The Audit of Organizational Communication

7/29/2019 The Audit of Organizational Communication

1/17

The Audit of Organizational CommunicationAuthor(s): Howard H. Greenbaum

Reviewed work(s):Source: The Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 17, No. 4 (Dec., 1974), pp. 739-754Published by: Academy of ManagementStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/255650 .

Accessed: 10/06/2012 09:58

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of

content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms

of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Academy of Managementis collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Academy

of Management Journal.

http://www.jstor.org
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=aomhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/255650?origin=JSTOR-pdfhttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/stable/255650?origin=JSTOR-pdfhttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=aom


2/17

T h e A u d i t o fOrganizationalCommunication

HOWARD H. GREENBAUMMotor Parts Industries, Inc.,and Hofstra UniversityA conceptual and methodological structure is pre-sented for examination of communication processes in

organizations. Components of the communication systemare identified, a taxonomical table of activities is sug-gested, and an audit program is outlined. Emphasis isplaced on the need for organizations to provide explicitand extensive control of communication elements.

Effective communication has long been credited as a prime factor inthe attainment of high levels of organizational effectiveness (2, 3, 7, 11, 14).Organization theorists, communication researchers, and practicing man-agers have frequently discussed its critical role and basic elements; andrecently Carter (6), Redding (18, 20) and Tompkins (26) have suppliedcomprehensive reviews of the empirical research and general literature oforganizational communication. However, the applied behavioral scienceof organizational communication is still in its infancy, and growing veryslowly. In fact, it is seldom recognized as a major activity of management;and, even where recognized, there is considerable lip service and uncer-tainty as to its proper handling.Except in a few organizations, managements have not established execu-tive positions with key responsibilities relating to the overall administrationof communication systems. Actually, most organizations do not evenspecify their communication policies (22, 23). A review of empiricalinvestigations through 1969 reported that organizations suffered wide-spread ineffectiveness in downward communication, an urgent needto encourage upward communication, and the greatest deficiency of allin the area of horizontal communication (26). One investigator concludeda study of manufacturing organizations with the statement that there existeda general lack of awareness that communication was a problem to bestudied (16).

Howard H. Greenbaum(Ph.D.-Columbia University) is AdministrativeVice-President,Motor Parts Industries, Inc., Melville, New York, and a Lecturer in Management, HofstraUniversity,Hempstead,New York.739


3/17

Academy of Management Journal

Many personnel departments are concerned with informative employeecommunications such as house publications, bulletin boards, safety posters,and suggestion systems. This area and that of public relations are fre-quently spelled out as managerial job responsibility and often subjected tocritical evaluation or audit. However, relativelyfew organizations go beyondthe journalistic emphasis to recognize communication responsibilities re-lated to the basic coordinative operations of line management; neededcommunication development in this latter area is seldom accomplished(12). It is unusual to find an organization which attempts to manage allphases of communication as a functional activity. It is even more unusualto encounter an organization that performs periodic and formal appraisalsof the general communication system for the purpose of maintaining anddeveloping the effectiveness of this vital interaction-influencefunction.The objective of this paperis to present a conceptual and methodologicalstructure for the examination or audit of organizational communication.However, it is necessary first to provide an acceptable way of identifyingcommunication systems within organizations; and then to suggest a methodby which these identified systems can be examined and evaluated.

THE NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATIONOrganizational communication consists of various message sending andreceiving phenomena affectingformal social units in which individuals worktoward common goals. It is generally identified with written media (cor-respondence, house publications, bulletin board information), hardware(telephone systems, dictation equipment, computer units), and speechactivities (interviewing, directing, conferring). However, organizationalcommunication should be construed as including all behavior-modifyingstimuli, both verbal and nonverbal. It includes gestures and facial ex-pressions as well as the spoken word in conversation and meetings. It alsoincludes symbols and colors along with the written word in procedurewrite-ups and consumer advertising. Therefore, organizational communi-cation is concernedwith most of the specialized disciplines related to humancommunication, i.e., interpersonal communication, small-group communi-cation, information systems, mass communication, and nonverbal com-munication.Organizational communication can be defined as a system in terms ofpurpose, operational procedures, and structure. The purpose of organiza-tional communication is to facilitate the achievement of organizationalgoals. The operational procedures involve the utilization of functionalcommunication networks related to organizational goals; the adoption ofcommunication policies appropriateto communication network objectives;and the implementation of such policies through suitable communicationactivities. The structural elements include (a) the organization unit, (b)functional communication networks, (c) communication policies, and (d)communication activities.

