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The Autism Spectrum in the 21st Century: Exploring Psychology,Biology and Practice

Glossary

This glossary has been compiled by Ilona Roth with Rosa Hoekstra, Greg Pasco and Chris Barson.

Term Definition ChapterAAC See Augmentative and Alternative Communication.action potential The sudden change in a neuron from the resting state to an outburst of

electrical activity and back to the resting state.5

active but odd One of four styles of social interaction which, according to Lorna Wing,may be characteristic of adults on the autism spectrum. The adult seekspeople out and tries to make contact, but their approaches tend to beinappropriate. For instance, they may talk at great length about theirspecial interest, regardless of relevance or interest to others or come uptoo close to other people. (See also aloof; passive and friendly; overlyformal and stilted.)

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ADHD See attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.ADI See Autism Diagnostic Interview.ADOS See Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule.adult-directedapproach

A broad term for a class of interventions in which an adult decides whichskills are targeted for development or enhancement. This contrasts withchild-centred approaches. (See also child-centred approach.)

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aetiology The study of causes of, or factors contributing to, a particular condition ordisorder.

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affective Emotional. 1allele A different form or variant of a gene. 5aloof One of four styles of social interaction which, according to Lorna Wing,

may be characteristic of adults on the autism spectrum. The adult avoidsinteraction with others, remaining withdrawn and apparently unaware ofthe existence of others. (See also active but odd; passive and friendly;overly formal and stilted.)

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amygdala An almond-shaped structure in the brain located under the cerebralhemispheres. It has an important role in emotion and in regulatingassociated behavioural responses such as flushing, trembling orsweating when frightened.

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AQ See autism-spectrum quotient.AS See Asperger syndrome.ASC See autism spectrum conditions.ASD See autism spectrum disorders.Aspergersyndrome (AS)

A sub-type within the autism spectrum. Asperger syndrome differs fromclassic autism in that communication difficulties are less pronounced (e.g.early speech milestones are normal) and IQ is in the normal or abovenormal range. Asperger syndrome currently has its own diagnosticcriteria in DSM-IV and ICD-10.

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The Autism Spectrum in the 21st Century: Exploring Psychology, Biology and Practice


Term Definition Chapterassociationstudies

Studies that test whether a particular allele is associated with a conditionor trait. Most commonly, association studies compare the frequency of aparticular gene variant in cases (e.g. individuals with autism) with thefrequency of this gene variant in controls. If the allele is more frequentlyfound in cases than controls, this gene variant may constitute a risk factorfor the condition. Association studies can either test the role of particularcandidate genes (see also candidate genes), or scan the whole genome(see also genome-wide association study).

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attention-deficithyperactivitydisorder (ADHD)

A condition characterised by persistent and pronounced overactivity anddifficulty in attending.

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atypical autism In the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic system, this term is used interchangeablywith PDD-NOS, in relation to individuals with autistic-like symptoms, whodo not meet the strict criteria for autistic disorder (the DSM-IV-TR term forclassic autism.) In ICD-10, atypical autism is defined more specifically inrelation to atypically late onset of autistic symptoms, or the absence ofone or more typical symptoms. (See also PDD-NOS.)

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Augmentative andAlternativeCommunication(AAC)

A collective term for systems offered as an alternative or supplement tospeech, which aim to enhance a child's communication by the use ofsimplified vocabulary, clear structure and visual aids such as pictorialsymbols. (See also Blissymbols; PECS.)

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autism Neurodevelopmental condition(s) characterised by moderate to profounddifficulties in communication and social interaction, and repetitiveactivities and interest. The term autism is used both specifically for the'classic' form of the condition, and collectively for the spectrum of relateddifficulties. (See also classic autism; autism spectrum; autism spectrumdisorder.)

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Autism Bill Draft legislation aimed at enhancing services and support for adults onthe autism spectrum. In 2009 the draft proposals passed through allstages of the English parliamentary scrutiny process, and became theAutism Act 2009. This Act requires both national and regionalgovernment in England to address the serious needs of adults withautism as set out in the Bill.

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Autism DiagnosticInterview (ADI)

An interview designed for use with the parents of children or adults whoare being assessed for an autism spectrum diagnosis. The ADIcomprises questions about current skills and behaviours, as well as howthese behaviours were manifested at age four to five years or at any pointduring development.

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Autism DiagnosticObservationSchedule (ADOS)

An interactive assessment tool used in making autism spectrumdiagnoses. It consists of four separate modules, each comprising tasksdesigned for use with children of different ages and different levels ofdevelopment and language.

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autism-friendlyschool

An educational environment that works with and around the specialdifficulties in autism and their implications for schooling. Features includespecialised staff, staff training and briefing, liaison with parents and localservice providers and adaptations to the school curriculum and physicalenvironment.

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autism spectrum Term first introduced by Lorna Wing to evoke variation in the expressionof autistic symptoms across individuals and sub-groups. The autismspectrum is treated both as a continuum of variation between individuals,and as a collection of diagnostic sub-types, including classic autism,Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS.

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Term Definition Chapterautism spectrumconditions (ASC)

Term used by some professionals and some families as a moreacceptable description of the autism spectrum than autism spectrumdisorders. (See also autism; autism spectrum disorders; autismspectrum.)

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autism spectrumdisorders (ASD)

Term used in formal diagnosis, and by many professionals in the contextof clinical practice to refer the autism spectrum and its sub-types. (Seealso autism; autism spectrum conditions; autism spectrum.)

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autism-spectrumquotient (AQ)

A questionnaire-based measure of autistic-type traits devised by SimonBaron-Cohen and colleagues. A person's AQ score is derived by scoringtheir answers to questionnaire items concerning the way they react toother people, social situations and physical entities. Any individual maybe scored on this measure. Those with an autism spectrum diagnosis arepredicted to score at the extremely high end of the range of scores for apopulation.

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autistic disorder A formal term for classic autism introduced into the DSM (Diagnostic andStatistical Manual) in 1987. In the ICD diagnostic system, thecorresponding term is childhood autism. (See also classic autism;childhood autism.)

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autistic traits Psychological or personality characteristics typically associated withautism, such as being withdrawn, emotionally detached, or obsessed withparticular objects or interests. They do not necessarily mean that theperson meets the diagnostic criteria for autism. (See also broader autismphenotype.)

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average An average is the single ‘middle’ value used to represent a set ofobservations or measurements. Most often the average is the mean ofthe measurements, calculated by adding all the measurements togetherand dividing by the number of measurements taken.

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awareness of self The capacity to be aware of one’s own inner states, experiences andcharacteristic ways of engaging with the world.

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axon The part of a neuron that sends signals to other cells (output). 5BAP See broader autism phenotype.bar chart A form of visual representation of data similar to a graph and widely used

in scientific research. Bars set out along the horizontal axis are used torepresent different groups of participants and/or different sets ofobservations. Bars of different heights represent different scores on avariable which is represented by the vertical axis. For instance, in theevaluation of an intervention for autism, one pair of bars may be used torepresent the scores of intervention and control groups on the outcomevariable before the intervention, while a second pair of bars representsthe scores of these two groups after the intervention.

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base or unit withina mainstreamschool

A separate division within a mainstream primary or secondary schoolwhich provides some specialised classes for students with a disabilitysuch as autism. The students join classes in the mainstream school whenappropriate and are educated in the base or unit for the rest of the time.This definition refers to the UK but similar provision exists in some othercountries. (See also mainstream school.)

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baseline period The period prior to introduction of an intervention within a multiple-baseline study. Measurements of participants' behaviour during thebaseline period are compared with those made after the intervention, toevaluate whether the intervention has had any effect. (See also multiple-baseline study.)

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Term Definition Chapterbasic emotions Usually applied to six emotions – happiness, sadness, anger, fear,

disgust and surprise. These emotions are said to evoke characteristicfacial expressions that are universally expressed and recognised acrosscultures. Research studies differ as to whether people on the autismspectrum have difficulty recognising basic emotions. (See also complexemotions.)

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behaviourmodification

The application of principles of learning and conditioning to influence orimprove a person's behaviour, by eradicating maladaptive behavioursand learning new ones. Based on the work of B.F.Skinner, and pioneeredin the autism field by Ivar Lovaas.

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behaviouralinterventions

A broad term for the class of interventions that employ principles oflearning such as operant conditioning to bring about changes in a child oradult's behaviour. Behaviour deemed desirable is rewarded or reinforced,while unwanted behaviour is reduced or extinguished. These approachesare adult-directed. (See also adult-directed approach; behaviourmodification; operant conditioning.)

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biologicalperspective

Seeking to understand and explain aspects of human behaviour in termsof biological concepts and theories.

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blind rating A procedure to ensure that when a researcher evaluates or interpretsobserved behaviour, their judgements are not influenced by expectationsabout how the individuals being observed should behave. In autismresearch, for instance, the researcher making the observations may notbe told whether or not the individuals being observed have autismdiagnoses.

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Blissymbols A form of Alternative and Augmentative Communication employing asystem of pictorial symbols, and used to help children with poor verbalcommunication. Each symbol represents a concept and can be combinedwith others to represent further concepts. (See also Augmentative andAlternative Communication.)

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block design A sub-test within a non-verbal intelligence (IQ) test, in which theparticipant is asked to arrange some coloured blocks to copy a geometricpattern. (See also intelligence tests.)

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bonding The development of a close emotional relationship between familymembers or friends. Bonding is a mutual, interactive process involvingreciprocity or 'give and take'. In typical development, bonding betweeninfant and mother is thought to develop from birth onwards. (See alsoreciprocity.)

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broader autismphenotype (BAP)

Milder manifestations of traits characteristic for autism in relatives ofpeople with autism.

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bullying Verbal or physical intimidation or maltreatment of somebody weaker or ina more vulnerable situation. Bullying causes fear, distress and often haslong-term effects.

