admonishing the Young Turks not to lose sight of the political aspect of their vocation or fail to

recognize the limited applicability of behavioralism to the larger and more complex arena of

politics and human governance. He identifies the core of what political scientists do as the

description of institutions, how they operate, and the consequences for the life of the citizen. In

the end, although he is sympathetic to the call for more systematic and empirical theory in political

science research, he is still skeptical that a revolution in theory and method along behavioral lines

will improve the discipline as a whole. 10

Dennis also cites David Eastons 1965 book , A Framework for Political Analysis , but

where is the behavioral revolution in this work?11

Easton begins his preface by mentioning that Framework is a follow-up to his now more well-known The Political System (1953). The book is

an elaboration of what Easton calls systems theory and an inquiry into the way the entire political

system can be mapped in a logico-functional manner. Although this is a somewhat antiquated

approach to political analysis, it is interesting for its importance in the historiography of the

discipline (Gunnell 2013b, 2014). For my purposes, the relevant portions of Eastons text come

primarily from Chapter One, Theory and Behavioral Research, previously published in 1962 as

The Current Meaning of Behavioralism in Political Science.

My emphasis is on finding the behavioral revolution in Eastons work. Why does Dennis

cite this work in reference to the behavioral revolution? Like Dahl and Eulau, Easton has trouble

providing an unequivocal definition of behavioralism (1965, 4). For Easton, like Eulau, what is

afoot is a conceptual revolution in the discipline which is a remaking of the meaning of theory

in modern political science (1965, 2). Also like Dahl and Eulau, in this chapter Easton comes very

close to describing the period in terms of a behavioral revolution. The first section of the chapter

is called The Revolution in Political Theory. Easton refers to a revolution in the manner of


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thinking about political theory that he hopes will come to predominate in the discipline. Easton

already rejected traditional political theory (historical, institutional, moral, etc.) in his 1951

article The Decline of Modern Political Theory and in his 1953 book, The Political System .

Moving beyond these criticisms, Easton is now ready to describe the theoretical framework which

he hopes will serve as a basis for modern empirical political theory. In a point I return to in a

moment, Easton emphasizes that this intellectual revolution and upheaval is in large part due

to the interdisciplinary nature of the behavioral approach to political analysis (1965, 3). 12

Easton goes on to do his best to give a comprehensive account of the assumptions and

objectives which loosely c haracterize the behavioral credo of behavioral researchers in thediscipline (7). These assumptions and objectives are: (1) the search for regularities or patterns in

political behavior, (2) the use of a verification principle such as hypothesis testing, (3) an emphasis

on methodological technique , (4) quantification , (5) the separation of values from facts in an

analytic fashion, (6) the systematization of both theory and practice, (7) pure science in the sense

that theory precedes application, and (8) integration in the sense that political behavior research is

interdisciplinary (7; emphasis in original).

Easton sets out to better delimit the meaning of the behavioral approach which, echoing

other period authors, has come to mean about as many things as are commentators (1965, 8).

The diversity of definitions has at least a common goal a science of politics modeled after the

methodological assumptions of the natural sciences ( 8). Here, in a nutshell, is what the behavioral

movement came to mean to later political scientists (recall Barrows 2008 definition above). Even

so, the goal of making the study of politics more scientific has been discussed for much longer

than the behavioral period in the US (see Lepawsky 1964; Dryzek 2006). New here is the

additional sentiment of a disdain for tradition , and a concomitant dismissal of classical political


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theory. For Easton the behavioral approach signifies far more than a new methodological

orientation or mood in American political science. Thus, Easton argues, by the adoption of this

name by the various foundations, institutes, and departmental programs at universities, the idea of

behavioral science is applied to any social research concerned with a scientific understanding of

man in society, regardless of the disciplinary umbrella under which it may find shelter (1965, 12 -

13; see also Hauptmann 2012, 22). In what amounts to a common theme among the founders of

behavioralism, t raditional or classical political theory is dismissed in favor of empirical

political theory. The behavioral approach is largely the offspring of this revolution which can

be understood as the new kind of theory in political science that has been struggling thr ough adecade of parturition and that is just now beginning to take on a life of its own (1965, 3). In

addition, reports Easton, the new name of behavioralism signals that the science of politics

aims to ally itself with trends in other social science disciplines (1965, 9). This theme of

interdisciplinarity and the interconnection of the social sciences is repeated often in the context of

narratives about the foundation of behavioral political science.