740 December


4/17

Volume 17, Number 4The OrganizationUnit

For purposes of communication analysis, the organization unit may bethe entire industrial, educational, or governmental body, or any operatingsubsection. The subject of study could be a department, a division, orany segment of the larger group manned by personnel in a formal relation-ship with common objectives. The identified organization unit may bedescribed and understood in terms of (a) functional relationships, (b)personnel characteristics, and (c) situational factors. Functional relation-ships include the internal organization structure, operating processes, andexternal contacts. Personnel characteristics include technical and man-agerial skills, communication skills, motivational elements, and interper-sonal relationships, including leadership style. Situational factors includebeliefs, values, ways of doing things, cohesiveness, morale, attitude towardchange, community customs, and other environmental influences and re-straints on human behavior.Functional CommunicationNetworks

The organizational communication system is the sum of a group ofsubsystemsor functional communication networks, each of which is relatedto one or moreorganizationalgoals. The literatureof communication theoryand social psychology suggests four major communication subsystems: theregulative network, the innovative network, the integrative (maintenance)network, and the informative-instructivecommunication network (4, 10,11, 19, 25). The combined objectives of these four networks substantiallyfulfill the communication required to achieve the five organizational goalsutilized by Price (17) in his comprehensive study of organizational ef-fectiveness-conformity, adaptiveness, morale, institutionalization, andproductivity. This concept is illustrated in Figure 1.The regulative communication network relates to the organization goalof securing conformity to plans, to assureproductivity. It is concerned withcontrols, orders, and other forms of direction and feedback betweensubordinatesand superiorsin task related activities. Examples of regulativecommunication are policy statements, procedures, and rules.FIGURE 1

CommunicationObjectivesand OrganizationalGoalsObjectivesof PMajorCommunicationNetworks OrganizationGoals R

* Regulative * Conformity D, Innovative > * Adaptiveness > U* Integrative(Maintenance) * Morale C* Informative-Instructive * Institutionalization T_-~~~~~~~ - IVITY

1974 741


5/17

Academy of Management JournalThe innovative communication network strives to insure the adaptive-ness of the organization to varied internal and external influences (techno-

logical, sociological, educational, economic, political) and so contributesto continued productivity and effectiveness. It is concerned with problemsolving, adaptation to change, and the strategy and implementation ofnew idea processing. Some examples are suggestion systems and partici-pative problem solving meetings.The integrative (maintenance) communication network is concernedwith feelings for self, associates, and work, and is directly related to theorganizational goal of employee morale. It is indirectly linked to institu-tionalization, which involves acceptance of the organizationby nonmemberssuch as community and governmental units. It is manifested by supportiveand self-maintaining behavior that ranges from informal scuttlebutt andstatus symbols to highly visible rewards and elements of self-realizationand humanfulfillment. Some examples are the grapevine, praise by superior,and promotion.The informative-instructive communication network aids in securingthe organizational goals of conformity, adaptiveness, morale, and institu-tionalization, and thereby works for higher levels of productivity andeffectiveness. It is concerned with getting and giving information notassociated with the other communication networks, and includes theinstruction that enables subordinatesto properly execute job requirements;for example, bulletin board notices, company publications, and trainingactivities.CommunicationPolicies

Specific communication policies relate to each communication network.This relationship is indicated by the following examples:Communication Network Organization PolicyInnovative It is organization policy to encourage em-Integrative (maintenance) ployees to express their views and recom-mendations;and to provide effective internalcommunication channels for that purpose.Integrative (maintenance) It is organization policy to advise andInformative-Instructive counsel each employee as to performanceand career progress; and to give full con-sideration to all circumstances so as to gainmutual assent for achieving organizationgoals.