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calendricalcalculation

The highly specialised ability to work out what day of the week it was ona randomly chosen and distant date such as 20 January 1809. (See alsosavant syndrome.)

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CAMHS See Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service.candidate gene A gene whose function, or location on a chromosome, suggests that it

might be associated with a condition or disorder.5

case history A detailed account of facts relevant to the development of an individual'sproblems or situation. The material is structured and organised as aninformative record for use by a psychiatrist, psychologist, social workeretc.

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Term Definition Chaptercase study In-depth observation and description of the specific characteristics of a

selected individual. Pooling of case study material across individuals maypermit identification of general features. The method is used by clinicalpractitioners, and in some forms of research.

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CDC See Child Development Centre.cell body The main part of a neuron where the information is processed. (See also

axon; dendrite.)5

central coherence Focusing on overall form and meaning rather than fine detail whenprocessing information from the environment. This has been consideredas both a perceptual phenomenon (seeing whole figures, or hearingwhole patterns of sounds) and a conceptual phenomenon (processingthe meaning or gist from spoken or written language). A key theory ofautism suggests that central coherence is lacking in people on the autismspectrum, though this is now proposed as a cognitive style rather than afixed deficit in processing information. (See also weak central coherence;cognitive style.)

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cerebellum A structure in the brain located under the occipital lobe of the cortex. Itplays an important role in the control of motor movements, posture andbalance. It is particularly important in movements with a social function,such as gestures and expression.

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cerebral cortex The outer layer of the brain. 5cerebralhemispheres

The brain is divided into two approximately symmetrical halves, referredto as the left and the right cerebral hemispheres.

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CFCS See Child and Family Consultation Service.challengingbehaviours

Behaviour of such intensity, frequency or duration that the physical safetyof the person or others is placed in serious jeopardy and/or access to anduse of ordinary community facilities is impeded.

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CHAT See Checklist for Autism in Toddlers.Checklist forAutism inToddlers (CHAT)

One of the first tools developed for the screening of autism in preschoolchildren. It was originally designed to be administered at a routinedevelopmental assessment of children at 18 months of age, carried outby health visitors or GPs. Key items include questions about pointing,shared attention and pretend play.

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chelation An intervention which involves injecting people with autism with agentsthat reduce the levels of heavy metals such as lead and mercury.Considered very hazardous.

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Child andAdolescentMental HealthService (CAMHS)

A service within the National Health Service in the UK, which providesassessment and treatment for young people with mental health andpsychiatric difficulties.

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Child and FamilyConsultationService (CFCS)

A UK service to which children and adolescents, and their familymembers, may be referred if there are problems with behaviour ordevelopment at school or at home.

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child-centredapproach

A broad term for the class of interventions which involve following thechild's own interests and motivation as a means of encouraginginteraction and learning. This contrasts with adult-directed approaches.(See also adult-directed approaches.)

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ChildDevelopmentCentre (CDC)

Child Development Centres carry out thorough assessments of childrenwho appear to have developmental problems. Social CommunicationClinics within CDCs specialise in assessing children with language andcommunication difficulties. (See also Social Communication Clinic.)

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Term Definition Chapterchildhood autism A formal term for classic autism within the ICD diagnostic system. In the

DSM diagnostic system, the corresponding term is autistic disorder. (Seealso classic autism; autistic disorder.)

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chromosome Structural unit in all living cells, composed of long strands of DNA onwhich genes are found. (See also DNA; X and Y chromosomes.)

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chronological age A person's age in years and months. In psychological tests, a person'schronological age is often considered alongside their mental age.

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classic autism The term classic autism is often used to differentiate the prototypical formof autism, with full expression of the characteristic triad of impairments,from other sub-types of autism such as Asperger syndrome. (See alsoautism; Asperger syndrome.)

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clinicalpsychologist

A psychologist with specialist qualifications and experience in the use ofpsychological methods and theories to help people of all ages who havelearning disabilities or mental health problems, such as depression oranxiety. Unlike psychiatrists, clinical psychologists do not have to bemedically qualified.

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co-morbidity A medical term for the presence of one or more conditions or disordersalongside a primary condition. In autism, epilepsy is a common co-morbidcondition.

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codes Words, phrases or symbols that provide concise summaries ofinformation. In psychological research coding (the use of codes) isemployed to provide informative short-hand headings for rich data suchas spontaneous behaviour, spoken or written language.

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cognition The mental processes involved in thinking, understanding and usinglanguage, planning activities and solving problems.

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cognitive style A strategy or preference affecting the way a person processesinformation, emphasising that there is scope for the individual to controlwhat they attend to and select. The idea that attention to detail or weakcentral coherence is a cognitive style in autism contrasts with the earlierclaim that this is a fixed and immutable bias. (See also centralcoherence; weak central coherence.)

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complex emotions Emotions such as embarrassment, shame and pride. Typically theseemotions cannot be recognised from a person's facial expression alone,but require the integration of other sources of information, especially thecontext in which the emotion has arisen. For instance, to recognise that aperson is feeling embarrassed, it may be necessary to know that theyhave done something that would cause them to feel this way (See alsobasic emotions.)

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comprehensiveapproaches

Interventions, also known as ‘integrated approaches’ that aim to help andsupport individuals on the autism spectrum across many key aspects offunctioning, including learning, behaviour, social and communicationneeds. These approaches are called comprehensive because theyaddress a broad range of skills and deficits, and also because they maybe used in different settings (at home, school, in respite services andother locations), as well as across the lifetime of the individual. Examplesare TEACCH, Lovaas and the Son-Rise programme.

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concordance The occurrence of the same (or similar) condition, characteristic or trait inboth members of a pair of twins.

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concordance rate The proportion or percentage of cases in which both members of a pair oftwins show the same (or similar) condition, characteristic or trait.

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Term Definition Chapterconfoundingfactor

An extraneous variable in a research study or clinical evaluation thatvaries between groups or conditions in such a way that the influencesresponsible for observed effects on outcomes are unclear. For instance,if participants receiving an intervention are high-functioning, while thosenot receiving the intervention are low-functioning, differences inoutcomes may be due to this rather than to the effects of the intervention.

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connectivity The connections between different parts of the brain and how well theycommunicate.

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control group A group of participants in an experiment or other systematic study whichdiffers from the experimental group in not having a characteristic ofinterest, or not receiving a 'treatment' which the experimental groupreceives. For instance, the control group may be typically developingindividuals, while the experimental group has autism spectrumdiagnoses; alternatively the control group and experimental group mayboth have similar characteristics but be presented with different stimuli ortask conditions in an experiment. (See also experiment; experimentalgroup.)

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core deficitmodels

Models that assume that a single underlying problem or deficit accountsfor the wide range of behavioural and psychological difficulties that areobserved in autism.

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correlations A correlation is a statistical relationship between two variables. Acorrelation of 1 means that the two variables are perfectly correlated, acorrelation of 0 means that the two variables bear no relationship at all.

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cortex See cerebral cortex.cross-sectionalstudies

Studies that collect information in individuals at only a single point in time.These contrast with longitudinal studies in which individuals are followedover time to track their development. (See also longitudinal studies.)

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Daily Life Therapy A whole school approach to children with autism originally developed inJapan, and now also practised in Higashi schools in the UK and USA.Educational goals include independence in daily life skills, improvedawareness of body and behaviour and group participation. (See alsowhole school approach.)

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de novo mutation Literally a 'new' mutation: a new genetic variant that neither parentpossessed nor transmitted which is expressed for the first time in theoffspring.

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deletion A type of genetic mutation in which a sequence of DNA has been lost. Adeletion is the opposite of a duplication. (See also duplication; mutation.)

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dendrites The parts of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons (input.) 5deoxyribonucleicacid

See DNA.

Department forEducation andSkills (DfES)

A UK government department with responsibility for all issues affectingpeople up to the age of 19 including child protection and education. InEngland this is now the Department for Children, Schools and Families(DCSF.)

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dependentvariable

A variable which is observed to vary under the influence of anothervariable. In experimental research, the experimenter manipulates orchanges one variable (the independent variable) in order to observe theeffects on another variable (the dependent variable.) For instance, theexperimenter might observe how different characteristics between anexperimental and a control group influence the scores achieved by thetwo groups on a memory test. (See also outcome measure; variable.)

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Term Definition ChapterDevelopmental,Dimensional andDiagnosticinterview (3Di)

An interview designed for use with the parents of children or adults whoare being assessed for an autism spectrum diagnosis. The format of the3Di is similar in structure to the ADI, but uses computer analysis of theresponses in an attempt to reduce the time burden on clinicians. Like theDISCO, the 3Di offers a dimensional framework, allowing for gradedevaluation of how far the individual matches the criteria for a pervasivedevelopmental disorder. (See also ADI; DISCO.)

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Developmental,Individual-difference,Relationship-based (DIR)

A developmental-pragmatic intervention, intensely child-centred, andbased on the idea that children on the spectrum do not connect socialand emotional knowledge to their developing motor and symbolic skills.The intervention involves following and imitating the child's actions usingsensorimotor techniques such as swinging or physical pressure, andpresenting the child with challenges to be overcome by gestures orverbal communications. Also known as Floortime. (See also child-centredapproach; developmental-pragmatic approaches.)

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developmental-pragmaticapproaches

A class of interventions, also known as social pragmatic approaches,based upon an understanding of typical developmental processes,particularly in relation to early social communication and interaction skills.

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developmentaltrajectory

A term for the developmental sequence. This emphasises two facets oftypical development: (1) There is a characteristic sequence of'milestones' such as crawling, sitting up and walking. (2) Earlydevelopmental skills such as pointing and looking are thought to lay thefoundations for later more sophisticated skills such as play with siblings,friendships with peers, or the complex relationships of the teenage yearsand adulthood. The idea of an atypical developmental trajectory is animportant concept in work on autism.