The point that Easton belabors is that the behavioral approach is more than a new emphasis

on the application of the scientific method. Historically there have been a number of name

changes as science slowly evolved into specialized branches. Whereas once there was philosophy;

slowly there appeared moral and natural science, followed later by the full modern repertoire

of biology, physics, and astronomy , etc. (1965, 11). Although there has long been a focus

on modeling political science on the physical sciences it was only since the 1950s that the name

behavioral science came into use (1965, 9). More recently, the emergence of behavioral as

opposed to social science may be attributed to the creation of the National Science Foundation


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in 1950 and social scientists efforts to disassociate themselves from any sort of socialist science

(1965, 12; see Easton 1985, 139-140). 13

Behavioralists have been in agreement in what they are not: i.e. not confined to one

discipline, not restricted to the study of institutions, not adverse to the application of the scientific

method to social and political problems. At the same time, behavioralists have failed to consider

the newness of the emergent behavioral or empirical theory. As I mentioned earlier, Easton

believes that the behavioral movement represents more than a new focus on method (1965, 17,

21). Instead, the principal feature that distinguishes the traditional from behavioral political

science is the form of empirical theory that Easton champions throughout his career. Newtheory, for Easton, tends to be analytic, not substantive, explanatory rather than eth ical, more

general and less particular (1965, 22). When aligned with advanced technical means of research,

the new empirical theory promises to reveal the full meaning and significance of the behavioral

approach in political science (1965, 22). 14

Where is the behavioral revolution Eastons 1965 book? The behavioral sciences represent

a new turning in the road and the beginning of a new direction . Similar to Truman (1955),

this language is making use of the imagery of revolution, even as the metaphor is far from explicit

(1965, 13). In part, Easton argues that the behavioral approach is an ideological weapon lending

color and vigor to the movement of a diffuse and informal group of academic rebels against

traditions (1965, 10). Easton wishes to be more specific and analytically distinguishes two

revolutions that are occurring simultaneously in American political science: (1) a technical

revolution, and (2) a theoretical revolution. 15 First, the technical revolution which began in the

1920s and flourished after WWII political analysis developed the following scientific techniques:

interviews, survey research, technical methods for measurement, [t]he formalization of analysis


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in logica l and mathematical symbols the widespread introduction of the scope and method of

political science and training in the use of mechanized procedures for recording and analyzing

data (1965, 18). Next, Easton turns to a second, theoretical revolution , which he feels needs to

be acknowledged in order to understand the nature of behavioralism for American political

science. Although Easton does not use the phrase the behavioral revolution , he does observe

that the behavioral movement is marked by a second revolution, which ha s transformed other

social sciences into behavioral disciplines (1965, 18 -19 ). This revolution, Easton continues,

has involved the sharp consciousness that without a far more concentrated effort on empirical

theory our tech nical resources would be squandered (1965, 19). So although Easton is notexplicit here, like the other behavioralists discussed above, he is clearly gesturing toward the

phrase the behavioral revolution.

Whether considered a mood (Dahl) or an orientation (Easton), all the authors covered

would agree with Eulau (1963) when he says the behavioral persuasion in politics is concerned

with what man does politically and the meanings he attaches to his behavior (5). In all these

period pieces (1955-1965), the authors allude to the concept of the behavioral revolution , but in

no case do they actually make use of the phrase. Why did Dennis, writing thirty years later, choose

to cite Dahl, Easton, and Eulau to back up his condensed definition of the so- called behavioral

revolution? How do these pieces help us understand the origin of the concept? The empirical

question remains when did the phrase the behavioral revolution enter into the literature of

American political science and perhaps more importantly when did its use become commonplace?