Organizations with different policies relative to the major communicationnetworks can be expected to practice dissimilar communication. Varia-tions in organizational policies and management systems cause behavioralvariations in all organizational processes, including communication (14).Communication policies are the strategic plans of communication net-

742 December


6/17

Volume 17, Number 4FIGURE 2

Relationshipof CommunicationFactors to OrganizationGoalsOrganizationGoals

Goal-Related CommunicationBehavior NetworkkAj~~~~~ ~Objectives

Communication CommunicationActivities < y Policies

works to achieve communication objectives via specially designed com-munication activities.The relationshipof organizationgoals, communicationnetwork objectives, communication policies, and communication activitiesis shown in Figure 2.CommunicationActivities

Policies that relate to each of the communication networks are imple-mented through communication activities. The implementative relationshipof communication activities to policies may be depicted as follows:OrganizationPolicy:-To provideeffectiveinternalcommunicationchan-nels, encouraging employees to express their views; because candid,objective communication between all levels and groups is essential forindividual development and organizational growth and success.Related Communication Activities:-Suggestion systems, work groupmeetings, interdepartmental meetings, supervisor-subordinatesched-uled meetings, surveys.Organization Policy:-To clearly define position responsibilities andperformance criteria and advise and counsel each employee as to per-formance and career progress in order to maximize individual develop-ment and job satisfaction.Related Communication Activities:-Work planning and reviewprograms including job descriptions, performance standards, goals,progress reviews, and annual reviews.

Since there are many different communication activities in organizations,especially when one considers differentmanagementsystems, it is important

743974


7/17

Academy of Management Journalto advocate a systematic method of classifying communication events. Thebases for classification include channels, participants, degree of systemiza-tion, dependence on authority, nature of objectives, interface with environ-ment, andmessageflow direction. Analytical classificationcan supplydeeperunderstanding of communication processes within an organization andprovide the basis for constructive maintenance and development work. Inthis regard a taxonomy of communication activities can be useful to bothpractitioner and researcher.Table 1 illustrates one form of taxonomy. Sixty-six classes of communi-cation restricted to innovative communication activities are provided. If

TABLE 1Nomenclature and Numerical Coding for Communication ActivityClassifications Within the Innovative Communication NetworkInnovative Innovative InnovativeClassification Written- Verbal Oral-Verbal Nonverbal

Total 2100.0 2200.0 2300.0Interpersonal 2110.0 2210.0 2310.0Internal 2111.0 2211.0 2311.0Formal 2111.1 2211.1 2311.1Informal 2111.2 2211.2 2311.2External 2112.0 2212.0 2312.0Formal 2112.1 2212.1 2312.1Informal 2112.2 2212.2 2312.2Small Group 2120.0 2220.0 2320.0Internal 2121.0 2221.0 2321.0Formal 2121.1 2221.1 2321.1Informal 2121.2 2221.2 2321.2External 2122.0 2222.0 2322.0Formal 2122.1 2222.1 2322.1Informal 2122.2 2222.2 2322.2

Organization-Wide 2130.0 2230.0 2330.0Internal 2131.0 2231.0 2331.0Formal 2131.1 2231.1 2331.1Informal 2131.2 2231.2 2331.2External 2132.0 2232.0 2332.0Formal 2132.1 2232.1 2332.1Informal 2132.2 2232.2 2332.2Note: The numerical classifications are derived from the following coding system:

VariableNetworkobjectives

ChannelActivityparticipantsActivity interfacewithenvironmentActivity regulation

SubdivisionsRegulativeInnovativeIntegrative(maintenance)Informative-instructiveWritten-verbalOral-verbalNonverbalInterpersonal(dyadic)Small groupOrganization-wideInternalExternalFormalInformal

Numerical Coding1000.02000.03000.04000.0100.0200.0300.010.020.030.01.02.0

.1.2

744 December


8/17

Volume 17, Number 4the number of variables is increased to include the extent of systemization(high programmedvs. low programmed) and the direction of message flow(upward, downward, horizontal, lateral), total classes more than double;and if recognition is given to other communication networks and to variousmanagement styles, there is considerable enlargement of communicationclasses in the taxonomy.The taxonomical table provides a place and a system of relationshipsfor many concepts currently employed in organizational communication:e.g., internal and external communication, formal and informal communi-cation, written-oral-nonverbal communication, interpersonal and groupcommunication, regulative-innovative-integrative-informativecommunica-tion, etc. Furthermore,management information systems can be related tothe taxonomical table. Consistent with the viewpoint that managementinformation systems consist of internal activities with a high level ofstandardization(e.g., accounting systems, internalpaperworksystems, com-puter systems), they may be identified with the classes in the taxonomicaltable relating to organization-wide, internal, formal communication activi-ties in the regulative and informative-instructivecommunication networks.From a broader viewpoint, management information systems may be con-sidered to include all classifications of communication activities explicitlyor implicitly authorizedby management. In terms of the taxonomical table,this broad concept of management information systems would include allactivities in the regulative, innovative, integrative, and informative-instruc-tive communication networks, whether the activities were external orinternal, informal or formal, low programmed or high programmed, orwhether interpersonal, small group or organization-wide.