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DfES See Department for Education and Skills.3Di See Developmental, Dimensional and Diagnostic interview.Diagnostic andStatistical Manualof MentalDisorders (DSM)

The American Psychiatric Association's formal system for theclassification and diagnosis of psychiatric conditions, mental healthproblems and psychological disability. The diagnostic criteria andguidelines are revised periodically, the current version, DSM-IV-TR,being shortly due for replacement by DSM-V. (See also diagnosticcriteria; ICD.)

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diagnostic criteria Formal descriptions of medical and psychiatric conditions, used inmaking diagnoses. The criteria comprise a list of symptoms or featuresthat an individual must have for a condition or problem to be diagnosed,and in some cases specify additional symptoms that should not bepresent.

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DiagnosticInterview forSocial andCommunicationDisorders(DISCO)

An interview designed for use with the parents of children or adults whoare being assessed for an autism spectrum diagnosis. The interviewoffers a 'dimensional' framework, allowing for ‘graded’ evaluation of howfar an individual matches the criteria for a pervasive developmentaldisorder, as defined in the ICD and DSM systems. (See also ADI; 3Di.)

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DIR See Developmental, Individual-difference, Relationship-based.DISCO See Diagnostic Interview for Social and Communication Disordersdiscrete trialprocedures

Procedures originating within the operant conditioning framework, andemployed within the Lovaas approach to intervention. They involveanalysing a child’s behaviour into components that can be individuallytackled using operant conditioning and reinforcement. (See also operantconditioning; Lovaas approach.)

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Term Definition Chapterdizygotic (DZ)twins

Twins that are the product of two different eggs that were fertilised by twodifferent sperm cells. Dizygotic twins are genetically non-identical andcan therefore be of same sex or opposite sex. They are genetically nomore similar than non-twin siblings. (See also identical twins; twinmethod.)

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DNA(deoxyribonucleicacid)

Molecules in the cell that contain the instructions necessary in thedevelopment and functioning of all living organisms. Sections of DNAform genes.

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Down syndrome A disorder caused by chromosome abnormality and usually involves adegree of intellectual disability, together with characteristic physicalfeatures, and sometimes medical problems.

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DSM See Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.duplications A type of genetic mutation in which a sequence of DNA is present in two

or more copies on the chromosome. A duplication is the opposite of adeletion. (See also deletion; mutation.)

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E-S theory See empathising-systemising (E-S) theory.EarlyBird A three-month education programme providing support and

encouragement and promoting good practice for parents of newlydiagnosed (preschool) children on the autism spectrum, run by theNational Autistic Society. (See also Hanen.)

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echolalia The repetition of words, phrases or sentences just spoken by others, in a'parrot-like' fashion. Echolalia is common in individuals on the autismspectrum, and also occurs in conditions such as schizophrenia andTourette's syndrome. In autism, the repetition may be immediate ordelayed.

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eclectic approach The use of a combination of different interventions to support people withautism in real-life settings such as the classroom or adult service.

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ecological validity The extent to which an experiment or other research task mirrors a real-life situation. Ecological validity can refer to features such as the type ofstimuli used, the responses that participants are required to make, or thecontext in which the study is conducted.

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EEG See electroencephalography.EF See executive function.effectivenessstudy

An evaluation of an intervention carried out under ‘real-world’ or everydayconditions, e.g. the intervention is delivered by parents in the child'shome environment.

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efficacy study An evaluation of an intervention carried out under ideal conditions, e.g.by highly trained specialists.

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electroencephalography (EEG)

A procedure used in research and clinical practice, in which severalelectrodes are attached to the scalp of the participant. These electrodesmeasure the electrical activity that is produced by the neurons in thebrain.

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embedded figurestest

A test of the capacity to identify an individual component or shape from apattern in which it is embedded.

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empathisingquotient (EQ)

A questionnaire devised by Baron-Cohen and colleagues to measurelevels of empathising or empathy. The assumption underlying the test isthat empathising is a dimensional or continuous trait. Each member of apopulation can receive a low, high or average score on empathising; onaverage, males are predicted to score lower than females; people on theautism spectrum are predicted to score very low on empathising. (Seealso empathising-systemising theory; systemising quotient.)

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Term Definition Chapterempathising-systemising (E-S)theory

A theory formulated by Baron-Cohen, which proposes that autism ischaracterised by poor empathising ability, combined with enhancedsystemising. (See also empathy; empathising quotient; systemising;systemising quotient.)

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empathy Broadly defined as the capacity to understand and 'enter into' anotherperson's emotions. Different researchers employ this term in related butslightly different ways. For Hobson, empathy involves a direct andintuitive feeling 'for and with' another person, which will typically includefeeling the same emotion the other person feels. For Baron-Cohen,empathy, or empathising, involves two separable components –cognitive: recognising what someone else is feeling and affective:experiencing an appropriate reaction, e.g. feeling sad yourself or trying tocomfort someone. Research suggests that empathy is impaired inautism.

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epidemiologicalstudy

Study of the factors determining and influencing the frequency anddistribution of disease, injury and other health-related events and theircauses in a defined human population. Estimating the prevalence of thecondition in question is often an important part of an epidemiologicalstudy. (See also prevalence.)

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epilepsy A group of neurological disorders characterised by recurrent seizures,which reflect abnormal or excessive activity in one or more brain area.Seizures may be accompanied by uncontrollable jerking and temporaryloss of consciousness.

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EQ See empathising quotient.evidence base The quantity and quality of available evidence concerning the efficacy

and/or effectiveness of an intervention. (See also evidence-basedpractice; efficacy study; effectiveness study.)

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evidence-basedpractice

The approach which emphasises that interventions and other clinicalapplications must be based on sound empirical research findings, i.e.there must be a good evidence base for them. The approach is widelyadvocated in clinical psychology. (See also evidence base.)

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excitatory When a neurotransmitter induces an action potential in a postsynapticneuron or increases the existing activity of this neuron, the effect is saidto be excitatory.

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exclusion An order that temporarily or permanently excludes a child from their usualschool.

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executive function(EF)

A collective term for cognitive capacities such as planning, flexiblytransferring attention from one activity to another, inhibiting inappropriateresponses in order to stay 'on task', and generating new activities andideas. (See also planning; mental flexibility; inhibition; generativity.)

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experiment Method used throughout the natural and social sciences to gatherevidence relevant to explaining particular phenomena. Typically anexperiment involves (a) testing a hypothesis by systematicallymanipulating (varying) one variable, known as the independent variable,and measuring the effects on another variable, known as the dependentvariable; (b) controlling all sources of variation except the ones understudy, so that the effects of the first variable on the second can be clearlyinferred. Psychological experiments frequently involve comparing onegroup of participants (the experimental group) against a control group.(See also dependent variable; hypothesis; variable.)

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Term Definition Chapterexperimentalgroup

A group of participants in an experiment or other systematic study,defined in terms of a characteristic of interest and/or a 'treatment' thatdistinguishes this group from the control group. For instance, participantsin the experimental group may have autism spectrum diagnoses, whileparticipants in the control group do not; alternatively both experimentalgroup and control group may have similar characteristics but bepresented with different stimuli or task conditions in an experiment. (Seealso experiment; control group.)

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expressivelanguage

Language that a person produces, typically in written or spoken form.Difficulty with expressive language means that the person has delayand/or difficulty in producing language. The person's spoken languagewill be sparse in vocabulary and/or grammatically and syntacticallyincorrect. The person is likely to have difficulty in putting thoughts intowords, and in using language appropriately in different settings. Difficultywith expressive language is common on the autism spectrum, and isoften accompanied by receptive language difficulty. (See also receptivelanguage.)

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extreme malebrain theory

An extension of Baron-Cohen's empathising-systemising theory whichclaims that the cognitive profile in autism, characterised by an unusuallyhigh score on systemising and an unusually low score on empathising, isan accentuated version of the typical profile for males. This has ledBaron-Cohen to link autism to high levels of the 'male' hormone,testosterone.

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false belief test An experimental test of the ability to understand that another person'sbelief about a situation may be false, that is, different from reality. Usedas test of theory of mind in people on the autism spectrum. The classicfalse belief test for children is known as Sally-Anne.

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falsifiable Refers to the need for a theory to be formulated such that it is in principlepossible to prove that it is incorrect. A theory which is not falsifiable islikely to have little explanatory power.

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firing Neuronal signalling via the axons of these cells 5Floortime Another term for Developmental, Individual-difference, Relationship-

based (DIR). See definition for that term.fMRI See functional magnetic resonance imaging.follow-up studies Studies in which the characteristics of a group of individuals are tracked

over an extended period of time, in order to evaluate progress anddevelopment. For instance, the symptoms and intellectual functioning ofa group of autistic children may be re-assessed in adulthood.

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fragile Xsyndrome

A genetic disease syndrome caused by an expansion of a sequence ofthe FMR1 gene located on the X chromosome. It is the second mostcommon cause of intellectual disability in males.

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Freudianpsychoanalysis

A theoretical and therapeutic framework developed by Sigmund Freud,considered the founding father of psychoanalysis.

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frontal lobe A lobe of the cerebral cortex. It is concerned with articulation of speech,movement, emotions and problem solving. It is also important forexecutive functions, such as reasoning and planning. Called 'frontal'because it is located towards the front of the brain.

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full-scale IQ The overall score that a person achieves on an intelligence test,reflecting a mean of their verbal and performance IQ. (See alsointelligence quotient.)

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Term Definition Chapterfunctionalmagneticresonanceimaging (fMRI)

A variant of MRI scanning that offers insight into the brain at work. fMRIcan give very detailed information about the location of the brain activity,but is limited to changes that take place over about a second. (See alsoimaging; magnetic resonance imaging.)

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fusiform gyrus A part of the brain in the temporal lobe, known to play an essential role inrecognising faces and for differentiating between different faces, objectsand emotions.

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GABA (gamma-aminobutyricacid)

A neurotransmitter that plays an important role in early braindevelopment. It primarily has an inhibitory effect in the brain.