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THE BEHAVIORAL REVOLUTION APPEARS

In my search for the behavioral revolution, I now contrast a proponent and a critic of

behavioralism using the phrase the behavioral revolution in the late 1960s : Easton (1968) and

Wolin (1969) respectively. Easton stands as a proponent of behavioralism and as one of the first

to explicitly mention the behavioral revolution in their writing, while the political theorist Sheldon

Wolin stands as a critic of behavioralism in political science (Wiley 2006). In retrospect, it appears

that the late 1960s was a turning point in the disciplines acceptance and use of the behavioral

revolution. The late 1960s also represents a crisis period in the identity of political science, which

had enjoyed a long period of behavioral dominance. It seems that 1968 was somewhat of athreshold year for the emergence of the phrase the behavioral revolution in the writing of

American political scientists. For example, in Maria n Irishs 1968 edited volume, Political

Science: The Advance of the Discipline , there are two uses of the phrase the behavioral

revolution. The first is found in William Keech and James W. Protheros article American

Government the authors speak of the behavioral revolution using quotation marks. In Neil

McDonald and James Rosenaus contribution, Political Theory as Academic Field and

Intellectual Activity, the phrase the behavioral revolution appears without quotation marks

seven times. It seems that as challenges to behavioral dominance mounted in the late 1960s, the

concept of the behavioral revolution came to be used by critics and defenders of behavioralism in

their writing.

One of the earliest mentions of the phrase the behavioral revolution I found is in Easton s

1968 International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences entry on Political Science. Easton is

writing as a disciplinary historian and he opens his encyclopedia entry by noting that political

science in mid- twentieth century is a discipline in search of its identity (1968, 282). This identity


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crisis has been precipitated by a profound revolution in the discipline since WWII (1968, 282).

Easton goes on to catalogue traditional means of organizing political phenomenon such as

institutions, the state, power, and of course, he gives special attention to his concept of the

political system. Next , Easton catalogues the various content areas that he sees as being at the

core of political sciences over the millennia: universalism (ancient Greek thought through the 19 th

century), legalism (late into the 19 th century), realism (through WWII), and behavioralism (after

WWII).

The bulk of Eastons article is devoted to the behavioral period. According to E aston, the

behavioral movement in political science came into full bloom after WWII (1968, 291). As withhis 1965, A Framework for Political Analysis , Easton identifies two distinct revolutions

simultaneously at work in contemporary political science in the US: the technical/methodological

and the theoretical revolutions. Unlike his earlier work, the concept of the behavioral revolution

is mentioned four times. Discussing the advance of the theoretical revolution in American political

science, Easton says, the behavioral revolution has stimulated the formulation of empirically

oriented theory (1968, 294). 16 In a section titled Method and Theory, Easton discusses how the

discipline has been reshaped by the revolution in techniques or methods of analysis. The new

political science has turned toward method and technique in the wake of a major revolution and

by the 1960s the methods of modern science had made deep inroads into political research, under

the rubric of the study of political behavior. This behavioral revolution has permanently changed

the methodological and technical face of political science (295).

Easton continues discussing how modern political science went through an arduous

learning process as it worked to throw off the heavy yoke of the Greek classical tradition (296).

The behavioral revolution in political science after World War II stands as a summary label for


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the consequences of the full reception of scientific method (296). The use of quotation marks in

this instance ought to signal that the author is uncomfortable with the usage or that he or she is

quoting another author. Neither of these traditional interpretations makes sense in this case.