APPRAISAL STRUCTURE AND WORK PLANThe examination of communication effectiveness is best approached byfirst considering the overall system and later studying individual com-

munication activities. Knowledge of the general organizational environmentis prerequisite to understanding individual communication activities. Thisapproach permits asking questions from two viewpoints: On one hand,"How well is the entire communication system working?" On the otherhand, "What are the efficiency and effectiveness of individual activities?"The Overall Communication System

The following work plan indicates a general program for the appraisalof the overall communication system:Stage I: Fact Finding1. Study the identified organization unit in terms of functional re-lationships, personnel characteristics, and situational factors.2. Identify the nature of communication system controls.3. Determine organization policies related to basic communicationnetworks.

1974 745


9/17

Academy of Management Journal4. Complete an inventory of communication activities, includingmajorcommunicationelements, technical methods, and equipment.

Stage II: Analysis1. Classify communication policies and activities in terms of com-munication networks to gain greater understanding of thecommunication system.2. Utilize appropriate measurement methods to obtain data thatreflect the achievement level of communication networkobjectives.Stage 1II: Evaluation and Reporting1. Arrive at tentative conclusions concerning the strengths andweaknesses of the overall system.

2. Discuss tentative conclusions with organization management atthe appropriate level.3. Finalize conclusions and submitreportindicating areas of effective-ness and efficiency, and recommendations for communicationsystem changes.Stage I (Fact Finding)-The first stage provides the foundation foranalysis, evaluation, and reporting. It requires a patient and perseveringapproach to determine the major factors affecting present communicationbehavior and the nature of communication system policies, activities, andcontrols. This can be done throughobservation techniques, the examinationof documents, and personnel interviews. The data accumulated shouldinclude organization history and objectives, organization structure, leader-ship style and organizational climate, and an explanation of the means bywhich the communication system is maintained and developed. Answersshould be sought to the following types of questions:* Does anyone have a centralized staff responsibility for the com-munication function?* Is the communication function treated formally by top management?Does it have a place in the the goals-plan of the organization? Is thereperiodic accountability?* If no formal controls are present, how does the organization processproblems related to communication? What procedures exist for theintroduction of new communication methods?To identify the communication policies of an organization, it may benecessary to inventory the communication activities before deriving anacceptable list of communication policies. In many instances the com-munication policies will not be available and must be constructed on thebasis of an examination of activities. The descriptionof each communicationactivity should be sufficient so work papers may later convey a compre-hensive idea of the kind of communication involved: e.g., descriptive titleof the activity, number and nature of participants, general content, channel,timing, conditions of interaction, messageflow direction, degree of standard-ization, facilitating equipment, special methods, and a rough index ofleadership style.

746 December


10/17

Volume 17, Number 4Stage II (Analysis)-The second stage utilizes the data compiled in thefact-finding stage as a background for determining the extent to which

existing policies and activities are achieving the objectives of the majorcommunication networks and the goals of the organization. Field researchinvestigators such as Level (13) and Sanborn (21) have generally con-centrated on individual interaction and message flow analyses. Individualinteraction emphasis is illustrated by studies of communication contacts,ability, retention, understanding, and satisfaction; and message flow em-phasis is found in studies of communication content, direction, distortion,speed, and diffusion. These approaches make use of various questionnairesurveys, interview surveys, observation techniques, and content analyses,and should be employed when suitable to the purposes and circumstancesof the investigation. For a compilation of methods and techniques, seeAyres (1) and Downs (8).A lesser known technique for communication system examination isthat of activity classification analysis, which can be an important supple-mentary tool in studies of the overall organization, in conjunction withthe more conventional measurement instruments noted above. Activityclassification analysis concentrates on the nature of the structural com-ponents in the communication subsystems and deduces from findings thelikelihood of weakness or strength.These leads can be supportedor negatedby the administration of appropriate measurement methods such as theinterview, observation, questionnaires, or content analysis.Activity classificationanalysis may be described as an analytic procedurewhereby organizational communication activities are classified in termsof networks, policies, and taxonomical categories for the purpose of de-termining the characteristics of the communication structure utilized tofulfill communication objectives. As a first step, by arrangingthe acquiredinformation as to communication policies and activities in terms of majorcommunication networks, it is possible to form a tentative judgment as