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generalisation The carrying over of a skill or response to a different situation or context,e.g. one that is more complex, more ‘real-life’ or involves interacting withdifferent people.

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generativity The capacity to generate new activities and ideas. A component ofexecutive function. (See also executive function.)

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genes Genes are small sections of very long molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA.) Genes contain the codes for proteins, which are in turn necessaryin the development and functioning of all living organisms.

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genetic Refers to the influence of genes on a condition or trait (physical,psychological, etc.)

1

geneticcounsellors/counselling

An educational counselling process for individuals and families who havea genetic condition or disorder or who are at risk for such acondition/disorder. Genetic counselling is designed to provide patientsand their families with information about their condition and about therisks that further offspring may also be at risk of developing the disorder.Given the current state of knowledge about genetic factors in autism,genetic counselling cannot provide a definitive risk assessment.

8

geneticheterogeneity

The notion that a single condition or disorder may be caused by differentgenes. Autism is genetically heterogeneous: the set of genes involved incausing autism in one individual is likely to be different from the set ofgenes involved in autism in another individual. Autism is also polygenic:in a given individual, the condition is likely to be influenced by thecombined effects of multiple genes. (See also polygenic.)

5

genome-wideassociation study

An association study that systematically assesses DNA variationthroughout the genome.

5

glutamate A neurotransmitter found throughout the brain. Glutamate has anexcitatory effect on the postsynaptic neuron and is thought to be crucialin neural plasticity and in cognitive functions such as learning andmemory.

5

grammar A set of rules that govern the composition of sentences, phrases, andwords in a given language. Each language (English, French, etc.) has itsown grammar. (See also syntax.)

3

graph A visual diagram showing the relationship between two or more variables(for instance height and age) which are plotted against each other.Typically, the basic framework of a graph is a vertical line or axis (the 'y'-axis) crossing or joining a horizontal line (the 'x'-axis) to form an L shapeor a cross. The y-axis shows the possible values of one variable, whilethe x-axis shows the possible values of the other variable. Observationsof the relationship between the two variables are plotted as thecoordinates of the two sets of values.

3

grey matter Refers to the cortical regions of the brain. Because the cortex has such ahigh density of cell bodies, it has a relatively dark colour. (See also whitematter.)

5



Term Definition Chaptergyrus The smooth areas of the cortex between foldings, which form a crown,

are termed gyri (singular term is gyrus.)5

Hanen An education programme developed in Canada in which parents andother care-givers of children on the autism spectrum learn techniques forpromoting children’s communication and language development duringeveryday activities. (See also EarlyBird.)

8

health visitor A qualified nurse or midwife, who works in the community, providingadvice and help on health matters, especially to parents with youngchildren.

2

heritability The extent to which a condition or feature can be attributed to geneticinfluences. If a condition is highly heritable it means that parents arelikely to pass on the condition to their child(ren) through their genes.

5

HFA See high-functioning autism.high-functioningautism (HFA)

A term used by some specialists to describe cases of autism where theindividuals’ full-scale IQ scores are above 70. HFA is not a formaldiagnostic category: the term is used in everyday situations andresearch. The difference, if any, between HFA and Asperger syndrome isa matter of debate. (See also low-functioning autism; Aspergersyndrome.)

2

horizontal axis The horizontal dimension of a graph. Also known as the 'x'-axis. (Seealso graph.)

3

hormone Type of chemical that has a major role in transmitting signals around thebody.

5

human genome All the hereditary information carried within each human cell. 5human primacy Refers to the observation that from birth onwards infants engage with

other humans in ways which are distinct from how they engage with non-humans and the physical world.

4

hypothesis A proposed explanation for an observed phenomenon, which is testedusing the experimental method. Typically the hypothesis will predict theoutcome that will occur if one variable has an effect on, or relationship to,another. (See also experiment; variable.)

1

ICD See International Classification of Diseases.idiopathic A term used to describe conditions or disorders which are of unknown

cause.5

IEP See Individual Education Plan. 7imaging Collective name given to any of a number of techniques that allow a

computer-generated image of a living brain or other internal bodystructure to be produced. (See also fMRI; MEG; MRI.)

5

incidentalteaching

A naturalistic intervention harnessing naturally occurring interactionsbetween an adult and a child in contexts such as free play. Theseopportunities are used by the adult to transmit information or give thechild practice in developing a skill.

6

inclusion The aspiration that all children, regardless of disability, religion, ethnicgroup or other differences, should have the opportunity to learn, achieveand participate fully in the life of their school. In relation to disabilitiessuch as autism, inclusion is quite often interpreted to mean the right of achild to be educated in their own community, alongside other children ofthe same age without disabilities – thus in the mainstream. However, thisenvironment may not necessarily provide the most inclusive experiencefor a child on the autism spectrum.

7



Term Definition Chapterindependentschool

A mainstream, special or residential school, also known as a non-maintained school, which is not funded by the local authority and istherefore fee-paying. Parents may opt to educate a child at their ownexpense, or seek local authority funding to support their child's education.This definition refers to the UK but similar provision exists in some othercountries. (See also mainstream school; special school; residentialschool.)

7

IndividualEducation Plan(IEP)

A plan designed to support and enhance the educational progress of anindividual child by specifying short-term targets and strategies, tailored tothe specific educational needs of the child.

7

inhibition Suppressing or inhibiting inappropriate responses in order to stay 'ontask'. A component of executive function. (See also executive function.)

4

inhibitory When a neurotransmitter decreases the level of existing activity in apostsynaptic neuron, the effect is said to be inhibitory.

5

innate Characteristics that are present before or at birth. 1integratedapproaches

An alternative term for comprehensive interventions. See definition forthat term.

intellectualdisability

Marked difficulty in tasks involving thinking, logical reasoning andproblem solving. Usually defined as an IQ score less than 70.

1

intelligencequotient (IQ)

The score that a person achieves on an intelligence test standardised bycomparison with the scores of other individuals within the same agerange. Some intelligence tests include a separate verbal andperformance intelligence quotient. In this case, their full-scale intelligencequotient is the mean of these two.

3

intelligence tests(IQ tests)

Standardised tests used to provide an objective measure of a person'sintellectual abilities, as compared with the average for the population.The person receives an intelligence quotient (IQ score) based on theirperformance on tests of intellectual ability including acquisition ofconcepts and information, problem solving and logical reasoning. Onewidely used system includes verbal tests such as vocabulary,comprehension and general knowledge, and performance or non-verbaltests, such as block design and picture completion. (See also blockdesign; picture completion; intelligence quotient.)

3

inter-raterreliability

An estimate of the extent to which two or more researchers, workingindependently of one another, agree in the way they rate or interpretobserved behaviour. Inter-rater reliability is an important step inquantitative observational research. (See also observational method;quantitative method.)

3

InternationalClassification ofDiseases (ICD)

The World Health Organisation's formal system for the classification anddiagnosis of physical disorders, psychiatric conditions, mental healthproblems and psychological disability. The diagnostic criteria andguidelines are revised periodically; the current version, ICD-10, is due forreplacement in 2014. (See also diagnostic criteria; DSM.)

1

intervention group The group receiving an intervention in a study evaluating its efficacy oreffectiveness. The intervention group is equivalent to the experimentalgroup in a research study, and is compared with a control group whichdoes not receive the intervention.

6

interventions Procedures for supporting and improving the health and functioning ofsomeone with a clinical problem such as autism.

1

intonation The characteristic rise and fall of speech, which plays a role incommunication, and may be atypical in people on the autism spectrum.

2



Term Definition Chapterintuitive physics Everyday insights into the forces governing physical objects, the

implication being that these insights are acquired relativelyspontaneously, rather than being the result of education. A test ofintuitive physics devised by Baron-Cohen and colleagues has been usedto demonstrate that people on the autism spectrum may be goodsystemisers, i.e. highly attuned to physical systems. (See alsosystemising; empathising-systemising theory.)

4

intuitiveunderstanding

A direct or spontaneous understanding of other people, which does notdepend on conscious processes of working out their thoughts andfeelings. (See also empathy.)

4

IQ See intelligence quotient.ironic Irony is the use of an expression or phrase to mean something different

from or opposite to what it normally means. Being ironic means speakingwith irony.

3

joint attention The phenomenon in which one person coordinates or shares theirattention with another, in order to focus on the same object or event.Joint attention emerges in typically developing children by about 12months of age. Children later receiving autism spectrum diagnoses showpoor joint attention skills. (See also protodeclarative pointing.)

2

language Narrowly defined, language is a system of sounds, signs or written items(letters, word fragments and words), together with rules for combiningthese elements in ways that convey meaning to others who share aknowledge of this language.

3

Learning SupportAssistants

Learning support staff, also known as Teaching Assistants, who workalongside teachers in the classroom, helping students progress with theirlearning. In some cases they specialise in areas such as literacy,numeracy, special educational needs, music, English as an additionallanguage, and the creative arts.

7

LFA See low-functioning autism.linkage analysis A technique that detects linkage between DNA markers (landmarks in the

DNA) and a condition or a trait. The technique is used to get an idea ofwhat region of which chromosomes may be involved in the risk for acondition such as autism.

5

local authorities Regional government bodies in the UK with responsibilities in areas suchas education, health and social services.

2

longitudinalstudies

Studies involving repeated observations over an extended period of time.Longitudinal studies are often employed to follow the development ofindividuals over time. These studies contrast with cross-sectional studies,in which data are collected in each individual at one time point only. (Seealso cross-sectional studies.)

5

Lovaas approach A comprehensive behavioural intervention for children on the autismspectrum developed by Ivar Lovaas and colleagues. The techniqueemploys reinforcement to modify children's behaviour through operantconditioning. The technique typically targets language development,social interaction and school integration skills. (See also behaviouralinterventions; comprehensive or integrated approaches; operantconditioning; reinforcement.)