Easton is not quoting any author in this use, but clearly he is com fortable with the phrase the

behavioral revolution since hes already used it without qualification twice, and in the very next

paragraph he uses the phrase without quotation marks. 17 If we disregard particulars for the

moment, what stands out with brilliant clarity in the behavioral revolution in political science is

the final and complete acceptance of the idea that methods of investigation, in all their aspects, are

problematic and, accordingly, merit special, concentrated attention (1968, 296). Throughout thisarticle there is no sense that the use of the phrase is in anyway problematic, despite the one strange

occurrence of the phrase in quotation marks. 18

By the end of the 1960s, the concept of the behavioral revolution is also in use in the

subfield of political theory. The political theorist Sheldon Wolin can frame his APSR article,

Political Theory as a Vocation, around a critique of the so-called technological and/or

methodological advances represented by behavioralism in American political science. In sharp

contrast to the behavioralists like Easton, Wolin insists that theory is not method and in fact these

two activities represent very different ways of life: the bios theoretikos and the vita methodica

respectively. 19 Wolin juxtaposes the vocation of what he calls the epic political theorist and the

scientific theorist (1969, 1080). Wolins work aims to restore the dignity and legitimacy of

traditional or classical political theory since behavioral empirical political theory as Dahl, Easton,

and Eulau understood it, has impoverished the long tradition of political thought. 20

The reduction of the rich tradition of western political theory into the narrow confines of

scientific method is lamentable. Like the migr scholars Hannah Arendt and Leo Strauss


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(although with different emphases), Wolin is concerned with the big picture and with

understanding how it is that traditional or classical political theory could come to be so maligned

even to the point of being declared dead or dying even by its defenders? 21 His answer is revealed

at the end of his essay: the Western world as it existed in 1969 is productive of a methodological

and scientific mentality. The technical and ideological imperatives of late capitalism in the West

have created methodological technicians and it is no wonder that social and political scientists

have found behavioral methods congenial (Rothsetin 2005). 22 This is very much like a scenario

Max Weber might have had in mind when he wrote of the polar night of icy darkness and

hardness, referring then to the dystopian possibility of a fully-rationalized society (Wolin 1969).Since citizens are trained from early childhood to think in methodological and scientific terms it

is no wonder that they behave in rational and predictable ways (Arendt 1958).

So where is the behavioral revolution in Wolins article? The phrase the behavio ral

revolution is clearly and conventionally used by Wolin to refer to the behavioral period in the

disciplines past. By 1969, the nature of the so -called revolution is well establi shed. W hatever

ones assessment of the behavioral revolution, says Wolin, it clearly has succeeded in

transforming political science. What is less clear is the precise nature of that revolution (1062).

Yet, most practitioners today would probably accept the common story of the behavioral

revolution as the period between 1950 and 1970 in which American political science became a

real science modeled after the methodological assumptions and technical innovations of the

modern physical and biological sciences.

Wolin also criticizes proponents of behavioralism in American political science, when he

says the idea of method is the central fact of the behavioral revolution ( 1063). Wolins critique

is summarized as a rejection of the behavioral vita methodica or the dogmatic adherence to the


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ethic of science: objectivity, detachment, fidelity to fact, and deference to intersubjective

verification by a community of practitioners (1969, 1064). Wolin remarks how th is change in

the mentality of the ave rage political scientist may mark the significance of the behavioral

revolution (1969, 1064). Wolin rejects the proposition that the behavioral revolution was a

scientific revolution on the order that Kuhn identified occurring in the history of the physical

sciences (Kuhn 1962). Despite this fact, he does finds that there has been a certain revolution in

political science, and one characterized by the behavioral movements presupposition that the

fundamental purposes and arrangements served by its te chniques have been settled (1969, 1063).

Thus, according to Wolin, a dominant paradigm has emerged , but not because of any anomaliesin traditional political theory. This shift has been made possible by external changes in the world

of human affairs following the world wars and new challenges to democracy and human dignity

(1081-1082; cf. Brown 2002).

DISCIPLINARY HISTORY

Disciplinary history has been developing since the early 1960s, and is now sub-genre in its

own right. By the late 1980s, it would not be an exaggeration to suggest that the history of

political science is on the threshold of becoming a distinct research specialty (Gunnell 1985, 16;

Farr 1988). Now that I have identified the year of the initial diffusion of the concept of the

behavioral revolution in 1968, I turn to the work of the disciplinary historians in order to see how

this concept has been used to the present day.