to the adequacy of existing communication activities with respect to policiesand the adequacy of existing policies with respect to communication net-work objectives. This was illustrated previously in the discussion of organi-zational goals and communication structure.A further step in activity classification analysis is illustrated in Table 2.The internal verbal communication activities of a manufacturing andmarketing organization have been classified in terms of communicationnetwork objectives and the number of participants involved in each com-munication activity. Oral-verbal and written-verbal activities are included,but nonverbal communication activities (gestures, facial expressions, posi-tion titles, office size, etc.) are excluded. In some cases, completion of atable similar to Table 2 will reveal a near-absenceof activities at the smallgroup and organization-wide levels; in other cases, this kind of analysiswill indicate a marked deficiency of activities directed to the objectives ofthe integrative and innovative communication networks.

1974 747


11/17

Academy of Management JournalTABLE 2

Internal Verbal Communication Activities Classified by Numberof Participants and Communication Network Objectives

RegulativeNetworkSupervisordirec-tions and re-questsSupervisor-subor-dinatemeetingsJob descriptionsandstandardsAnnual appraisalSpecial problemsessionsReportson opera-tionsMemoranda

InnovativeNetworkAd hoc problemresolutionSupervisor-subor-dinate idea de-velopmentmeet-ingsAnnualgoals de-termination n

work planningprogramInformal get-to-gethersas in-house lunchmeetingReportson visitsto otherorgani-zations,conven-tions, seminars

IntegrativeNetworkPresident'swel-come letter tonew employeeGrievancediscus-sionProgressreview inwork planningprogramAnnual appraisalInformal meetingof two organiza-tion membersSuperior-subordi-nate informalconversationonpersonalmatters

InformativeNetworkHiringinterviewNew employeeorientationMemorandaOral and writtenreportsCross-functioning

Small Meetings:direc- Meetings:direc- Meetings:partici- MeetingsGroup tors, executive tors, executive pative work Trainingin small(3-10 committee,de- committee, de- group, interde- groupspersons) partmental; partmental, n- partmental,cof-crisis-typemeet- terdepartmental, fee break,groupings as in fire, problem-solving, lunchflood,strike sales develop-ment, crisis-type,budget,grouplunchOrgani- Organizationplans Suggestionprogram In-housepublica- In-housepublica-zation- Policy statements Problem-finding tions tionsWide Standardproced- program Holidaysocial Bulletinboardno-ures Operationsaudit function ticesRegulations reportsas to The grapevine StaffmeetingsUnion contract general and spe- Literatureavail- Employee informa-Chart of organiza- cific areasof the able to person- tion bookletstion organization nel concerning BenefitsbrochureStaffmemos plans,etc. StatementsofOrganizationchart President's alk to standardpro-all employees ceduresSupervisory taff Union contractmeeting OrganizationpolicystatementsThe grapevine

Table 3 representsa more refinedstudy of the regulative communicationnetwork within the same industrial organization analyzed in Table 2.Whereas Table 2 was concerned with three levels of participation in respectto all four major communication networks, Table 3 concentrates on onemajor communication network and classifies communication activities inthat network in terms of three channels of communication and three levelsof participation. This approach will sometimes find structuralcommunica-tion strength in the areas of interpersonal oral, small group oral, and

Numberof Par-ticipantsInter-personal(2persons)

748 December


12/17

Volume 17, Number 4TABLE 3

Regulative CommunicationNumber of Participants

Network Activities Classified byand Communication Channel

Number of Oral-Verbal Written-Verbal NonverbalParticipants Channel Channel ChannelInterpersonal Supervisordirections Reportson operations Reputations(2 persons) Superior-subordinate Job descriptions, tand- Dressscheduledmeetings ards,goals, progress GesturesAnnual appraisals reviews AttitudesSpecialproblemsessions Correspondence Facial expressionsSubordinaterequests Memoranda Voice inflectionOrientation InterruptionsduringDiscussionsrequired o meetingformulatejob de-scriptions& goalsSmall Group Directors'meetings Meetingagenda Meetingareacondi-(3-10 per- Executivecommittee Meetingminutes tionssons) Departmentalmeetings Visual aids SeatingarrangementsCrisis-typemeetings Workgroupprocedure Chairman'sattitudesBudget meetings handbook andexpressions"Tell and sell"meetings Pauses,silencesOrganization- Supervisors' taff meet- Organizationplans Parking ot privilegeswide ings Policy statements Title of positionStandard nternalpro- Size & decorationsofcedures officeRegulations Location of office