6

low-functioningautism (LFA)

A term used by some specialists to describe cases of autism where theindividuals' full-scale IQ score is below 70, i.e. in the disabled range. LFAis not a formal diagnostic category; the term is used in everydaysituations, and in research. (See also high-functioning autism.)

2

MA See mental age.MAA See multi-agency assessment.



Term Definition Chaptermagneticresonanceimaging (MRI)

A readily available and widely used imaging technique that reveals thestructural anatomy of the brain. (See also imaging.)

5

magnetoencepha-lography (MEG)

A method that measures brain activity directly. MEG exploits the fact thatactive neurons induce weak magnetic fields, so when a group of neuronsis collectively active, they produce a signal that is strong enough to bemeasured. MEG detects the brain’s electrical activity during a taskdirectly (without much time delay), but it is less precise than fMRI indetermining the exact location of brain activity. (See also imaging.)

5

mainstreamschool

The type of primary or secondary school that is provided for the majorityof children. While some children with disabilities such as autism do attendmainstream school, the curriculum and environment is not specificallytailored to children with special needs. Some need a more specialisededucation environment and are educated in different schools. Thisdefinition refers to education systems in the UK but similar provisionexists in some other countries. (See also special school; residentialschool.)

7

mean The most commonly used type of average, calculated by adding a set ofmeasurements together, and dividing by the number of measurementsmade.

1

median A type of average used in statistics and research reports. The median iscalculated by arranging a set of values in order of magnitude andidentifying the middle value. If two values are in the middle the median isthe mean of these two values.

8

medical model The approach that interprets conditions such as autism as disablingdisorders akin to physical diseases, and therefore requiring clinicaldiagnosis and treatment, with the aim of rendering the person with thedisorder as near to 'normality' as possible.

9

MEG See magnetoencephalography.mental age (MA) A way of expressing a child's level of intellectual functioning in terms of

the age of children whose performance on IQ tests matches this level.For instance, a child with a chronological age of 10 years, who has an IQscore equivalent to the average of a group of 14 year-olds, has a mentalage of 14 years. A child with an IQ score equivalent to the average of agroup of 7 year-olds has a mental age of 7 years. Mental age issometimes a useful concept in considering intellectual disability. (Seealso chronological age; IQ.)

3

mental flexibility Readily shifting one's attention from one completed activity or task toanother quite different one. A component of executive function. (See alsoexecutive function.)

4

mental states A collective term for the processes, including thinking, believing andfeeling, which characterise human thought.

4

mentalising Similar to mind-reading mentalising means the act of thinking aboutmental states. (See also theory of mind; mind-reading.)

4

metaphors A metaphor is a word or phrase applied to a concept with which it has noliteral relationship.

3

milieuapproaches

Another term for naturalistic approaches. See definition for that term. 6

mind-reading The term has a similar meaning to theory of mind, but emphasises thatmental state understanding in everyday life involves more than the formaltheory of mind skills tested with false belief tasks.(See also theory ofmind; mentalising.)

4



Term Definition Chaptermirroring Broadly defined as the phenomenon in which one individual echoes or

copies the behaviour of another with whom they are in social interaction.In emotional mirroring, one individual experiences the same emotion asanother with whom they are interacting. This is also known as empathy.Some scientists have suggested that the capacity for different forms ofmirroring depends on neurons in the brain which are activated not onlywhen one individual does something or feels something, but when thatindividual simply observes another person's behaviour. Thus watchingsomeone dancing is reported to activate neurons in the areas of the braininvolved in motor activity. (See also empathy.)

3

MMR (measles,mumps andrubella) vaccine

A combined vaccine administered to children (initially at 12–15 months)to protect them against measles, mumps and rubella. The vaccine waslinked to autism in 1998, in a controversial research paper by Wakefieldand colleagues. The paper is now discredited and subsequent researchindicates no link.

1

modality In relation to sensation and perception, modality means a specificchannel or dimension of input, such as sound, touch or taste.

3

model A form of theoretical explanation, often specifying mechanisms orprocesses depicted in visual form such as a chart. In psychologicalresearch on autism, the term model often means a broad approach orconceptualisation embracing several related theories. (See also theory.)

4

moleculargenetics

The understanding of genes at the level of the molecules involved. 1

monozygotic (MZ)twins

Twins derived from a single fertilised egg that divided and separated inan early stage of pregnancy. Monozygotic twins, also known as identicaltwins, are genetically identical and are therefore always of the same sex.(See also twin method.)

5

motor behaviour Patterns of movement which depend on the coordinated activity ofmuscles, joints and other anatomical structures.

3

MRI See magnetic resonance imaging.multi-agencyassessment(MAA)

A system of good practice advocated for use in assessing children oradults for conditions such as autism. The assessment involves closecollaboration and joint working arrangements between different agenciesand specialists, such as educational psychologist, speech and languagetherapist, social worker, medical doctor, to facilitate an in-depth picture ofall aspects of the individual's difficulties, and family support needs.

2

multi-modalemotionrecognition

The integration of facial expression and voice with other sources ofinformation including gesture, body posture and context.

3

multiple-baselinestudy

A study that evaluates the effect of an intervention on a small number ofparticipants, in which a baseline (pre-intervention) period is followed byan intervention commencing at a different time for each participant. (Seealso baseline period.)

6

multiple factormodel

Model that assumes that separate influences, working alongside oneanother, result in the difficulties in communication, social interaction andinflexibility of thought and behaviour observed in autism.

4

multiplex autismfamily

A family in which more than one child/family member is on the autismspectrum. The existence of a substantial number of such familiesprovides strong evidence that genetic factors play a role in causingautism. Without such genetic vulnerability the probability of autismoccurring in more than one member of the same family would be verylow.

8



Term Definition Chaptermutation A change in the sequence of units of the DNA. Examples of mutations

include duplications and deletions of DNA sequences. (See alsodeletions; duplications.)

5

mutism Mutism, meaning absence of speech, is observed in some individuals onthe autism spectrum, and is usually assumed to reflect an inability tocommunicate using speech. In some individuals mutism may reflect theavoidance of speech due to extreme anxiety.

1

myelin A fatty white substance that encases axons. It provides an insulationlayer and thereby increases the speed at which a signal can travel alongthe axon.

5

NAP-C See National Autism Plan for Children.NAS See National Autistic Society.National AdultAutism Strategy

A national governmental strategy for England setting out the means toaddress the problems of adults with autism highlighted in the Autism Bill,and now enshrined in the Autism Act 2009. (See also the Autism Bill.)

9

National AutismPlan for Children(NAP-C)

A voluntary framework in the UK setting out guidelines andrecommendations for good practice in relation to the identification anddiagnosis of children with autism.

2

National AutisticSociety (NAS)

The National Autistic Society was founded in 1962 as an organisation forpeople with autism, their families and carers. It acts as a forum forexchange of ideas and information, pioneers important national andinternational initiatives and raises public consciousness about the needsof people on the autism spectrum.

1

naturalistic Representative of real life. 3naturalisticapproaches

A class of interventions, also known as milieu approaches, that makessome use of behavioural techniques but employs them to support thedevelopment of target skills within a child's everyday environment, or innaturally occurring situations. Considered to be intermediate betweenadult-directed and child-centred approaches. (See also adult-directedapproach; child-centred approach.)

6

nervous system The network of neurons in the body, including the brain. The collection ofcells together ensures the handling and processing of informationthroughout the body.

5

neural plasticity The ability of synapses to change their size and ability to communicatewith other neurons, muscles and organs that produce hormones.

5

neuroanatomy The anatomical organisation of the brain. 5neurobiology The biology of the nervous system. 5neuron The main type of cell that forms the nervous system and is specialised in

processing information.5

neurotransmitter A chemical involved in carrying a signal from one neuron to another. 5neurotypical (NT) The term neurotypical (NT) was first coined within the autism community

to denote people who are not on the autism spectrum. The implication isthat their brain and mental functioning is typical rather than atypical,particularly in relation to communication and social interaction. The termavoids the problematic connotations of ‘normal’ (as opposed to‘abnormal’.) It has been quite widely adopted, and is recommended bythe National Autistic Society. (See also typically developing children.)

6

non-maintainedschools

An alternative term for independent schools. See definition for that term. 7

non-verbalcommunication

The use of non-verbal means, including prosody (pitch, intonation andstress), facial expression and gestures, to express meaning incommunication. (See also prosody.)

3



Term Definition ChapterNT See neurotypical.object-focusedattention

A term used in developmental research for attention which is focusedtowards objects. This is inferred from behaviours such as where a childlooks, what they orient to, what they smile at or speak to. (See also socialattention.)

3

observationalmethod

A method widely used in the natural and social sciences, focusing onnaturally occurring behaviour. As such the observational methodcontrasts with the experimental method, which studies responses tospecially devised tests in a controlled setting. The observational methodusually involves coding of the observations. Coded observations aretreated quantitatively in some types of observational research, andqualitatively in others.

3

occipital lobe A lobe of the cerebral cortex important for many aspects of visualperception and for the processing of spatial information.

5

Ofsted The body empowered by the Education and Inspections Act of 2007 toinspect the standards in schools in England. Comparable bodies withdifferent names operate in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.

7

operantconditioning

A principle of learning formulated by the psychologist B.F.Skinner.Skinner stated that an organism's active behaviour 'operates' on theenvironment, with consequences that modify the organism's tendency torepeat that behaviour in the future. If the consequences are rewarding forthe organism, the behaviour is more likely to be repeated. Skinnershowed that operant behaviour can be modified (increased or reduced)by the application of reinforcement. For instance, a reward for completinghomework is likely to reinforce the behaviour of completing homework.Operant conditioning using reinforcement is central to the technique ofbehaviour modification involved in the Lovaas approach to interventionfor autism. (See also Lovaas approach; reinforcement.)