Among the first works devoted exclusively to discussing the history of the discipline of

political science were Bernard Crick (1959), and Albert Somit and Joseph Tanenhaus (1967). I

have not found the phrase the behavioral revolution in either of these foundational texts in the


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concept. Debates about the significance of behavioralism and whether the movement was truly

revolutionary have also exacerbated ongoing crises of identity in the discipline. As Gunnell points

out in 2004, telling the story of political science has always been a crucial element in both the

disciplines internal rhetoric of inquiry and its search for identity ( 47). Early in the new millennia,

Gunnell finds the phrase the behavioral revolution to be an inappropriate usage given that its use

since the 1960s was based in part on the theory of scientific revolution forwarded in Kuhns The

Structure of Scientific Revolutions . Gunnell argues that there has only been one scientific

revolution in the sense of a discipline-wide paradigm shift and this occurred in the 1920s. This

earlier positivist revolution was characterized by a shift from state-based political science to afocus on the integration of positivism into mainstream political science through the aegis of

pluralist theory a movement that was complete by the mid -1930s (Gunnell 2004, 48; see

Barrow 2011, 82). This implies that the story of t he behavioral revolution is inaccurate at least

in so far as it purports to be a Kuhnian scientific revolution.

In Gunnell (2004), the behavioral revolution was far from a revolution in the Kuhnian

sense (2004, 48 -49). Instead the movement is unders tood in terms of a reformation of the

positivist revolution of the 1920s and 1930s, buttressed by the influx of migr scholars who

became the epistemological other of the mainstream in American political science (2004, 49; see

also Gunnell 1993, Gunnell 2007). From this perspective, the behavioral revolution becomes a

conservative movement which sought to bolster and defend the mainstream from the assaults of

their critics in political theory and elsewhere (2004, 49). Gunnell characterizes the behavioral

movement as a reaffirmation of the pluralist revolution of the 1920s and 1930s which was in

part a defense against the new and unprecedented attack on the idea of a science of politics, but it

was also a response to a context that valorized pure science and funded quantitative research


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(2004, 49). For Gunnell, then, the discourse about the behavioral revolution is clearly

mythological. Gunnells article works to debunk the myth of the behavioral revolution by arguing

that the movement was not in fact revolutionary at all.

The political theorist and disciplinary historian John Dryzek discusses five potentially

revolutionary moments in the history of American political science (2006, 487). In succession

these were: the statist founders in the late 19 th century, the pluralist moment in the early 20 th

century, the behavioralist period of the mid-20 th century, the Caucus for a New Political Science

in the late 1960s, and finally the Perestroika movement in the early 21 st century. It is notable that

Dryzek finds only two of these moments to be truly revolutionary. Only the statist and the behavioralist ones were revolutionary, in the sense that they were able to rese[t] the disciplines

agenda from what came before (2006, 487).

As the title of his article makes clear, Dryzek argues that these were the only revolutionary

moments in the disciplines history since they were able to change the agenda of the discipline and

because they did not encounter strong resistance from practitioners in the field. Thus for Dryzek,

Gunnell s interpretation that there was only one revolutionary moment in the history of the

discipline is incorrect. Moreover, the idea that the pluralist movement was revolutionary is

incorrect, since the rise of pluralist theory was met with resistance and did not displace older statist

forms of analysis (2006, 488). In fact, the recognition of a pluralist moment in American political

science does not even count as a revolution in Dryzeks analysis . Statism and behavioralism, on

the other hand, counted as revolutionary because there was no opposition and so they were able to

shift the agenda for the entire discipline.

It seems that the behavioral revolution is a true revolution since it reset the agenda for a

large number of scholars in the field. As Dryzek summarizes, it represented a selective


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radicalization of exis ting disciplinary tendencies leading to more survey research being funded

and published, an increase in the relative frequency of quantitative studies in the disciplines top

journals, and a relative decline in work addressed to public policy (2006, 490). Again, the point

is that for Dryzek behavio ralism is a revolution without enemies and succeeded in resetting the

research agenda of the discipline not because it was completely new and fought a battle with the

mainstream, but because it grew out of the mainstream and did not encounter much resistance from

the disciplines intellectual and institutional configuration at the time.