Union contract LunchroomconditionsOrganizationchart Generalworkingcon-Staff memos ditionsSupervisorhandbook OrganizationclimateNameplates

organization-widewritten and sometimes disclose communication structuralweakness in the areas of interpersonal written, small group written, andorganization-wide oral activities. In addition, it is likely that a major weak-ness will generally be revealed with respect to the nonverbal channel ofcommunication, viz., the failure to give attention to and deal directly withaction, sign, and object communication substantially influencing the out-come of any communication interaction.The type of analysis illustrated for the regulative communication net-work in Table 3 should be completed for the other communication networks(innovative, integrative, informative-instructive), both in terms of thevariables shown and in terms of other variables previously noted in thediscussion of taxonomical procedures: e.g., activity regulation (formal,informal), activity interface with the environment (internal, external), andactivity systemization (low programmed, high programmed).Stage III (Evaluation and Reporting)-The third stage reviews findingsderived from questionnaires, interviews, observations, and activity classi-fication analyses and draws conclusions as to the effectiveness and efficiencyof the overall communication system. Tentative conclusions should be pre-pared and informally discussed with proper representativesof management.Such a discussion may temper or consolidate the viewpoint being formed.

1974 749


13/17

Academy of Management JournalThe final conclusions could indicate that certain important activities aremissing, existing activities are not sufficientlycomprehensive,or that certaincommunication barriersprevent the achievement of regulative, innovative,integrative, and/or informative objectives.The formal report should be written, noting strengths, weaknesses, andrecommendations for change, supported by detailed findings. A frequentrecommendation will relate to the institution of specific staff responsibilityfor the communication function. Depending upon the size of the organiza-tion, the implementation of this recommendation may require as little asan additional key-responsibilityarea for the personnel manager or as muchas the establishment of a separate position for a directorof communication.In any case, the attempt should be to bridge the communication functiongap that now exists between public relations management and the managerof employee communication; and to establish a responsibility and account-ability that covers interpersonal, small group, and organization-wide com-munication activities in respect to the regulative, innovative, integrative,and informative-instructive communication networks within the generalcommunication system.IndividualCommunicationActivities

The following work plan presents suggested steps for appraisal of in-dividual communication activities:Stage I: Fact Finding1. Determine the nature and objectives of the activity.2. Identify situational factors influencing the activity, including hu-man, organizational, and technological elements.3. Obtain mutual agreement as to standards for the activity.

Stage II: Analysis1. Employ appropriate measurement methods to estimate actualperformance of the activity.2. Determine differences between standard and actual performance.3. Study important variances for the purpose of locating weaknessesin the conduct of the activity.

Stage III: Evaluation and Reporting1. Arrive at tentative conclusions concerning the effectiveness andefficiency of the activity.2. Discuss tentative conclusions with management responsible forthe activity.3. Finalize conclusions and submit report noting strengths, weak-nesses, and recommended changes.Stage I (Fact-Finding)-Stage I determines the nature and objectives ofthe activity, identifies activity situational factors, and obtains agreementas to standards. Activity situational factors include communication skills,perceptive and conceptual abilities of participants, and motivational in-fluences plus general organization factors arising from the formal structure

750 December


14/17

Volume 17, Number 4TABLE 4

Performance Criteria, Procedural Instructions, and PerformanceStandards for the Internal Communication Activityof Employee Orientation