6

outcome measure A measure of the outcome of an intervention for a disorder or condition,and thus a type of dependent variable. Outcome measures used toevaluate interventions for autism spectrum conditions typically focus onchanges in the participants' behaviour and/or psychological functioning.(See also dependent variable.)

6

overly formal andstilted

One of four styles of social interaction which, according to Lorna Wing,may be characteristic of adults on the autism spectrum. The adult strivesto overcome their social difficulties, but tends to conform to rigid rules ofbehaviour, thus appearing formal and excessively polite. (See also aloof;active but odd; passive and friendly.)

3

oxytocin A hormone produced in the brain of women after stimulation of thenipples by breastfeeding. (See also hormone.)

5

paediatrics The specialist branch of medicine dealing with infants, children andadolescents.

1

parietal lobe A lobe of the cerebral cortex. It is concerned with the perception of stimulirelated to touch, pressure, temperature and pain (also referred to assomatosensory perception.)

5

participants People who volunteer to take part in a research or clinical study. 1



Term Definition Chapterpassive andfriendly

One of four styles of social interaction which, according to Lorna Wing,may be characteristic of adults on the autism spectrum. The adult is ableto tolerate the company of others, but does little to interact with them. Heor she may seem quiet and shy rather than autistic, as long as remainingwithin a familiar and non-stressful environment. (See also aloof; activebut odd; overly formal and stilted.)

3

pathologising Tending to attribute all problems to medical or psychological abnormality,even when alternative, non-pathological explanations are possible.

8

pathway Network of neurons that are specialised for a particular neurotransmitter.For example, the serotonergic pathway refers to the collection of neuronsthat communicate with each other through the release of serotonin.

5

PDD See pervasive developmental disorders.PDD-NOS See pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified.PDD-unspecified See pervasive developmental disorder, unspecified.PECS See Picture Exchange Communication System.peer-reviewedjournal

An academic journal that publishes articles relating to a particular theme.Articles submitted for potential publication are assessed by independent(usually anonymous) reviewers, who are experts in the area covered.Reviewers will only pass articles for publication if they are satisfied thatthey are coherent and scientifically sound.

6

perception The processes involved in organising and interpreting informationprovided by the different sense organs. (See also sensation; senseorgans; sensory processing.)

1

perceptualdifficulties

Difficulties in processing, integrating and making sense of informationreceived via the sense organs. Various forms of difficulty are common inpeople on the autism spectrum.

1

perceptualprocessing

Spontaneous activity of the nervous system, including the brain, ininterpreting and making sense of information transmitted by senseorgans. The distinction between sensory processing and perceptualprocessing is not always well-defined. For instance, the eye is a senseorgan, but perceptual processing also commences in the retina of theeye.

3

perseveration Inability to relinquish a rule, strategy or activity that has becomeineffective or unhelpful.

4

pervasivedevelopmentaldisorder,unspecified(PDD-unspecified)

A formal diagnostic term within the ICD-10 system, used for individualswith autistic-like symptoms, but where the information is inadequate,incomplete or contradictory, such that criteria for the more specificdiagnosis of childhood autism (the ICD-10 term for classic autism) cannotbe met. (See also PDD-NOS; atypical autism.)

2

pervasivedevelopmentaldisorder nototherwisespecified (PDD-NOS)

A formal diagnostic term within the DSM-IV-TR system, used in relationto individuals with autistic-like symptoms who do not meet the strictcriteria for autistic disorder (the DSM term for classic autism.) In DSM-IV-TR the term atypical autism is used interchangeably with PDD-NOS.(See also PDD-unspecified; atypical autism.)

2



Term Definition Chapterpervasivedevelopmentaldisorders (PDD)

A broad 'umbrella’ term used in both DSM-IV-TR and ICD-10 forconditions characterised by difficulties in communication, socialinteraction and range of activities and interests. 'Pervasive' means thatthe difficulties embrace many key aspects of developmental, rather thanjust a specific developmental capacity such as language or reading. Themain conditions included under this heading are the sub-types of theautism spectrum- classic autism, Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS. Asmall number of much rarer conditions are sometimes considered part ofthe autism spectrum and sometimes not. (See also DSM; ICD; autismspectrum.)

1

pharmacologicalinterventions

Interventions involving the use of medicines, i.e. drugs. 6

phenomena Phenomena is the plural of phenomenon, a Greek word meaning anobservable event or occurrence. In psychology, the term phenomena isused quite broadly to mean directly observable aspects of humanbehaviour, such as the way a person speaks or moves, and lessobservable aspects of cognition, such as how a person's memory works,which must be inferred from their responses in psychological tasks.

3

phenotype Phenotype means the sum of an individual’s characteristics, asdetermined by the combined effects of their genetic make-up or genotypewith environmental influences. The phenotype comprises all thosecharacteristics of an individual which are 'observable', including directlyobservable characteristics such as eye colour, height and physique, andothers such as blood group and IQ, which are indirectly observable usingscientific instrumentation and/or psychological tests.

9

phonology The system of rules governing how the words in a language shouldsound. A grasp of phonology means that a person understands howwords should be pronounced, and also how to make sense of sequencesof speech sounds that he or she hears. As such, phonology is an aspectof both expressive and receptive language ability. The term phonologyalso means the study of the rules governing the sound of language. (Seealso expressive language; receptive language.)

3

picturecompletion test

A sub-test within a non-verbal IQ test, in which the participant is asked toarrange some coloured blocks to copy a geometric pattern. (See alsointelligence tests.)

3

Picture ExchangeCommunicationSystem (PECS)

An intervention widely used in clinical, educational and home settings tohelp children on the autism spectrum communicate using pictures orsymbols. Especially suited for children with classic autism and little or nolanguage.

2

pilot A preliminary study conducted in advance of a full-scale research study.In clinical work, a pilot may be an informal evaluation of a proposedintervention involving a single participant or a very small group ofparticipants.

6

pitch Refers to whether a sound is high or low. The pitch of speech plays a rolein communication and may be atypical in people on the autism spectrum.

2

planning Mentally organising one's actions to achieve a goal. A component ofexecutive function. (See also executive function.)

4

pointing The use of the index finger to indicate an item of interest. 3



Term Definition Chapterpolygenic A condition or trait that is due to the combined effects of multiple genes

(as opposed to the influence of a single gene.) In each individual withautism, the condition is likely to be due to a combination of differentgenes acting together. There is also genetic heterogeneity for autism: theset of genes involved in causing autism in the one individual may bedifferent from the set of genes predisposing to autism in anotherindividual. (See also genetic heterogeneity.)

5

positivereinforcement

A central principle in behaviour modification and behaviouralinterventions. Involves shaping an individual's behaviour by theapplication of influences known as reinforcers which increase thefrequency of a particular response. Often the influence will have thequality of a reward which the individual works to receive by the way theybehave. For instance a child may be encouraged to sit still at a table bythe positive reinforcement of a sweet, which is given each time the childmanages to sit still. (See also behavioural interventions; behaviourmodification; operant conditioning; reinforcement.)

1

post-mortemstudy

The study of tissues that takes place after an organism has died. Post-mortem studies of brain tissue have shed useful light on structuralatypicalities in autism.

5

pragmatics The aspect of language function concerning the ability to produce andreceive language effectively for purposes of two-way communication.This requires the ability to come up with the right utterances in socialcontext, and also to understand how social context affects the meaning ofwhat other people say.

3

prevalence The number of cases of a condition within a population at a particulartime.

1

primaryintersubjectivity

A term derived from the work of Colwyn Trevarthen meaning that infantsand their mothers are ‘pre-programmed’ to respond to each other’sbehaviour, triggering an ongoing cycle of reciprocal interaction in whichthe child’s and mother’s behaviour is closely attuned and synchronised.

4

probability Mathematical odds. 1prodigious skills Under the broad heading of savant syndrome, a prodigious skill is a

talent so exceptional or outstanding that it is likely to attract widespreadpublic interest. Such prodigious skill is typically in an area such as visualart or musical performance. An example is the work of the autistic artistStephen Wiltshire. (See also savant syndrome; splinter skills; talents.)

3

prognosis A prediction offered by a medical or other expert concerning the probablecourse and outcome of a disorder or condition.

8

prompt fading A behavioural technique in which an adult initially provides physicalprompts for a child's actions, but gradually reduces the prompts as thechild becomes more familiar with the actions. (See also naturalisticapproaches.)

6

pronoun reversal Also known as pronominal reversal and meaning the use of impersonalpronouns such as 'you', 'he', 'she' instead of 'I' or 'me'. This languageimpairment, which is common in autism, often occurs together withecholalia. For instance, the answer to 'do you want a biscuit' might be anexact repetition of this phrase to mean 'yes I would like a biscuit'. (Seealso echolalia.)

1

prosody Non-verbal aspects of a person's speech such as pitch, intonation andstress that help to convey meaning in communication. (See also pitch;intonation; stress.)

3



Term Definition Chapterprosopagnosia A condition in which the ability to recognise faces is seriously impaired,

while the ability to see and recognise objects and other physical entitiesis intact. Prosopagnosia occurs in a proportion of people on the autismspectrum but the frequency is not known.

3

protodeclarativepointing

The use of pointing to draw someone else's attention to an object or itemof interest, thus enabling the individual to share their interest withanother. Thus a child might point protodeclaratively to a bird so that hismother will look at it too. Children on the autism spectrum tend not to usethis form of pointing. (See also protoimperative pointing.)

3

protoimperativepointing

The use of pointing to indicate an object or item that the individual wantsor desires. Thus a child might point protoimperatively to a biscuit toconvey that they want to have it. Children on the autism spectrum mayuse this form of pointing. (See also protodeclarative pointing.)

3

psychiatry The branch of medicine that deals with the understanding and treatmentof mental disorders and problems affecting the mind.

1

psychologicalperspective

Seeking to understand and explain aspects of human behaviour in termsof psychological concepts and theories.

3

psychometrictechniques

Techniques that provide ways of measuring intelligence, language skillsand other cognitive and behavioural capacities or traits.