In disciplinary history, then, there appears to be a movement toward a more critical

awareness about the behavioral period and whether or not it counts as a revolution or not.Whether understood as a political, intellectual, or Kuhnian scientific revolution, historians of the

discipline have started to question whether and how the behavioral revolution was revolutionary .

CONCLUSION

In this paper, I located the emergence of the phrase the behavioral revolution in the

writing of political scientists. I traced its conventional use to sometime around the year 1968. I

also found that authors writing prior to 1968 come close to using the phrase and that it is most

commonly used in narratives about the disciplines past and often in connecti on with Truman

(1951, 1955) and Kuhn (1962). Along with Trumans 1955 article, Kuhns 1962 classic seem like

possible explanations for the beginnings of the wide-spread use of t he language of revolution in

describing the behavioral period in political science. But is still an open question why it would

wait until the late 1960s for the phrase the behavioral revolution to find its way into the discourse

of the discipline in a major way.


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Although it is probably too late, I propose that the language of revolution is misleading

when talking about the history of political science. In my view, both the discipline and the

profession of political science are in a constant state of change. 23 Academic ideas and institutions

evolve over time and it simply doesnt make sense to speak of intellectual and structural change

in terms of political, social, or scientific revolutions. Instead both our professional and disciplinary

configuration changes slowly over time reflecting the development of institutions as well as the

input of generation after generation of new political scientists. New political scientists are trained

in institutions and come to confront a political system that is fundamentally different than that of

previous generations. It is no wonder, then, that there is going to be a division of labor where onegroup continues with basic research on more traditional problems, while another group commits

itself to criticizing these authors for their failure to consider the normative implications of their

basic assumptions, and finally another which would seek to make political science something other

than what it has been in the past. In every era in the development of American political science,

one can find examples of all three tendencies. In retrospect, every era has its dominant trends in

research and ideological commitments. I propose, however, that these three research groups are

engaged in a great conversation which ultimately produces and reproduces the present ideological

and institutional configuration of the discipline . There has been no revolution in American

political science but rather the genealogical record reveals an ongoing process of disciplinary and

professional continuity and innovation over time. 24

It seems to me that the recognition of an ongoing evolution in political science is the best

way to understand the history of the discipline over time. There has never been, I submit, a single

coherent and dominant paradigm that took hold of the discipline. More importantly there was

not an abrupt change from a before to an after state where tradition was suddenly supplanted by


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NOTES

1 For a detailed discussion of early founders in American political science see Bernard

Cricks 1959 The American Science of Politics: Its Origins and Conditions . Crick gives

extended attention to A.F. Bentley, Charles Merriam, and Harold Lasswell.

2 Dahls paper was first presented at the 5th World Congress of the International Political

Science Association, Paris, September 26, 1961 (Polsby et al. 1963, 15).

3 As Somit and Tanenhaus point out, the term behaviorism was commonly used prior to

the 1960s when the term behavioralism came to be the predominate usage (1967, 183).

See also Easton 1985, p. 137.4 Curiously, Dahl cites David Eastons 1953 The Political System as evidence that the term

has been in use since WWI. I say curious since an earlier citation would seem more

appropriate. Later, Dahl also gives credit to Frank Kent, an American journalist who

published Political Behavior in 1928 and to Herbert Tingstens 1937 Political Behavior .

See also James Farr (1995) on Dahl s 1961 article.

5 I discuss another important article by David Truman below.

6 See Karl Popper (1962); Ricci (1977).

7 Which is not to say that Eulau withholds from criticizing traditional political theory along

the same lines pursued by Dahl and Easton. According to Eulau, much traditional

political inquiry has been purely formal in the sense that is was limited to the observation

of patterns and took the meaning content of behavioral for granted. Political institutions

or constitutions were described and their formal similarities and differences were noted,

but what these patterns meant to the people involved was not investigated. Rather


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meanings were ascribed, usually on the basis of the observers cultural understandings

(1963, 69).