Area ofPerformance PerformanceCriteria ProceduralInstruction StandardContent Providefor the generalorientationof Within5 working daysDirection new employeeswithinthe department of hiringTiming and relativeto the entireorganization."Feedback Encouragenew employee to indicate Formal once a weekContent problemspromptlyso difficultiesmay interview for mini-Timing be overcome quickly. mumof first 3weeksInitiation Arrangefor self or senior skilled per- Orient in 2 weeksContent sonnel to trainnew employee in job Trainin 60 daysControls details.bTimingInitiation Introduceemployee to individualmem- Immediatelyon dateParticipation bersof groupand do everythingpos- of startInteraction sible to insurethat new memberwillconditions be accepted by groupon a socialTiming basis. Utilize methodsappropriateoposition.a Utilize welcome booklet and companyfacts booklet (writtenmediasoftware).b Utilize proceduresmanual, slide projectors,and recorder cassettes (written media soft-ware and audiovisualmediahardware).and leadership policies, communication tools, methods, and equipment.Standardscan be derived as the end result of a management meeting whichstudies the activity in terms of performance criteria and procedural instruc-tions. Developing performance criteria requires consideration of the majorcommunication elements of content, media, timing, interaction conditions,direction, participation, preparation, feedback, redundancy, and controlsand the selection of those most pertinent to good performance in theparticular activity. The selected performance criteria serve as a basis forthe formulation of procedural instructions which indicate the nature of thecommunicationto be performedby individuals utilizing relevant equipment,both hardware and software. Standards are then derived for each of theprocedural instructions. This is illustrated in Table 4, in which eight per-formance criteria are shown as the major communication elements in thedevelopment of four procedural instructions and associated standards. Allare related to the communication activity of employee orientation.Stage II (Analysis)-The particular communication activity is studiedin order to determine the grade of performance. This is accomplished byan appropriate measurement method of actual performance: e.g., ques-tionnaires, interviews, supervisory reports, observation, informal opera-tional feedback, work planning progress reports, etc. Once an indicationof the degree of accomplishment is obtained, there is the need to reviewthose situations representingserious deviations from previously establishedstandards.

751974


15/17

Academy of ManagementJournalStage III (Evaluation and Reporting)-The third stage summarizes thefindings on the individual communication activity and concludes as to the

adequacy of present performance in meeting the objectives and standardsset for that activity. It is advisable for the investigator to consult withmanagers responsible for the activity prior to finalizing conclusions; thento submit a report as to strengths, weaknesses, and recommended changes.Full supporting evidence should be supplied for each recommendation.Furthermore, throughout this section of the communication audit, it isimportant to remember that certain communication problems may arisefrom organizational situational factors, policies, leadership styles, andorganization structure; it may be necessary to report the effects of theseconditions on the operation of the individual communication activity.CONCLUSION

The foregoing appraisal plan could be utilized in a one time review ofan organization'scommunicationsystem.However, the ideas and procedureshave been formulated for the primary purpose of integrating continuousand ongoing communication control elements into the formal organiza-tional processes. A continuous program of appraisal provides communica-tion control concerned with both maintenance and development of thecommunication system. This close attention to communication is necessarybecause variables which effect changes in marketing, production, andfinance also require changes in organizational communication (24). Fromthis viewpoint, managementhas a never-endingjob in planning, organizing,and controlling the technical function of communication (5, 9, 15, 27).The basic purpose of communication system appraisal is to determinewhether communication network objectives are being achieved and tosubmit change proposals relating to policies and activities within the com-munication system. As indicated above, this can be accomplished by theemployment of a structuredbut flexible audit work plan.Most important to any audit review programis a clear idea of the scopeor definition of organizationalcommunication. In this paper, organizationalcommunication has been defined in terms of purpose, operational pro-cedures, and structuralelements. The fundamentalelement is the organiza-tion unit, the prior understandingof which is essential in terms of functionalrelationships, personnel characteristics (including interpersonal relation-ships), and special situational features. Related to the unique organizationunit are three other elements of organizational communication-communi-cation networks, communication policies, and communication activities.Organization goals are the basis for identifying the objectives of com-munication networks, and each network consists of specific communicationpolicies implemented through individual communication activities.The successful development of a communication audit programis closelydependent upon the nature of organization policies, staff personnel capa-bilities, and the level of general organization development. Organizations

752 December


16/17

Volume 17, Number 4

presently able to cope with other progressive management systems shouldfind that communication management is a natural step forward.From a more theoretical point of view, researchin the audit and manage-ment of organizational communication can be recommended in the follow-ing directions:1. The provision of techniques for determining communication condi-tions within the organization.2. The development of criteria for assessing the effectiveness of organi-zational communication.3. The establishment of a comprehensive taxonomy of communicationactivities.4. The clarification of the role of communication audits in respect toinformation-decision theory.5. The continuation of case studies providing detailed analyses ofcommunication practices relative to other organizational variables.