9

psychosocialinterventions

Interventions that aim to influence an individual’s behaviour, social andcommunication skills and/or thinking processes. Such interventions aredirectly or indirectly informed by knowledge of learning and otherpsychological processes. Psychosocial interventions are the most widelyused and successful type of interventions for people on the autismspectrum.

6

qualitativemethod

A type of research method typically used to gather rich descriptiveinformation which is difficult to quantify or measure. (See alsoquantitative method.)

9

quantitativemethod

A type of method used to gather quantitative data, that is, informationdealing with numbers and anything that is measurable. Quantitativemethods are the norm in natural sciences such as physics, chemistry andbiology, and are also widely used in the disciplines relevant to studyingautism, including psychology. Quantitative methods in these fieldsinclude experiments, questionnaires, psychometric techniques, andcertain forms of observational study. These methods contrast withqualitative methods, which do not involve measurement. A combinationof quantitative and qualitative methods is sometimes very useful inelucidating psychological phenomena. (See also qualitative method.)

9

RAD See reactive attachment disorder.randomisedcontrol trial (RCT)

A systematic method for evaluating interventions in which participants areassigned randomly to intervention and control groups. The purpose ofrandom allocation is to avoid biases in the group of participants selectedfor the intervention which may affect the outcome of the evaluation.

6

RDI See Relationship Development Intervention programme.reactiveattachmentdisorder (RAD)

The clinical and diagnostic term for a condition characterised by markedlydisturbed and developmentally inappropriate ways of relating socially in arange of situations. Unlike autism spectrum conditions, RAD may reflectemotional attachment problems resulting from a lack of nurturing in earlychildhood.

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Term Definition Chapterreceptivelanguage

The process of receiving and understanding language which is spoken orwritten by others. Difficulty with receptive language means that theperson has delay and/or difficulty in making sense of what other peoplesay or write down. Problems are likely to include difficulty inunderstanding vocabulary or grammar, difficulty in distinguishing speechsounds and in understanding the meaning of sentences. Difficulty withreceptive language is common on the autism spectrum and is oftenaccompanied by expressive language difficulty. (See also expressivelanguage.)

3

reciprocity Processes of ‘give and take’ and ‘turn-taking’ in communication andsocial interaction.

3

reflexivity A term with several different meanings. In the context of developmentalpsychology, reflexivity means the capacity to reflect on one's ownthoughts, or to have an 'inner dialogue'. This is thought to play animportant role in developing the child's ability to see themselves as a selfor individual distinct from other individuals.

4

regression Regression is the phenomenon in which a child first seems to bedeveloping normally, and then the development ‘tails off’ and evenreverses to behaviour the child showed at a younger age. Regression ismost notable for language development.

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reinforcement A central principle in behaviour modification and behavioural intervention.Involves shaping an individual's behaviour by the application ofinfluences known as reinforcers which increase or decrease thefrequency of a particular response. (See also behaviour modification.)

1

RelationshipDevelopmentIntervention (RDI)programme

A developmental-pragmatic child-centred intervention in which parentsare trained to foster the social communication skills of their child withautism via stimulating and enjoyable activities. Parents are trained to useindirect prompts and invitations rather than directive forms of interaction.(See also child-centred; developmental-pragmatic approaches.)

6

replication Replication is said to occur when a research study is repeated,sometimes with slight variations, with the same outcome. Replicationplays an important role in establishing if a research finding is robust.

4

Research Autism A UK charity dedicated to research into interventions for autism. Theorganisation supports and/or commissions independent evaluations ofnew and existing health, education, social and other interventions. Theirwebsite includes a database of interventions with ratings of their currentevidence base.

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residential school A school that provides overnight accommodation and 24 hour support forchildren and young people on the autism spectrum, sometimes up to 23years of age. Residential schools typically cater for more profoundlyaffected individuals. This definition refers to the UK but similar provisionexists in some other countries. (See also mainstream school; specialschool.)

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resilience The ability to withstand hardship and to overcome adversity, becomingstronger and more resourceful as a result.

8

respite care orprovision

A short residential break away from the family for a person with adisability such as autism. This is designed to provide a rest and'breathing-space' for other family members.

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rote memory Learning or memorisation by accurate repetition e.g. word by word recallof a string of words. The term may also imply that memorisation takesplace without an understanding of the reasoning or relationships involvedin the material that is remembered.

1



Term Definition Chaptersample The group of individuals who are selected from a wider population to take

part in a study.5

savant syndrome An isolated, narrow area of ability or skill in the context of profounddisability. The term is often treated as an umbrella term for abilitiesranging from moderately developed splinter skills, through talents, toprodigious skills which are sufficiently outstanding to attract widespreadattention and interest. It is estimated that about 30% of individuals on theautism spectrum have an area of special skill, though very few haveprodigious skills. (See also splinter skills; talents; prodigious skills.)

3

screening A procedure for identifying which individuals in a population have, or areat risk of developing, a certain condition.

2

second-orderfalse belief

A complex form of false belief in which a person understands that asecond person has a false belief about a third person's belief about asituation.

4

secondaryintersubjectivity

A term from the work of Colwyn Trevarthen for the phase, during thesecond year of life, when typically developing infants not only coordinateone-to-one with a parent, but also start to join with the parent in attendingto something or someone else.

4

seeing leads toknowing

Refers to the fact that a person’s belief or knowledge about a situationdepends partly on what perceptual information has been available tothem.

4

selectiveserotonin re-uptake inhibitors(SSRIs)

A group of antidepressant drugs that act to increase the availability of theneurotransmitter serotonin in the brain. Serotonin is thought to beinvolved in mood regulation.

6

self-injurious Self-harming behaviour such as head banging, scratching, biting, or eyegouging.

8

self-referenceeffect

A reported phenomenon in which people tend to remember more abouttheir own actions and experiences than about those of other people.

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semantics The aspect of language function that relates to using words appropriatelyto convey meaning, and to understanding the meaning of words, phrasesand sentences.

3

SENCo See Special Educational Needs Coordinator.sensation The detection of information from the environment by specialised sense

organs (See also sense organs; sensory processing).1

sense organs Specialised systems in all animals that enable them to detect andprocess information from the environment. In humans the main senseorgans are eyes, ears, touch receptors in the skin, smell receptors in thenostrils, taste receptors in the tongue, movement receptors in musclesand joints, and balance receptors in the inner ear.

3

sensoryhypersensitivity

Heightened sensitivity to sounds, tastes, visual and other stimuli,compared with what most people experience. Common in people on theautism spectrum. (See also sensory hyposensitivity.)

1

sensoryhyposensitivity

Reduced sensitivity to sounds, tastes, visual and other stimuli comparedwith what most people experience. Common in people on the autismspectrum. (See also sensory hypersensitivity.)

1



Term Definition Chaptersensory overload Broadly defined as a state in which individuals are exposed to many

sensory stimuli, or to stimuli at such high intensities, that they becomeunable to deal with them. For instance, they may become very stressedand/or become unresponsive to sensory input. In autism, hypersensitivityto sensory stimuli means that a person may experience overload even formoderate levels of stimulation that would not be disagreeable for aperson without autism.

3

sensoryprocessing

The means by which we acquire information about the environmentthrough specialised sense organs, each of which deals with a differentmodality or dimension of input. (See also sensation; sense organs.)

3

serotonin A neurotransmitter involved in complex brain processes, including theregulation of mood, emotions, aggression, sleep and body temperature.(See also neurotransmitter.)

5

sex-linked A term for characteristics that are coded by genes located on the Xchromosome. Since females have two X chromosomes, while males onlyhave one, a characteristic coded by a particular allele of a gene locatedon the X chromosome may be expressed in males but masked infemales.

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sibling recurrencerisk

The likelihood that a condition diagnosed in one family member will alsooccur in his or her sibling.

5

SLT See speech and language therapist.social attention A term used in developmental research for attention that is focused on

people and other social stimuli. It is inferred from behaviours such aswhether the child looks at people, orients to them, smiles at them orvocalises (makes sounds) to them.

3

social cognition An aspect of cognition concerned with how people process and makesense of social information, especially other people’s behaviour and‘mental life’ – what they are thinking and feeling.

1

SocialCommunicationClinic

A term for a clinic specialising in assessing children with language andcommunication difficulties. Children with problems that might indicate anautism spectrum condition are often referred to Social CommunicationClinics. (See also Child Development Centre.)

2

social pragmaticapproaches

An alternative term for developmental-pragmatic approaches. Seedefinition for that term.

6

Social Stories An intervention designed to help children on the autism spectrumunderstand social situations and react appropriately. The child isprovided with stories describing social situations as if from the child'sperspective, with concrete description of details and examples ofappropriate responses.

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somatosensoryperception

The perception of stimuli related to touch, pressure, temperature andpain.

5

Son-Riseprogramme

An intervention originally developed by the Kaufmans to help their ownson, Raun. As a child-centred intervention, the approach involvesfollowing the child’s interests and motivation as a means of encouraginginteraction and learning. For instance, a parent might join in their child'srepetitive and ritualistic behaviours or build on the child's interest insomething as an opportunity for learning. Strong but currentlyunsubstantiated claims have been made for recovery through use of thisprogramme. (See also child-centred approach.)

6



Term Definition ChapterSpecialEducationalNeedsCoordinator(SENCo)

A teacher within a school with responsibility for overseeing the teachingof children with special needs.

2

special school A school or stand-alone unit whose main purpose is to provide educationspecially suited to the additional support needs of children and youngpersons with a significant level of special educational needs. Somespecial schools are designed specifically for children on the autismspectrum, while others cater for a range of special needs. This definitionrefers to the UK but similar provision exists in some other countries. (Seealso mainstream school; residential school.)