8 In Chapter Five, Eulau discusses some behavioral dilemmas. Eulau begins by noting

that the behavioral persuasion in politics is difficult to live by. Behavioral practitioners

make exacting scientific demands on themselves (1963, 110). This persuasion is

difficult to live by since it aspires to the status of science and since Eulau takes it for

granted that a science of politics is both possible and desirable, and I shall start from

there (1963, 111).

9

Recall that Dahl cited Truman s earlier 1951 article . Truman (1951) is a book chapterappears in Research Frontiers in Politics and Government which was produced for the

Brookings Institution. Other notable behavioralists who have chapters in this book are

Herbert Simon, Robert Dahl, and Alfred de Grazia.

10 There seems to be somewhat of a consensus around the idea that the behavioral

revolution was hardly a scientific revolution as described by Kuhn (1962): see for

example Eulaus 1991 APSA oral history; Farr 1995; Gunnell 2004; and Dryzek 2006).

11 Easton acknowledges Jack Dennis in his preface as one of many graduate students who

helped in some way contribute to the book (1965, xiii).

12 Judging from Eastons remarks in 19 85, his efforts were an overwhelming success. In his

Political Science in the United States: Past and Present, Easton says of the behavioral

period that if there was any single comprehensive description of the subject matter of

political science it was to be found in the notion that it studied the authoritative allocation

of values for society. This was the conception that I had put forward in my book, The

Political System , in 1953, and it had found widespread acceptance (1985, 144). For


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more on the success of empirical theory see Contemporary Empirical Political Theory ,

Kristen R. Monroe, Ed. (1997).

13 Easton also mentions the influence of the Ford Foundation (established in 1936) as a

factor in the name change from social to behavioral science. On foundation influence

and the rise of behavioralism, see Hauptmann 2006 and Hauptmann 2012.

14 On Eastons efforts to establish a general form of empirical theory, see Adcock (2007);

Gunnell (2013b).

15 For another treatment of Eastons impact on the behavioral rev olution, see Adcock

(2010).16 For Easton empirical theory is tantamount to behavioral theory. The ancient desire

to understand the nature and origin of political systems or regime types expanded after

World War II to become empirically oriented, or b ehavioral, theory (1968, 293).

17 In my reading the alternating usage of the quotation marks indicates that political

scientists are not yet convinced that the phrase is wholly unproblematic and ready for use

without the qualification.

18 This unqualified use is particularly remarkable given that just a year later Easton would

declare the end of the behavioral revolution and the beginning of the post -behavioral

revolution. See his 1969 APSA presidential address The New Revolution in Political

Science.

19 Of course, not all political scientists started doing behavioral research. According to

James Farr, numerically, nonbehavioralists represented the majority of practicing

political scientists and theorists (2003, 322).


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20 Wolin characterizes the crisis in the tradition of political theory in the following terms:

there is widely shared belief that the tradition was largely unscientific where it was not

antiscientific and that the defining characteristic of a scientific revolution is to break with

the past (1969, 1068). On traditional political theory see also Hauptmanns 2005

Defining Theory in Postwar Political Science. For a critique of the idea of a long -

tradition of political thought, see Gunnell 1978, 1984.

21 The vocation of the traditional or epic political theorist is characterized by Wolin in the

following terms: Here lies the vocation of those who preserve our understanding of past

theories, who sharpen our sense of the subtle, complex interplay between politicalexperience and thought, and who preserve our memory of the agonizing efforts of

intellect to restate the possibilities and threats posed by political dilemmas of the past

(1969, 1077).

22 There is not space here to dive deeply into these epic issues and Ive dealt with them in

more detail elsewhere (Berkenpas 2009).

23 According to Easton our discipline refers to our intellectual enterprise; our profession to

the trained and expert scholars who participate in the discipline (1969, 1059). Cf. John

Gunnell 2006.

24 For an analogous skeptical treatment of the behavioral movement in political science see

Adcock 2007 Interpreting Behavioralism.

25 On the relationship between disciplinary history and professional identity see Dryzek and

Leonards 1990 History and Discipline in Political Science.


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