REFERENCES1. Ayres, H. Joel. "A Review of Some Techniques Used to Study CommunicationVari-ables in Organizations" Paper presentedto the InternationalCommunication Associa-tion, Atlanta, 1972).2. Barnard,Chester I. The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge,Mass.: HarvardUni-versity Press, 1938).3. Bavelas, Alex, and Dermot Barrett. "An Experimental Approach to OrganizationalCommunication," Personnel, Vol. 27 (1951), 366-371.4. Berlo, David K. "HumanCommunication:The Basic Proposition"(Unpublished paper,Department of Communication, Michigan State University, 1970, pp. 8-11), as ref-erenced in Richard V. Farace and Donald MacDonald, "New Directions in the Studyof OrganizationalCommunication,"p. 16 (Unpublished Paper presentedto the Inter-national CommunicationAssociation, Atlanta, 1972).5. Carl, Robert E. "Communications Direction in Modern Corporate Management,"Journal of Business Commnications, Vol. 8, No. 1 (1970), 5-12.6. Carter, Robert M. Communication in Organizations(Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research,

1972).7. Dorsey, John T., Jr. "A Communication Model for Administration,"AdministrativeScience Quarterly, Vol. 2 (1957), 307-324.8. Downs Calvin W. "ResearchMethods in OrganizationalCommunication: A Reviewand Proposals" (Paper presentedto the Annual Convention of the Speech Associationof America, New York City, 1969).9. Greenbaum, Howard H. "Management's Role in Organizational CommunicationAnalysis," Journal of Business Communication, Vol. 10, No. 1 (1972), 39-52.10. Guetzkow, Harold. "Communicationsn Organizations,"n James March (Ed.), Hand-book of Organizations (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965), pp. 534-573.11. Katz, Daniel, and Robert Kahn. The Social Psychology of Organizations (New York:Wiley, 1966).12. Kirkpatrick,Donald L. "PersonnelDepartment's Role in Communication,"PersonnelJournal,Vol. 51 (1972), 279-282.13. Level, Dale A. A Case Study of Internal and External Communication Practices in anUrban Bank (Ph.D. dissertation,Purdue University, 1959).14. Likert, Rensis. The Human Organization(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967).15. Merrihue,Willard.Managing by Communication (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960).16. Nilsen, Thomas R. The Communication Survey: A Study of Communication Problemsin Three Officeand Factory Units (Ph.D. dissertation,Northwestern University, 1953).17. Price,JamesL. OrganizationalEffectiveness(Homewood, Ill.: Irwin, 1968).

1974 753


17/17

754 Academy of ManagementJournal December18. Redding, Charles W. "TheEmpiricalStudy of Human Communicationin Business andIndustry,"in Paul E. Ried (Ed.), Frontiers in Experimental Speech CommunicationResearch (Syracuse,N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1966), pp. 47-81.19. Redding, Charles W. "Position Paper: A Response to Discussions at the Ad HocConference on OrganizationalCommunication" (Paper distributedby the Communi-cation Research Center, Purdue University, 1967).20. Redding, Charles W. Communication Within the Organization(New York: IndustrialCommunicationCouncil, 1972).21. Sanborn, George A. An Analytical Study of Oral CommunicationPractices in a Na-tionwide Retail Sales Organization(Ph.D. dissertation,Purdue University, 1961).22. Seybold, Geneva. Employee Communication:Policy and Tools (New York: NationalIndustrial Conference Board, 1966).23. Sigband, Norman B. "Needed: Corporate Policies on Communications,"AdvancedManagement Journal, Vol. 34, No. 2 (1969), 61-67.24. Spataro, Lucian. "Managementof Communication,"Journal of Business Communica-tion,Vol. 6, No. 4 (1969), 6-9.25. Thayer, Lee. Communication and Communication Systems (Homewood, Ill.: Irwin,1968).26. Tompkins, Phillip K. "OrganizationalCommunication: A State of the Art Review,"in Gary M. Richetto (Ed.), Conference on OrganizationalCommunication(Huntsville,Ala.: George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, National Aeronautics and Space Ad-ministration, 1967), pp. 4-26.27. Townsend, Lynn. "A Corporate President's View of the Internal CommunicationFunction,"Journal of Communication, Vol. 15 (1965), 208-215.

Documents

The Audit of Organizational Communication