7

specificity A criterion to be considered in evaluating theories of autism. A specificfactor or influence is one which affects only individuals on the autismspectrum, rather than one which also affects individuals with otherconditions. A theoretical explanation which identifies such a specificinfluence is likely to be more useful and convincing than one which doesnot identify such a specific factor. (See also testability; universality.)

4

speech andlanguagetherapist (SLT)

A health professional whose role is to assess and treat children andadults with speech, language and communication difficulties.

2

SPELL (Structure,Positive,Empathy, Lowarousal, Links)

The National Autistic Society 'whole school' framework for understandingand responding to the needs for children, young people and adults withautism. The acronym stands for Structure: a structured environment,together with communication and learning activities with clear guidelineswhich promote effective learning by increasing consistency andpredictability; Positive: approaches and expectations; Empathy: ability toidentify with and understand the feelings or difficulties of the person withautism; Low arousal: an environment where distraction and aversivefactors are kept to a minimum; Links: the framework focuses onenvironment, communication and staff interaction with children and adultswith autism. (See also whole school approach.)

7

splinter skills Under the broad heading of savant syndrome, the term splinter skillrefers to a well-developed ability in an individual with other cognitivedisabilities. For example, an individual with a low IQ may nonetheless beable to complete complex jigsaw puzzles. (See also savant syndrome;talents; prodigious skills.)

3

SQ See systemising quotient.SSRIs See selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors.Statement ofSpecialEducationalNeeds

A legal document that identifies the type of support a child with someform of disability or learning problem would need at school.

2

statistical tests Tests designed to evaluate the probability that an observed result (e.g. inan experiment) is statistically significant, or has occurred by chancealone. Conclusions can only be drawn from the study if the result isstatistically significant. (See also probability; statistically significant.)

1

statisticallysignificant

Refers to a result that is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance.Often the term 'significant' is used alone.

1

stereotypy A repeated or ritualistic movement, posture or utterance. It is a commontype of symptom in people on the autism spectrum, and also occurs incertain movement disorders.

3



Term Definition Chapterstress The use of emphasis within speech to mark particular words or phrases.

Stress plays a role in communication, and may be atypical in people onthe autism spectrum.

2

structuredschedule

A method used in research interviews to ensure consistency in thetreatment of different interviewees. The structured schedule specifies thetopics to be covered and the way the questions are asked.

1

sulcus The foldings of the cortex in the brain that form a groove are referred toas sulci (singular term is sulcus.)

5

symbolic capacity A symbol is something such as a numeral, object, pictorial symbol orword that represents or stands for something else. Symbolic capacity,broadly defined as the capacity to understand and operate with suchsymbols, is essential for language understanding, and for activities suchas pretence and imagination. In order to pretend, a child must be able totreat one object or entity (say a stick) as if it were another (say a sword.)

3

symptoms Features or characteristics that may indicate a clinical problem ordisorder. In some medical conditions (e.g. flu), symptoms may befeelings that the individual experiences and reports to a doctor. In otherconditions, such as autism, an individual's symptoms are more likely tobe atypical behaviours observed by others such as the individual'sparent, or a clinician. Symptoms form the basis for formal diagnosticclassifications such as DSM-IV-TR or ICD-10.

1

synapse The junction between two neurons where communication takes place vianeurotransmitters that cross the synapse.

5

syndrome A term denoting a co-occurring and characteristic set of symptoms,usually assumed to be caused by a specific underlying disorder, even ifthe causal mechanism is not well understood. Many syndromes arenamed after the physicians credited with first reporting the association,hence Kanner's syndrome and Asperger syndrome. Autism is nowconsidered more as a spectrum rather than as one or more specificsyndromes. (See also autism spectrum.)

1

synesthesia The phenomenon in which specific sensory or perceptual stimuliconsistently trigger a different sensory or perceptual system from the onereceiving input. Thus a person may see a colour when hearing a soundor tasting something, or when seeing particular numbers, letters orwords. Synesthesia occurs in a proportion of people on the autismspectrum, but the frequency is not known.

3

syntax A set of rules governing the ordering of words in sentences. Technically abranch of grammar. (See also grammar.)

3

systematicmethods

Studies in which the conclusions are derived from careful objectiveevaluation of evidence following scientific principles.

1

systematic review An evaluation of evidence for the success of an intervention, based on areview of findings conducted with clearly defined criteria, e.g. onlycontrolled studies carried out by independent researchers.

6

systemising Systemising is defined by Simon Baron-Cohen as the drive to analyse orconstruct systems, where a system is any domain that lends itself to a setof rules predicting or explaining how the domain works. Baron-Cohenproposes that people with autism have a cognitive profile characterisedby a high level of systemising ability, together with a low level ofempathising ability. (See also empathising-systemising.)

4



Term Definition Chaptersystemisingquotient (SQ)

A questionnaire-based measure devised by Baron-Cohen and colleaguesto assess levels of systemising. The assumption underlying the test isthat systemising is a dimensional or continuous trait. Each member of apopulation can receive a low, high or average score on systemising; onaverage males are predicted to score higher than females; people on theautism spectrum are predicted to score very high on systemising. (Seealso empathising-systemising theory; systemising.)

4

talents Under the broad heading of savant syndrome, talent refers to a highlydeveloped and noticeable skill, such as the capacity to paintaccomplished pictures, or to do difficult mental calculations. (See alsosavant syndrome; splinter skills; prodigious skills.)

3

TEACCH See Treatment and Education of Autistic and related Communication-handicapped CHildren

6

TeachingAssistant

An alternative term for Learning Support Assistant. See definition for thatterm.

temporal lobe A lobe of the cerebral cortex, it is involved in memory and languagefunctions and is concerned with perceiving and recognising auditoryinformation.

5

testable /testability

Refers to the need for a scientific theory to be formulated so that it makesclear predictions about what outcomes should occur if it is correct.Testability can thus be considered a criterion for evaluating the potentialusefulness of a theory: if it is not testable, it is not a useful theory.

4

theoreticalconstruct

A concise summary of theoretical ideas about the structures or processesunderlying observable events or behaviour. Theoretical constructs inpsychology are often formulated from observations of how peopleperform in experimental tasks.

9

theory A theory provides an account of a set of observed phenomena in terms ofprinciples which offer an explanation of how and why the phenomenaoccur. In science, theories often seek to identify the cause of thephenomena in question.

4

theory of mind(ToM)

The capacity to understand what other people are thinking, believing andfeeling. Most people on the autism spectrum are thought to havedifficulties with theory of mind; they may not understand mental states;they may even be unaware that other people have a 'mental life'.

4

Treatment andEducation ofAutistic andrelatedCommunication-handicappedChildren(TEACCH)

A programme of intervention for autism first developed in the USA in the1970s, and widely used in educational, home and other settings.TEACCH is designed to address core problems such as the need forstructure to harness common autistic skills, such as visual abilities andattention to detail, and to promote the development of independence.This often involves use of a visual timetable or planner, tailored to theneeds and interests of the individual.

6

triad ofimpairments

Term for the three main and characteristic areas of difficulty in autism,namely communication, social interaction and repetitiveness in activitiesand interests. Difficulties in these three areas are the main symptomsused in formal diagnosis of autism.

1

twin method A research method used to evaluate how frequently a particular conditionor characteristic co-occurs in monozygotic (identical) twins as comparedwith dizygotic non-identical) twins. Higher co-occurrence (concordance)in monozygotic twins provides evidence that the condition orcharacteristic is genetically inherited. Used in exploring the genetic basisfor autism. (See also concordance; concordance rate; monozygotic twins;dizygotic twins.)

1



Term Definition Chaptertypicallydevelopingchildren

Term used (e.g. in research) when comparing the characteristics ofchildren with autism with a group without autism. The opposite of theterm 'typically developing' is 'atypically developing'. Hence this phraseavoids implying that the autistic group is 'abnormal'. (See alsoneurotypical.)

1

UK NationalScreeningCommittee

A committee of health professionals who make decisions about whetherscreening instruments should be used within the UK National HealthService.

2

universality A criterion to be considered in evaluating theories of autism. A universalfactor or influence is one that affects all individuals on the spectrum,rather than just a proportion of individuals. A theoretical explanation thatidentifies such a universal influence is likely to be more useful andconvincing than one that does not identify a universal influence. (Seealso testability; specificity.)

4

variable A variable is something that varies, either along a dimension, such asheight or weight, or from one group to another, such as gender (male orfemale) or eye colour (blue or brown.) An independent variable in anexperiment is something that the experimenter manipulates (e.g. whetherparticipants have an autism diagnosis or not.) A dependent variable iswhat the experimenter observes to vary as a result of manipulating theindependent variable (e.g. how participants with or without an autismdiagnosis perform on a memory task.) (See also experiment; hypothesis;experimental group; control group.)

1

vertical axis The vertical dimension of a graph. Also known as the 'y'-axis. (See alsograph.)

3

WCC See weak central coherence.weak centralcoherence (WCC)

Focusing on individual details rather than overall form and meaning whenprocessing information from the environment. This has been consideredas both a perceptual phenomenon (perceiving individual details inscenes, music, etc.) and a conceptual phenomenon (processingindividual words rather than meaning or gist from written or spokenlanguage.) A key theory of autism suggests that it is characterised byweak central coherence, though this is now proposed as a preferredcognitive style rather than a fixed deficit in processing information. (Seealso central coherence; cognitive style.)

4

white matter Refers to the underlying regions of the brain that are primarily composedof the axons of neurons. Because the axons are encased in myelin, thesebrain areas look pale and are therefore referred to as white matter.

5

whole schoolapproach

A framework for educating and supporting children on the autismspectrum, comprising a collection of interventions, strategies andtherapies that are integral to the organisation and culture of the school.(See also Daily Life Therapy; SPELL.)

7

X and Ychromosomes

Sex chromosomes. Body cells of human females typically possess two Xchromosomes, while the cells of males have one X chromosome and oneY chromosome. (See also chromosomes; sex-linked.)

5

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